ASIA PACIFIC COLLEGE OF ADVANCED STUDIES

AH Banzon St., Ibayo, City of Balanga, Bataan

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN PRINCIPLES OF
STEEL DESIGN
(CE PROF 6)

A.Y. 2021-2022

REFERENCES:

1. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. (2004). ASEP Steel Handbook 2004, 3nd
Edition, Philippines: Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines.
2. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc., (2015) National Structural Code of
the Philippines NSCP C101-15 Volume 1 Buildings, Towers and Other Vertical Structures, 7 th
Edition Second Printing 2019, Philippines: ASEP.
3. Spiegel, Leonard and Limbrunner George F. (1997). Applied Structural Steel Design, 3rd Edition.
Mc Graw-Hill, New York, USA.
Lesson 3: Design Philosophies and Design Loads Review
OBJECTIVES

• To introduce the design philosophies

• To analyze the loads of members

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Allowable strength design (ASD) - a member is selected based on either area or moment of inertia that
are large enough to prevent the maximum load from exceeding an allowable value. This allowable value
is obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. This can be expressed
as
(Eq. 3.1)
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≤ 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Plastic design - based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than working load conditions. A
member is selected base on the criterion that the structure will fail at a load substantially higher than
the working or service load.

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) – Similar to plastic design where factored loads are applied. In
addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a resistance factor. The
LRFD method, as applied to each limit state, may be summarized by the formula.
(Eq 3.2)
Σ𝛾𝑖 𝑄𝑖 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛
Where
𝑄𝑖 = Load Effects
𝛾𝑖 = Load Factors
𝑅𝑛 = Nominal Strength
𝜙 = Resistance Factor or Reduction Factor

LRFD DEVELOPMENT

• Early 1900’s: Formation of building codes begin, formalizing design process and requirements.
Principle design philosophy is based on the concept allowable stresses (ASD). • Mid 1950’s: concrete
industry pioneers the strength design philosophy.
• Early 1970’s: First strength-based design specifications introduced by the concrete industry.
• 1986: American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) introduces the strength based LRFD
specifications.
• 1989: AISC releases what was supposed to be the last ASD specifications.
• 2005: AISC releases a combined LRFD and ASD design specifications that incorporate a method for
using ASD level loads with the same specifications used for LRFD.
• 2010: NSCP adapts AISC 2005 LRFD/ASD design philosophies.

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASD AND LRFD

There are three major differences between the two specifications:

• The comparison of actual stresses to actual strengths.

• The comparison of loads to either actual or ultimate strengths.
• A difference in effective factors of safety.
STRENGTH VS. STRESS

• The difference between ASD and LRFD, is that the old ASD compared actual to allowable stresses
while LRFD compared required strength to actual strengths.
• The difference between looking at strength vs stresses is normally just multiplying or dividing both
sides of the limit state inequalities by a section property.
• The new ASD, has now switched the old stress-based terminology to a strength-based terminology,
virtually eliminating this difference between the philosophies.

ACTUAL vs. ULTIMATE

• The combined forces levels (𝑃𝑎 , 𝑀𝑎 , 𝑉𝑎 ) for ASD are typically kept below the yield load for the
member by computing member load capacity, 𝑅𝑛 , divided by a factor of safety, 𝜴, that reduces the
capacity to a point below yielding.
• For LRFD, the combined force levels (𝑃𝑢 , 𝑀𝑢 , 𝑉𝑢 ) are kept below a computed member load capacity,
Rn, times a resistance factor, 𝜙. Consequently, if LRFD is used, then load factors must be applied to
the applied loads to express them in terms that are safely comparable to the ultimate strength levels.

FIXED vs. VARIABLE FACTOR OF SAFETY

• The LRFD specification accounts separately for the predictability of applied loads through the use of
load factors and material and construction variability through resistance factors.
• The ASD specifications combines the two factors in to a single factor of safety.
• By breaking the factor of safety apart into the independent load and resistance factors, a more
consistent effective factor of safety is obtained and can result in safer or lighter structures.

NSCP 2015 – 502.3.3 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH USING LOAD RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation 502.3-1:

(Eq. 502.3-1)
𝑅𝑢 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛
Where
𝑅𝑢 = Ultimate Strength Using LRFD Load Combinations
𝑅𝑛 = Nominal Strength
𝜙 = Resistance Factor or Reduction Factor
𝜙𝑅𝑛 = Design Strength

NSCP 2015 – 203.3.1 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD

1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹) (203-1)
1.2 𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇 + 1.6 𝐿 + 𝐻 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 or 𝑅) (203-2)
1.2𝐷 + 1.6 𝐿𝑟 or 𝑅 + (𝑓1𝐿 or 0.5𝑊) (203-3)
1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 𝑓1𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 or 𝑅) (203-4)
1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1𝐿 (203-5)
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 1.6𝐻 (203-6)
0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻 (203-7)

NSCP 2015 – 502.3.4 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH USING ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation 502.3-2:

(Eq. 502.3-2)
𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑎 =
Ω
Where
𝑅𝑎 = required strength using ASD load combination
𝑅𝑛 = nominal strength
Ω = safety factor
𝑅𝑛 /Ω = allowable strength

NSCP 2015 – 203.4.1 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD

𝐷+𝐹 (203-8)
𝐷+𝐻+𝐹+𝐿+𝑇 (203-9)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 or 𝑅) (203-10)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75[𝐿 + 𝑇 + 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅] (203-11)
𝐸
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 ) (203-12)
1.4

Alternate Basic Load Combinations shall be permitted for the most critical effects resulting from the
following load combinations, a one-third increase including 𝑊 or 𝐸:
𝐸
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75 [𝐿 + 𝐿𝑟 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 )] (203-13)
1.4
0.6𝐷 + 0.6𝑊 + 𝐻 (203-14)
𝐸
0.6𝐷 + + 𝐻 (203-15)
1.4
𝐷 + 𝐿 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203-16)
𝐷 + 𝐿 + 0.6𝑊 (203-17)
𝐸
𝐷+𝐿+ (203-18)
1.4

Other Loads

Where 𝑃 is to be considered in design, each applicable load shall be added to the combinations specified
in ASD Equations 203-8 to 203-18.

Special Seismic Load Combinations

Both LRFD and ASD for steel, the following special load combinations for seismic design shall be used:
1.2𝐷 + 𝑓1𝐿 + 1.0𝐸𝑚 (203-19)
0.9𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝑚 (203-20)

Reduction of Live Loads

The design live load determined using the unit live loads as set forth in Table 205-1 for floors and Table
205-3, Method 2, for roofs may be reduced on any member supporting more than 15 𝑚2 , including flat
slabs, except for floors in places of public assembly and for live loads greater than 4.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎, in
accordance with the equation:

𝑅 = 𝑟(𝐴 − 15) (205-1)

The reduction shall not exceed 40 percent for members receiving load from one floor only, 60 percent
for other members or 𝑅, as determined by the equation:
𝐷
𝑅 = 23.1 (1 + ) (205-2)
𝐿
where
𝐴 = area of floor or roof supported by the member, 𝑚2
𝐷 = dead load per square meter of area supported by the member, 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐿 = unit live load per square meter of area supported by the member, 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑅 = reduction in percentage
𝑟 = rate of reduction equal to 0.8 for floors. See Table 205-3 for roofs
For storage loads exceeding 4.8 𝑘𝑃𝑎, no reduction shall be made, except that design live loads on
columns may be reduced to 20 percent.

The live load reduction shall not exceed 40 percent in garages for the storage of private pleasure cars
having a capacity of not more than nine passengers per vehicle.

Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction – As an alternate to Equation 205-1, the unit live loads set forth in
Table 205-1 may be reduced in accordance with Equation 205-3 on any member, including flat slabs,
having an influence area of 40 𝑚2 or more.
1
𝐿 = 𝐿0 [0.25 + 4.57 ( )] (205-3)
√𝐴1

where
𝐴1 = influence area, 𝑚2
𝐿 = reduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member
The reduced live load shall not be less than 50 percent of the unit live load 𝐿0 for members receiving
load from one level only, nor less than 40 percent of the unit live load 𝐿0 for other members.

WIND LOADS

Options for Evaluating the Wind Loads

SECTION 207A – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

A. BASIC WIND SPEED, 𝑽

• Basic wind speed obtained from Figure 207A.5‐1A through 207A.5‐1C, in m/s.
• Basic wind speed corresponds to a three‐second gust speed at 10 m above the ground in
Exposure “C”.

A.1. Basic Wind Speed and Wind Hazard Map

• The basic wind speed, V, used in the determination of design wind loads on buildings and other
structures shall be determined from Figure 207A.5‐1 as follows, except as provided in Section
207A.5.2 and 207A.5.3:
• For Occupancy Category III, IV and V buildings and other structures – use Figure 207A.5‐1A.
• For Occupancy Category II buildings and other structures – use Figure 207A.5‐1B.
 • For Occupancy Category I buildings and other structures – use Figure 207A.5‐1C.
• The wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction. The basic wind speed shall be
increased where records or experience indicate that the wind speeds are higher than those
reflected in Figure 207A.5‐1.

Figure 207A.5‐1A Basic Wind Speeds for Occupancy Category III, IV and V Buildings and Other
Structures

Figure 207A.5‐1B Basic Wind Speeds for Occupancy Category II Buildings and Other Structures
Figure 207A.5‐1C Basic Wind Speeds for Occupancy Category I Buildings and Other Structures

B. WIND DIRECTIONALITY, 𝑲𝒅
• shall be determined from Table 207A.6-1
C. EXPOSURE CATEGORY

Exposure B – Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, areas with many closely spaced obstructions.

Exposure C – Open terrain with scattered obstructions. Airports, areas that are generally flat open
country.

Exposure D – Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside hurricane prone regions.

D. TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR, 𝑲𝒛𝒕

207A.8.2 Topographic Factor

The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation of design wind loads by using the factor
𝑲𝒛𝒕 :
(Eq. 207A.8.1)

𝐾𝑧𝑡 = (1 + 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 )2
Where 𝑲𝟏 , 𝑲𝟐 and 𝑲𝟑 are given in Figure 207A.8-1.

If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet all the conditions specified in Section 207A.8.1
then 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0.

E. Gust Effect Factor, G

Gust Effect Factor, G

• Is described in section 207A.9.

• G = 0.85 for stiff buildings and stiff structures.
• For building f < 1 hertz, flexible buildings and other structures Calculate “G” by rational analysis that
incorporates the dynamic properties of the main wind-force resisting system.

VELOCITY PRESSURE – SECTION 207B.3.2

Velocity pressure, 𝑞𝑧 evaluated at height z shall be calculated by the following equation:

(Eq. 3.3)
𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 (𝑁/𝑚2 ); 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚/𝑠)
Where
𝐾𝑑 = wind directionality factor, see Section 207A.6
𝐾𝑧 = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 207.B.3.1
𝐾𝑧𝑡 = topographic factor defined, see Section 207A.8.2
𝑉 = basic wind speed, see Section 207A.5
𝑞𝑧 = velocity pressure calculated using Equation shown above at height z
𝑞𝑧𝑡 = velocity pressure calculated using Equation shown above at mean roof height h

Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz

Commentary:

The velocity pressure exposure coefficient 𝑲𝒛 can be obtained using the equation:
(Eq. 3.4)
2/𝛼
𝑧
2.01 ( ) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 4.5 𝑚 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑔
𝑧𝑔
𝐾𝑧 = 2/𝛼
4.5
2.01 ( ) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 4.5 𝑚
{ 𝑧𝑔

In which values of 𝛼 and 𝑧𝑔 are given in NSCP Table 207A.9-1.

It is also good to point out that Table 207B.3-1 (NSCP 2015 page 2-68) may be used (by interpolation)
and should provide a similar result.
PROBLEM 1

Determine the base wind pressure at each story for the moment frame shown. - The structure is a
typical commercial office building in Makati City. - Assume 𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0

DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE – SECTION 207B.4

Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of buildings of all heights shall be determined by the following
equation:
(Eq. 3.5)
𝑁
𝑞𝑧 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 (𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) ( 2 )
𝑚
where;
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑧 evaluated at height z or qh evaluated at roof height h
𝐺 = gust effect factor; it can be 0.85 for rigid buildings and Gf for flexible buildings, see Section 207A.9
𝐶𝑝 = external pressure coefficient from Figures 2078.4-1, 2078.4-2 and 2078.4-3
(𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) = internal pressure coefficient from Table 207 A.ll-1

Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GCpi)

Key elements for application of loads to keep in mind are as follows:

• Wind load sign is positive (+) when acting toward a surface and negative (−) when acting away from
the surface.
• On building surfaces, pressures act normal to the surface unless otherwise noted differently on a
sketch.
• On structures, forces act in the direction of the wind unless shown differently.
• Internal pressures act inward or outward on all surfaces; inward and outward pressures are not to be
combined. Note in the elevation view that the pressure will vary with height on the windward side of
the building, whereas the remaining sides and on the roof, the pressure is assumed to be constant.

Note in the elevation view that the pressure will vary with height on the windward side of the building,
whereas the remaining sides and on the roof, the pressure is assumed to be constant.

Applicable for

a) Building Appurtenances
• rooftop structures and
• rooftop equipment) and
b) Other Structures such as
• solid freestanding walls and
• solid freestanding signs,
• chimneys,
• tanks,
• open signs,
• Lattice frameworks, and
• trussed towers
PROBLEM 2

Determine the wind pressures for a large, one-story agricultural warehouse building as shown below.
Considering that the direction of the wind is in the positive x-direction. The building data are in Table 1.