sensors
Article
Characteristic Analysis of a Chipless RFID Sensor Based on
Multi-Parameter Sensing and an Intelligent Detection Method
Luyi Liu and Lan Chen *
Citation: Liu, L.; Chen, L.
Characteristic Analysis of a Chipless
RFID Sensor Based on Multi-
Parameter Sensing and an Intelligent
Detection Method. Sensors 2022, 22,
6027. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s22166027
Academic Editor: Antonio Lázaro
Received: 22 July 2022
Accepted: 9 August 2022
Published: 12 August 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166027
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai 201418, China
* Correspondence: chenlan@sit.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-21-60873379
Abstract: Chipless radio frequency identification (RFID) technology has been widely used in the
field of structural health monitoring (SHM), but most of the current research mainly focuses on
the detection of mechanical properties and there are few studies on the multi-physical parameters
(for example, temperature and humidity) in the climatic environment around the structure. Thus,
it is necessary to design a small and compact sensor for multi-parameter detection. This paper
proposes a multi-parameter chipless RFID sensor based on microstrip coupling, which supports
4-bit ID code and integrates two detection functions of temperature and humidity. Through linear
normalization fitting, the sensitivity of the sensor is about 2.18 MHz/RH in the ambient relative
humidity test and the sensitivity of the sensor is about 898.63 KHz/◦ C in the experimental test of
water bath heating from 24.6 ◦ C to 75 ◦ C. In addition, this paper proposes an engineering application
detection method, designs a lightweight dynamic spectrum detection and wireless transmission
platform based on a lightweight vector network analyzer (VNA) and realizes the real-time extraction
and transmission of RFID spectrum sensing data. The means are more flexible and economical than
traditional experimental scenarios.
Keywords: chipless radio frequency identification; multi-parameter sensor; structural health monitoring;
temperature and humidity sensing; wireless detection system
1. Introduction
In recent years, the integration of chipless radio frequency identification (RFID) tech-
nology in the Internet of Things (IoT) has facilitated the structural health monitoring of
modern industrial systems’ critical infrastructure [1]. Structural health monitoring (SHM) is
a combination of sensor technology and the Internet of Things (IoT) to realize an automatic
detection system for structural damage to civil infrastructure. However, the majority of the
current research on structural health monitoring is still limited to stress characteristics [2–4],
and the monitoring of physical parameters in the environment where the structure is lo-
cated, such as temperature and humidity, gas content, pH and other parameters, has not
yet been fully researched. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a single chipless RFID sensor
for multi-physical parameter sensing.
RFID technology utilizes wireless signals to identify the target. Currently, chipless fre-
quency domain RFID uses resonant structures to encode data into the frequency spectrum
and is associated with ID via basic coding elements corresponding to pre-designed simple
shapes, and the functions of signal reception, signal processing and signal transmission
are no longer separated in geometry and concept, but coupled within the same structure.
Consequently, the cost, dependability and recyclability of tags have increased. With the
development of the IoT era, RFID technology has opened a new paradigm, especially the
combination of information sensing and the IoT, which has greatly stimulated the potential
in the field of structural health monitoring [5,6].
Combining novel sensing materials and chipless RFID sensors to create multi-parameter
chipless RFID sensors has become the subject of research [7] with the advent of high-
performance composite materials. The interaction of environmental physical elements with
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 2 of 18

chipless RFID sensors alters the dielectric constant of the sensitive material, resulting in
a shift in the resonant frequency and a corresponding change in the amplitude of each
sensor element [8,9]. Typically, researchers combine sensing materials into chipless RFID
tags using two distinct ways. The first strategy is to employ sensing materials as sub-
strates. When physical parameters associated with the surrounding environment change,
the substrate’s dielectric constant also alters. Additionally, implement sensing and the
detection of the surrounding environment by the modification of involved parameters
such as the sensor’s resonance frequency. M. Borgese et al. proposed a unique inkjet-
printed chipless RFID humidity sensor in 2017, which was inkjet-printed on a thin sheet
of Mitsubishi paper and passed through the Mitsubishi paper’s dielectric. The change
in the constant causes the frequency of the resonance peak to shift, allowing humidity to
be monitored [10]. In 2021, Nimra Javed et al. fabricated a 12-bit tag with a humidity-
sensitive Kapton HN substrate by deploying a multi-walled carbon in the center of the
tag nanotubes (MWCNTs) to change their electrical conductivity through CO2 gas sensing
properties, allowing humidity and CO2 gas to be monitored simultaneously [11]. The
second method is to form a polymer substance with sensitive qualities into a film shape
and cover the surface of an existing chipless RFID tag in order for it to function. Changes
in the physical components of the surroundings cause changes in film-related parameters,
which are subsequently transferred to the sensor’s corresponding resonance. In terms
of frequency, the sensor’s frequency shift characteristic is employed to define changes in
physical parameters in the surrounding environment [12,13]. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a
water-soluble polymer with numerous applications. It is easily soluble in water because
it forms hydrogen bonds quickly with water. P.Bergo and others discussed the PVA film
production technique and the relationship between PVA dielectric constant and water
content [14]. Because of its temperature-sensitive characteristics, reduced graphene oxide
(rGO) is commonly employed to construct temperature-sensitive sensors. Using rGO as a
substrate or combining rGO materials with other materials to inspire its potential in the
field of temperature sensing [15].
With the evolution of sensors and micromachining technologies, it has become possible
to integrate multi-parameter sensors. This sensor may simultaneously measure multiple
parameters, and each sensor element is independent of the others. Adding the coding
function enables the effective identification of a single sensor when numerous sensors are
present. Therefore, numerous researchers have explored the multifunctional integration of
multi-parameter sensing and tag identification. Emran M. Amin created a multi-parameter
chipless RFID sensor with integrated coding, humidity and temperature monitoring in
2016 by combining temperature-sensitive Phenanthrene and humidity-sensitive polyvinyl
alcohol. As an ID encoder and an electric field LC-coupled (ELC) resonator coated with
a smart material layer, temperature and humidity sensing and information encoding are
realized in a small planar configuration [16]. The complementary split ring resonator
(CSRR) structure was initially introduced by Pendry et al. and was subsequently widely
utilized to characterize changes in parameters such as stress, temperature, humidity and
gas [17–19]. Ma et al. created a chipless sensor based on frequency domain coding by
incorporating CSRR resonant units of varying sizes on a microstrip line, which greatly
improved frequency band utilization [20].
The employment of intelligent materials in conjunction with chipless RFID sensors
has significantly increased the potential of tag sensors in application scenarios. Presently,
the majority of research on the sensitive qualities of ambient physical factors focuses on
the construction of RCS chipless RFID tag sensors, among which ELC-type resonators are
extensively employed due to their capacitance-oriented design. The chipless RFID tag
based on the microstrip transmission line has a bigger data capacity than the RCS tag based
on backscattering, the mutual coupling interference can be alleviated by adjusting the
distance between different resonant units and the cross-polarized transceiver antenna can
be matched by retransmission. Without the need for cumbersome horn antennae, detection
is conducted [21,22].
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 3 of 18

In this paper, a multi-resonator cascade design based on a 50 Ω microstrip transmission

line is implemented, and a coupling sensor tag based on CSRR and ELC resonator is
proposed. Four different-sized CSRR resonant units are intended for the identification
of tag identity information. An additional CSRR resonator is installed to characterize
the environmental temperature sensing, at the same time, an ELC resonator is integrated
to improve the humidity sensing capability of the tag. Then, the variation law of the
amplitude and shift of the resonant frequency peak of the multi-parameter sensor under
different temperature and humidity conditions was discussed. The contributions of this
paper are summarized as follows. (I) A chipless RFID multi-parameter sensor is designed,
which realizes the integration of three functions of temperature, humidity and encoding.
The three functions of the designed sensor are independent of each other and can be
combined flexibly. (II) Through the linear normalization fitting of the resonant frequency
shift characteristics of the tag, its good temperature and humidity sensing characteristics
are verified. (III) An engineering-focused, lightweight technique for wireless dynamic
spectrum detection is proposed.

2. Design of Chipless Sensor Based on Microstrip Coupling Resonance

2.1. Theory of Designing Microstrip Resonators
Microstrip patch antenna is a good choice for sensor fabrication because of its simplic-
ity and low production cost. The main characteristic of the microstrip antenna is that it
has more physical parameters than conventional antenna, so it can be designed in various
shapes and sizes. Based on the frequency domain characteristics of microstrip antenna,
the resonant frequencies of multiple parameters are realized in the working frequency
band by designing a coupling cascade of multiple resonators and microstrip transmission
lines. The resonant frequency of the microstrip resonator is closely related to the electri-
cal length of the designed resonator, and the relationship between them can be given by
Equation (1) [23]:
1 nc
f res = √ (1)
ε e f f 2Lres
where c is the speed of light, εeff is the effective permittivity, Lres is the effective electrical
length of the resonator and n is the nth resonant mode.

2.2. Design of CSRR and ELC Resonators Based on Microstrip Coupling

CSRR symmetrical structure resonator is a resonant structure with high-quality fac-
tor (Q value) and generates a very compact frequency bandwidth, so it can efficiently
implement more resonant unit settings in the same frequency band [24].
In the frequency domain, a kind of composed of multiple complementary split ring
resonators is presented in this paper, which the CSRR resonance unit with the main coupled
microstrip line feeds. Its structural layout is shown in Figure 1a. In order to better compare
the sensitivity of the proposed CSRR resonant unit to ambient temperature and humidity,
an existing reported ELC resonator with good capacitance characteristics is combined in
Figure 1b. As shown in Figure 1b, a CSRR resonant unit and an ELC resonant unit are
simultaneously set on the main microstrip transmission line in the tag. Figure 1 shows
the main parameter dimensions of the tag design. In this work, Rogers 5880 is used as
the dielectric substrate and the optimization design is carried out in the radiofrequency
(RF) simulation software HFSS. Table 1 shows the specific values of each parameter after
tag optimization.
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 4 of 18

(a)

(b)
ChiplessRFID
Figure1.1.Chipless
Figure RFIDtag
tagdesign:
design:(a)(a)Microstrip-coupled
Microstrip-coupledCSRR
CSRRresonator
resonatordesign;
design;(b)
(b)The
The2-bit
2-bit
RFID
RFIDtag
tagdesign.
design.

Figure2 2shows
Figure showsthe the equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit of of
thethe CSRR
CSRR andandELC ELC resonators
resonators coupled
coupled sim-si-
multaneously
ultaneously on the
on the microstrip
microstrip line.line.
The The L11 represents
L11 represents the equivalent
the equivalent inductance
inductance on theon
the main transmission line. The greater the value of L11, the greater
main transmission line. The greater the value of L11, the greater the loss of signal, which the loss of signal,
whichthat
means meansthethat the narrower
narrower the microstrip
the microstrip line, theline, the greater
greater the attenuation
the attenuation of the signal.
of the signal. C11
C11 and C12 represent the degree of coupling between the microstrip
and C12 represent the degree of coupling between the microstrip line and the CSRR line and the CSRR
and
and resonators,
ELC ELC resonators, respectively.
respectively. The smaller
The smaller the gap thebetween
gap between the resonator
the resonator and the andmi-
the
microstrip
crostrip line,line,
the the greater
greater thethe degree
degree of coupling,
of coupling, andandthethe greater
greater thethe returnloss
return lossobtained
obtained
at the resonant frequency. The bandstop resonance characteristics
at the resonant frequency. The bandstop resonance characteristics of the resonator can of the resonator canbebe
modeled with lumped-circuit elements, where the L21, C21 equivalent
modeled with lumped-circuit elements, where the L21, C21 equivalent elements are used elements are used
to generate the resonant frequency of the CSRR resonator, and
to generate the resonant frequency of the CSRR resonator, and the L31, C31 equivalentthe L31, C31 equivalent
elementsare
elements areused
usedtotogenerate
generatethetheresonant
resonantfrequency
frequencyofofthe theELC
ELCresonator.
resonator.TheThesimplified
simplified
circuit model of the ELC unit resonant frequency and the CSRR unit resonant frequency
circuit model
p of the ELC unit resonant frequency and the CSRR unit resonant frequency
is ωr = 1/( Lr Cr ). Where the equivalent inductance and capacitance of CSRR can be
ωr = 1/(
isderived Lr C r ) . Where
as follows [25–27]:the equivalent inductance and capacitance of CSRR can be de-
√
rived as follows [25–27]: K 1 − k2
C0 = ε 0 (2)
K (k)
K 1− k2
C0 k==ε 0 d/2 (2)
(3)
w+K (k )
d/2
Here, K (k) is the first complete elliptic integral,
d /2 d is space of the CSRR inner and outer
k=
rings, w is the line width of the CSRR microstrip (3)
frame and C0 is the capacitance of unit
length of the two split ring. w+d /2

C21 = C0 [ L + 3(d + w)/2] (4)

 Here, K (k) is the first complete elliptic integral, d is space of the CSRR inner and outer
rings, w is the line width of the CSRR microstrip frame and C0 is the capacitance of unit
length of the two split ring.

C21 = C0[L + 3(d + w)/2] (4)

Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 5 of 18

μ0 lavg   0.98  
L21 = 4.86 ln   + 1.84 ρ  (5)
2 4     ρ   
µ0 lavg 0.98
L21 = 4.86 ln + 1.84ρ (5)
2 w 4+ d ρ L ( w+d )
Attention coefficients ρ = is the filling factor, lavg = 8[ − ].
Lww+−−d w
Attention coefficients ρ = L− d
−
is d
the filling factor, l avg = 8 [ L
2 − (w+d)
2 2 ] . 2

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit model of CSRR and ELC resonant unit.

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit model of CSRR and ELC resonant unit.

1. Chipless
Table 1.
Table Chipless RFID
RFID tag
tag size
size design
design (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).
Parameter
Parameter L1 L1 L2 L2 L3L3 W1
W1 W2
W2 W3
W3
Value
Value 9.6 9.6 7.5938
7.5938 1010 7.2 7.5938
7.5938 7.5
7.5
Parameter
Parameter d1 d1 d2 d2 d3d3 C1 C3
C3 Wc1
Wc1
Value
Value 0.6 0.6 0.255
0.255 0.625
0.625 1.2
1.2 1.25
1.25 2.826
2.826
Parameter
Parameter Lc1 Lc1 dg1dg1 dg2
dg2 Wf
Wf Width
Width Length
Length
Value 6 0.1 0.1 2.4 40 50
Value 6 0.1 0.1 2.4 40 50

Figure 3a shows the scattering characteristic curve of a single CSRR and the coupling
Figure
structure 3a shows
when the scattering
the distance dg1 of characteristic
the microstripcurve of a single
transmission CSRR
line is 0.1and
mm. theWhen
couplingthe
length L1 of CSRR is 9.6 mm, one of the better bandstop resonance curves is formedthe
structure when the distance dg1 of the microstrip transmission line is 0.1 mm. When at
length
2.95 L1 of
GHz, theCSRR is 9.6 mm,
transmission one of the
coefficient S21better bandstop
is about −21 dBresonance curves is coefficient
and the reflection formed at
2.95 isGHz,
S11 aboutthe0 transmission
dB. Figure 3bcoefficient
shows theS21 S11isand S21−parameter
about 21 dB and the reflection
response curvescoefficient S11
of a single
is about 0 dB. Figure 3b shows the S11 and S21 parameter response curves
CSRR and a single ELC coupled with the main microstrip transmission line at the same of a single CSRR
and awhere
time, singlethe
ELC coupledfrequency
resonant with the generated
main microstrip
by CSRRtransmission
is about 3.26line at the
GHz, and same
that time,
gen-
where the resonant frequency generated by CSRR is about 3.26 GHz, and
erated by ELC is about 3.95 GHz. The resonant bandwidth of CSRR is about 5 MHz, which that generated by
ELC is about 3.95 GHz. The resonant bandwidth of CSRR is about 5 MHz,
is less than the 9 MHz bandwidth of ELC, so the notch curve is more compact. Moreover, which is less
than the 9 MHz bandwidth of ELC, so the notch curve is more compact. Moreover, CSRR
CSRR
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW has lower resonant frequency and higher return loss than the ELC resonator6when of 18
has lower resonant frequency and higher return loss than the ELC resonator when the size
the size difference between the two is not much.
difference between the two is not much.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 3. Chipless
Chipless RFID
RFIDtag
tagresonance
resonanceresponse
response curve:
curve: (a)(a) CSRR
CSRR resonance
resonance unitunit S11 S21
S11 and andresponse
S21 re-
sponse curve;
curve; (b) ELC(b)
andELC andresonance
CSRR CSRR resonance
unit S11unit
andS11
S21and S21 response
response curve. curve.

Figure 4 compares the surface electric field distribution of the ELC resonator and
CSRR resonator at operating frequencies. Figure 4a shows the surface voltage distribution
at a single CSRR operating frequency. In the CSRR structure, due to the setup of the mul-
 Figure 3. Chipless RFID tag resonance response curve: (a) CSRR resonance unit S
sponse curve; (b) ELC and CSRR resonance unit S11 and S21 response curve.

Figure 4 compares the surface electric field distribution of the ELC r

Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 6 of 18
CSRR resonator at operating frequencies. Figure 4a shows the surface voltag
at a single CSRR operating frequency. In the CSRR structure, due to the setu
tipleFigure
split4 ring
comparesandthe each division
surface characteristic
electric field distribution ofof
thethe
ELCmicrostrip
resonator andring
CSRRstoppin
throughatthe
resonator loop, frequencies.
operating both sidesFigureinside the CSRR
4a shows resonant
the surface voltageunit can create
distribution at a two
single CSRR operating frequency. In the CSRR structure, due to the
tors. Figure 4b shows the surface electric field distribution at their respect setup of the multiple
split ring and each division characteristic of the microstrip ring stopping the current through
frequencies when the CSRR resonant element and ELC resonant element are
the loop, both sides inside the CSRR resonant unit can create two equal capacitors. Figure 4b
a microstrip
shows the surfaceline at the
electric field same time.
distribution It can
at their be seen
respective from frequencies
operating the electricwhenfield dis
the
theCSRR resonant
electric fieldelement
of theand ELCELC isresonant
mainlyelement are coupled
concentrated inwith
the acapacitor
microstrip plate
line acce
at the same time. It can be seen from the electric field distribution that the electric field of
the electric field of CSRR is mainly concentrated among multiple capacitor
the ELC is mainly concentrated in the capacitor plate accessories, while the electric field of
the resonator.
CSRR is mainly concentrated among multiple capacitor plates inside the resonator.

Figure 4. Electric field distribution of chipless RFID tags at resonance peak frequencies: (a) proposed
Figure 4. Electric field distribution of chipless RFID tags at resonance peak frequencie
CSRR resonator (2.95 GHz); (b) ELC resonator (3.95 GHz) and proposed CSRR resonator (3.26 GHz).
CSRR resonator (2.95 GHz); (b) ELC resonator (3.95 GHz) and proposed CSRR resona
Smart polymer materials are very sensitive to physical parameters in the environment;
thus, selecting
Smart appropriate
polymer smart polymer
materials arematerials
very combined
sensitivewithto the frequency-shifting
physical parameters in
properties of the chipless RFID sensors can be used to analyze the behavior of the physical
ment; thus,
parameter selecting
changes appropriate
in various environments. smart
Figurepolymer
5 simulates materials
the shift in combined
the resonant with t
shifting properties
frequency of the
of the sensor that maychipless
be causedRFID sensors
by changes can be used
in temperature to analyze
and humidity in the be
the environment
physical when thechanges
parameter resonator insurface is coated
various with a sensitive Figure
environments. polymer 5 material,
simulates th
the analysis shows that the proposed ELC resonator has more obvious advantages over
resonant frequency of the sensor that may be caused by changes in temper
the sensitive shift characteristic of the CSRR resonator, but the size of the microstrip line
midity
of the ELCinresonator
the environment
is smaller andwhen the resonator
the resulting surfaceisishigher.
resonance frequency coated with a sens
However,
the
material, the analysis shows that the proposed ELC resonator than
CSRR resonator can achieve a larger size microstrip line in the same physical area has more
the ELC resonator, so it can generate a lower resonant frequency, and because the CSRR
vantages over the sensitive shift characteristic of the CSRR resonator, but t
resonator has higher Q values and narrower impedance bandwidth, so more resonant fre-
microstrip
quencies can beline ofthe
set on the ELC
same resonator
frequency is smaller
band, which andimproves
effectively the resulting resonance
the utilization
higher.
rate of theHowever,
corresponding the CSRRfrequency
working resonator band.can achievecombined
Therefore, a largerwithsizethemicrostrip
respec- lin
tive advantages of the ELC and CSRR resonators, this paper designs a hybrid resonator
RFID tag based on microstrip coupling, which can realize multiple sensing functions in a
compact bandwidth.
 more resonant frequencies can be set on the same frequency band, which effectively
morethe
proves resonant frequencies
utilization can be set onworking
rate of the corresponding the same frequency
frequency band.band, which
Therefore, co
proves
bined withthe
the utilization rate of theofcorresponding
respective advantages the ELC and CSRRworking frequency
resonators, this paperband.
desiT
a hybrid resonator
bined with RFID tag based
the respective on microstrip
advantages of the coupling,
ELC andwhich
CSRRcan realize multi
resonators, thi
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 sensing functions
a hybrid in a compact
resonator RFID bandwidth.
tag based on microstrip coupling, which 7 of 18 can r

sensing functions in a compact bandwidth.

Figure 5. Simulate the resonance shift effect of covering polymer films.

2.3. 6-bit Chipless RFID Tag Design

Figure 5. Simulate the resonance shift effect of covering polymer films.
Figure
CSRR5.structure
Simulateisthe resonance
a common shift effect
structure usedofto
covering polymer
characterize films.
the characteristics of
rameter
2.3. 6-Bit sensing. However,
Chipless RFID Tag Designthe research on the application of the CSRR resonator ba
on2.3.
microstrip coupling
6-bitstructure
CSRR Chipless is RFIDin temperature
a common Designand
Tagstructure usedhumidity sensing
to characterize theischaracteristics
not sufficient of at pres
and the analysis
parameter sensing.of its sensitive
However, characteristics
the research and theofdesign
on the application the CSRR of multi-functional
resonator based integ
CSRR structure
on microstrip is a common structure used to characterize the chara
tion are verycoupling in temperature
few. Therefore, this and
paperhumidity sensing
proposes a is not sufficient
6-bit chiplessatRFID present, and
multi-parame
rameter
the
sensor.analysis
The of sensing.
its sensitive
sensor However,
is based the and
characteristics
on the CSRR research on
the design
resonator ofthe
and application
multi-functional
microstrip of the CSRR
lineintegration
coupling layoutr
are
onvery few. Therefore,
microstrip this paper
coupling proposes a 6-bit chipless RFID multi-parameter sensor.
achieve multiple functions inin temperature
a compact and humidity
bandwidth, multiple CSRR
The sensor is based on the CSRR resonator and microstrip line coupling layout. To achieve
sensing is not suffic
resonators are se
the and
tag,the
multiple and analysis
the existing
functions
of its
ELC
in a compact
sensitive
resonatorcharacteristics
bandwidth, ismultiple
set as aCSRR andand
reference the are
resonators
design
comparison. of multi-fun
As shown
set in the tag,
tion
Figure
and are
the6, thevery
existingtagELC few.
structure Therefore,
resonator and as a this
main
is set paper
parameter
reference proposes
comparison. a
anddimensions are
As 6-bit chipless
designed
shown 6,RFID
in this
in Figure paperm
which
the tagthe metal
structure thin
and layer
main is used
parameter as the radiation
dimensions are sheet
designed
sensor. The sensor is based on the CSRR resonator and microstrip line coup andin the
thismetal
paper, layer
in on
which the surf
isthe metal thin
attached
achieve to layer is used as substrate.
the dielectric
multiple
the radiation
functions in a compact Insheet and the
addition, metal layer
Rogers
bandwidth,
on
5880multiplethe surface
(relative is
permittivity
CSRR reson
attached to the dielectric substrate. In addition, Rogers 5880 (relative permittivity εr = 2.2,
2.2, h = 0.79 mm, tan δ = 0.0009), which has a low dielectric constant, was used as
h the
= 0.79tag,
mm,andtan δthe existing
= 0.0009), which ELC
has aresonator
low dielectricisconstant,
set as awas reference
used as theand compariso
substrate
substrate in the design of the resonator to improve the
in the design of the resonator to improve the effect of the sensitive coating.
effect of the sensitive coating.
Figure 6, the tag structure and main parameter dimensions are designed i
which the metal thin layer is used as the radiation sheet and the metal laye
is attached to the dielectric substrate. In addition, Rogers 5880 (relative p
2.2, h = 0.79 mm, tan δ = 0.0009), which has a low dielectric constant, w
substrate in the design of the resonator to improve the effect of the sensiti

6. The
Figure 6.
Figure The6-bit
6-bitchipless RFID
chipless tag design.
RFID tag design.
Figure 7 shows the S21 resonance response curve obtained by optimizing the design
Figure 7 showssensor
of a multi-parameter the S21 resonance
in the response
RF simulation curve
software obtained
HFSS, and the by optimizing
main parameter the des
of a multi-parameter
dimensions sensor
of the optimized taginstructure
the RF are
simulation
provided software
in Table 2. HFSS, andgenerates
The sensor the maina parame
total of six resonant frequencies in a small frequency band, among which five lower resonant
frequencies are generated by the CSRR resonant unit, which are 3.03 GHz, 3.14 GHz,

Figure 6. The 6-bit chipless RFID tag design.

 a total of six resonant frequencies in a small frequency band, among which
resonant frequencies are generated by the CSRR resonant unit, which are 3.03
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW GHz, 3.28 GHz, 3.41 GHz and 3.61 GHz, respectively, and the 8 ofELC
18 resonant u
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 the highest 3.96 GHz. The working bandwidth of more than 110 MHz 8 of is
18 reserv
each resonant unit. The CSRR resonator with the lowest resonance frequenc
dimensions of the optimized tag structure are provided in Table 2. The sensor generates
the reverse position is selected as the temperature and humidity sensor, and the
a total of
3.28sixGHz,
resonant frequencies
3.41 GHz and 3.61 in GHz,
a small frequency and
respectively, band, theamong which five
ELC resonant unitlower
is set at the
resonantfour CSRR
frequencies resonant
are generated unitsby areCSRR
the usedresonant
for theunit,information
which are coding
3.03 GHz, of the tag. Each C
3.14
highest 3.96 GHz. The working bandwidth of more than 110 MHz is reserved between
stop
GHz, 3.28eachGHz,resonator
resonant unit.corresponds
3.41 GHz and
The 3.61
CSRR GHz, to a resonant
respectively,
resonator with theand frequency
the ELC
lowest infrequency
resonant
resonance the spectrum,
unit set at in and
is placed the the re
the highest
quency 3.96position
reverse GHz. The
corresponds working
is selected asbandwidth
to athelogical of“1”
temperature more than
state
and 110the
of
humidity MHz is reserved
encoding
sensor, and the between
bit. Whenfour
remaining there is n
each resonant
CSRR unit. Theunits
resonant CSRR are resonator
used for with
the the lowestcoding
information resonance of thefrequency
tag. Each placed
CSRR in
bandstop
filtering in the corresponding frequency band, the encoding bit logic turns to “
the reverse position
resonator is selectedto
corresponds asathe temperature
resonant frequencyand in
humidity sensor,and
the spectrum, andthe theresonant
remaining frequency
the
four CSRR tag
resonantcan generate
units are used 4-bit
for the binary
information coding
coding andof 16
the tag.kinds
corresponds to a logical “1” state of the encoding bit. When there is no bandstop filteringEach of
CSRR identity
band- informatio
shows
stop resonator the actualtoimage
corresponds
in the corresponding a resonant
frequency of band,
the proposed
frequency in the tag
the encoding bitantenna
spectrum,
logic and fabricated
turnsthe toresonant on
“0” state,fre- thetag
so the Rogers 5
quencytriccorresponds
can generate
substrate to ausing
4-bit logical “1”
binarythermal
codingstateandof the encoding
16 kinds
transfer bit. When
of identity
technology there is laboratory
information.
under no bandstop
Figure 8 shows the
conditions,
filteringactual
in theimage
corresponding frequency
of the proposed band, the
tag antenna encodingonbitthe
fabricated logic
Rogersturns to “0”
5880 state, so
dielectric substrate
S21
the tag using
response
can generate
curve measured bykinds
a vector network analyzer (SYSJOINT S
thermal 4-bit binary
transfer coding and
technology under 16 laboratory
of identity
conditions,information.
and the tag Figure 8
S21 response
shows shown
the
curveactual in Figure
image
measured of a 8.
bythe proposed
vector networktag antenna
analyzerfabricated
(SYSJOINT onSV4401A)
the Rogersis5880 shown dielec-
in Figure 8.
tric substrate using thermal transfer technology under laboratory conditions, and the tag
S21 response curve measured by a vector network analyzer (SYSJOINT SV4401A) is
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7.Figure 7. The

The 6-bit 6-bit chipless
chipless RFID tagRFID tag simulation
simulation and measurement
and measurement of S21 response
of S21 response curve. curve.
Figure 7. The 6-bit chipless RFID tag simulation and measurement of S21 response cur
Table 2. The 6-bit chipless RFID tag design size value (unit: mm).
Table 2. The 6-bit chipless RFID tag design size value (unit: mm).
Table 2. The 6-bit chipless RFID tag design size value (unit: mm).
Parameter L4 L5
Parameter L4L6 L5 L7 L6 L8
L7 L8 W4 W4 W5
W5 W6W6 W7 W7
Value 8.019 Value
10.08 8.019
Parameter
10.72 10.08L4 10.72 L511.04
11.04 11.68 11.68
L6 8.0198.019
L7 7.56 L8 8.04
7.56 8.04W48.28 8.28
W5 W
Parameter W8 C5 C7 C6
Parameter W8 C5 Value C6 8.019 10.08C7 C8 C8 d4 d4
10.72 11.04 d5 d6
d5 11.68 d68.019 d7 d7
7.56 8.0
Value 8.76 Value
1.26 8.76
1.34 1.26 1.381.34 1.38
1.46 1.460.27 0.27 0.63
0.63 0.67
0.67 0.69 0.69
Parameter
Parameter d8 Lc2W8 Wc2 C5 dg3 C6h C7
Wf C8
Length d4Width d5 d6
Parameter d8 Lc2 Wc2 dg3 h Wf Length Width
Value Value
0.73 8.76 2.98 1.260.2
6.336 1.34
0.79 1.38
2.4 1.46
50 0.2750 0.63 0.6
Value 0.73 6.336 2.98 0.2 0.79 2.4 50 50
Parameter d8 Lc2 Wc2 dg3 h Wf Length
Value 0.73 6.336 2.98 0.2 0.79 2.4 50

(a) (b)
Figure 8.Figure
The 6-bit chipless
8. The tag object:
6-bit chipless tag(a) Tag radiation
object: surface; surface;
(a) Tag radiation (b) Tag ground surface.surface.
(b) Tag ground

(a) (b)
Figure 8. The 6-bit chipless tag object: (a) Tag radiation surface; (b) Tag ground surface
 3. Experimental Testing and Analysis of Sensor Behavior
3.1. Relative Humidity Experiment
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 The selection of humidity-sensitive materials as substrates can reflect the9changes of 18 in
relative humidity in the environment to a certain extent; however, at present, few pres-
sure-resistant materials in the field of structural health monitoring (SHM) have good sen-
3. Experimental
sitivity to changes in Testing
relative andhumidity
Analysis ofatSensor
the same Behavior
time. In this experiment, the aim is to
3.1. Relative Humidity Experiment
explore a multi-parameter sensor design that is easy to integrate and has good compres-
The selection of humidity-sensitive materials as substrates can reflect the changes
sion performance.
in relative
It is a feasiblehumidity
solution in the to environment
monitor the to a certain
relative extent; however,
humidity at present, few
in the environment by affect-
pressure-resistant materials in the field of structural health monitoring (SHM) have good
ing the frequency shift of the resonator by attaching the PVA coating of the humidity-
sensitivity to changes in relative humidity at the same time. In this experiment, the
sensitive
aim ismaterial
to explore ona the sensor surface.
multi-parameter Moisture
sensor is absorbed
design that is easy toby the material
integrate and hascoating,
good and
then compression
mapped to performance.
the corresponding resonant frequency of the sensor. With the change in
the relative It ishumidity in the environment,
a feasible solution the relative
to monitor the relative humidity permittivity of the PVA
in the environment coating will
by affecting
the frequency shift of the resonator by attaching the PVA coating
also change, thereby affecting the peak value of the sensor’s resonant frequency, resulting of the humidity-sensitive
material
in certain on the sensor
frequency shift surface.
effects. Moisture is absorbed by the material coating, and then
mapped to the corresponding resonant frequency of the sensor. With the change in the
In order to analyze the humidity sensitivity of the tag, this work used the PVA col-
relative humidity in the environment, the relative permittivity of the PVA coating will also
loidalchange,
film and transferred
thereby affecting the it topeak
the value
resonance unit of resonant
of the sensor’s the sensor with a resulting
frequency, small amount
in of
adhesive, and simulated
certain frequency shift effects. the change in environmental relative humidity in the closed cli-
mate boxInas shown
order in Figure
to analyze 9a. The
the humidity tag is of
sensitivity connected
the tag, thistowork
theused
vector network
the PVA analyzer
colloidal
film and transferred it to the resonance unit of the sensor
(VNA) through two low-loss RF cables running through the box, and an adjustable hu-with a small amount of adhesive,
and simulated the change in environmental relative humidity in the closed climate box as
midifier is placed in the airtight box. In order to ensure the uniform change in humidity,
shown in Figure 9a. The tag is connected to the vector network analyzer (VNA) through
a plate
twooflow-loss
anhydrous RF cablesCaCl 2 hygroscopic agent is also installed in the box to balance the
running through the box, and an adjustable humidifier is placed in
risingthetrend of humidity,
airtight box. In order and a high-precision
to ensure probe-type
the uniform change electronic
in humidity, temperature
a plate of anhydrous and hu-
midityCaCl2 hygroscopic agent is also installed in the box to balance the rising trend of humidity,Figure
instrument is used to monitor the change in humidity in the box in real time.
and a the
9b shows high-precision
actual humidity probe-type testelectronic
scenario,temperature
the gap of and the humidity instrument isclosed
box was completely used with
to monitor the change in humidity in the box in real time. Figure
tape (3M) and tissues, the initial temperature is 24.6 °C and the initial humidity is 27%. 9b shows the actual
humidity test scenario, the gap of the box was completely closed with tape (3M) and tissues,
Considering that the relative humidity in the actual environment generally ranges from
the initial temperature is 24.6 ◦ C and the initial humidity is 27%. Considering that the
30% relative
to 90%,humidity
the relative humidity
in the actual environmenttest starts fromranges
generally 30%,from and30% thetoprepared PVA film is
90%, the relative
pasted on thetest
humidity ELC andfrom
starts CSRR 30%,resonant units, respectively.
and the prepared PVA film is pasted on the ELC and CSRR
resonant units, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Tag
Figure 9. humidity testtest
Tag humidity scenarios:
scenarios:(a)
(a)Three-dimensional modeling
Three-dimensional modeling experiment
experiment scene scene simulation;
simulation;
(b) Experimental testing
(b) Experimental ofofhumidity
testing humidity in
in aa laboratory
laboratory environment.
environment.

Figure 10 shows the frequency shift of the ELC resonant unit with the increasing
Figure 10 shows the frequency shift of the ELC resonant unit with the increasing rel-
relative humidity in the environment. The resonant frequency corresponding to the ELC
ativeresonant
humidity in without
unit the environment.
PVA film onThetheresonant
surface is frequency
3.96 GHz. Whencorresponding
the PVA gelto film
the ELC
is res-
onantcovered,
unit without PVA film on the surface is 3.96 GHz. When the PVA gel
the initial frequency will have a certain deviation. Since it is hard to measurefilm is covered,
the initial frequency
the moisture on thewill haveofathe
surface certain deviation.
PVA film, it is firstSince it isfor
air-dried hard to measure
2 days and then the
placed moisture
in a sealed box with a relative humidity of about 30% for 2 days to perform
on the surface of the PVA film, it is first air-dried for 2 days and then placed in a sealed a certain
dehydration
box with treatment
a relative [28]. of about 30% for 2 days to perform a certain dehydration
humidity
treatment [28].
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 10 of 18

The shifts of all resonant frequencies can be observed as a whole from Figure 10a,
and the Theshifts
shiftsofofthe
all ELC resonant
resonant units are
frequencies can partially
be observed enlarged in Figure
as a whole 10b, from
from Figure 10a,the
and
initial
the shifts of the ELC resonant units are partially enlarged in Figure 10b, from theMHz,
3.8814 GHz to 3.7714 GHz, the resonant frequency is reduced by about 110 initial
and the change
3.8814 GHz toin3.7714
the resonance
GHz, thecurve is more
resonant obviousisinreduced
frequency the highby humidity range
about 110 MHz,where
and
the
therelative
changehumidity is greatercurve
in the resonance than is
70%.
moreAsobvious
shown ininFigure 10c,humidity
the high the humidity
rangesensitivity
where the
ofrelative
the ELC resonator
humidity is is aboutthan
greater 2.18 70%.
MHz/RH by linearly
As shown normalizing
in Figure the humidity
10c, the humidity sensingof
sensitivity
characteristics
the ELC resonatorof theisELCabout resonator,
2.18 MHz/RHand thebyexperiments show the the
linearly normalizing besthumidity
linearity sensing
in the
range of 30–60%RH, so the optimum resonant frequency range corresponding
characteristics of the ELC resonator, and the experiments show the best linearity in the range to the hu-
midity sensitivity
of 30–60%RH, soistheabout 3.817–3.881
optimum GHz.
resonant frequency range corresponding to the humidity
sensitivity is about 3.817–3.881 GHz.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure10.
10.Resonant
Resonantresponse
responseofofELC ELChumidity
humiditysensor
sensorunit:
unit:(a)
(a)Changes
Changesininthe
theoverall
overallS21
S21resonant
resonant
response
responsecurve
curveofofthe
thetag
tagsensor;
sensor;(b) (b)Change
Changeininthe
theS21
S21curve
curveofoflocally
locallyamplified
amplifiedELCELCresonant
resonant
element;
element;(c)
(c)Linear
Linearfitting
fittingline
lineofofrelative
relativehumidity
humidityofofELC
ELCresonant
resonantelement.
element.

Figure
Figure1111shows
showsthe thefrequency
frequencyshift shiftofofthe
theCSRR
CSRRresonant
resonantunit unitwith
withthe theincreasing
increasing
relative
relativehumidity
humidityininthe theenvironment.
environment.After Afterplacing
placingPVA PVAgel gelfilm
filmon onthe thesurface
surfaceofofthethe
CSRR resonator, it is also put into the sealed box and put in a static
CSRR resonator, it is also put into the sealed box and put in a static position for two days. position for two days.
From
FromFigure
Figure11a,
11a, wewe can observe
observe the theoverall
overallshift
shiftofofallall resonant
resonant frequencies.
frequencies. In Figure
In Figure 11b,
11b,
the the resonance
resonance frequency
frequency shiftshift effect
effect is partially
is partially amplified
amplified and and the selected
the selected frequency
frequency band
band is quantified
is quantified as the ashumidity
the humidity sensing
sensing region,region,
which which is shifted
is shifted fromfrom the initial
the initial 2.69 2.69
GHz
to the
GHz to 2.615 GHzGHz
the 2.615 and theandfrequency
the frequency reduced by 75by
reduced MHz. WhenWhen
75 MHz. the humidity
the humidity increases,
in-
the increase
creases, in waterinaccumulation
the increase water accumulationon the surface
on the of the tagofwill
surface the have a certain
tag will have impact
a certain on
the coupled resonant unit. It can be seen from the analysis
impact on the coupled resonant unit. It can be seen from the analysis that the resonantthat the resonant frequency
shift is relatively
frequency uniform with
shift is relatively uniformthe with
increase in humidity,
the increase but the resonance
in humidity, effect ofef-
but the resonance the
bandstop
fect characteristic
of the bandstop in the highinhumidity
characteristic the higharea is obviously
humidity area isreduced.
obviously When the PVA
reduced. film
When
absorbs
the PVA filmenough water,
absorbs the penetration
enough water, thedepth and shift
penetration effect
depth andof shift
the resonant
effect offrequency
the resonantwill
increase, and
frequency will the notch and
increase, depththewill become
notch depthsignificantly
will becomeshallower
significantly under high humidity,
shallower under
which
high is no longer
humidity, whicheasyis notolonger
capture.easyThe reason isThe
to capture. that as theisrelative
reason that as the humidity
relativeofhu-
the
environment increases, the relative permittivity of the coating
midity of the environment increases, the relative permittivity of the coating changes and changes and the transfer
efficiency
the transferincreases.
efficiencySecondly,
increases.the thickness
Secondly, theofthickness
the coating of will increasewill
the coating to a increase
certain extent
to a
certain extent when it absorbs water in a humid environment, which is also related toofthe
when it absorbs water in a humid environment, which is also related to the thickness the
film preparation.
thickness of the film preparation.
It is worth noting that although the measurement results of the experiment are af-
fected by multiple factors in the environment, the overall change trend is consistent [29].
According to the trend of the actual measurement result, with the increase in the am-
bient humidity, the absorption efficiency of the coating on the water molecules in the
air increases in the high humidity area. This results in a faster increase in coating thick-
ness. As shown in Figure 11c, the humidity sensitivity of the CSRR resonator is about
1.43 MHz/RH by linearly normalizing the humidity sensing characteristics of the CSRR
resonator unit. The CSRR resonator is less sensitive to humidity than the ELC resonator, so
adding a high-humidity-sensitive ELC resonator unit is a feasible solution to improve the
sensor performance.
 Sensors2022,
Sensors 22,x 6027
2022,22, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 11
of of1818

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure11.
11.Resonant
Resonantresponse
responseofofCSRRCSRRhumidity
humiditysensor
sensorunit:
unit:(a)(a)Changes
Changesininthe
theoverall
overallS21
S21resonant
resonant
response curve of the tag sensor; (b) Changes in the S21 curve of locally amplified
response curve of the tag sensor; (b) Changes in the S21 curve of locally amplified CSRR resonantCSRR resonant
element;
element;(c)(c)Linear
Linearfitting
fittingline
lineofofrelative
relativehumidity
humidityofofCSRR
CSRRresonant
resonantelement.
element.

ItThe
is worth
feature noting
of this that although
chipless RFID thehumidity
measurementsensorresults
is thatof it the experiment
is reversible. are af-
When the
fected by multiple factors in the environment, the overall change
PVA coating moisture is air-dried, the tag can be basically restored to the initial state and trend is consistent [29].
According
the use oftoa the dryingtrend of the
oven canactual
quickly measurement
shorten theresult,
recovery withtimethe increase
of the tag. in the ambient
Experiments
humidity,
have shown the that
absorption efficiency
the electrical of theofcoating
properties the tagon arethe water molecules
temporary with humidity in the changes
air in-
creases
and the intag
thewill
highnot humidity area. Thisdamaged
be permanently results inanda faster
can beincrease
reused. inItcoating
shouldthickness.
be noted As that
shown in Figure
the response 11c,
time ofthe
thehumidity
sensor is sensitivity
affected byof thethickness
the CSRR resonator
of the PVA is about
film. 1.43
The MHz/RH
increase in
bythelinearly
thicknessnormalizing
will slow downthe humidity
the response sensingtimecharacteristics
of the tag. Atof thethe
sameCSRR time,resonator unit.
the expansion
of the
The CSRR PVA polymerismatrix
resonator in the high
less sensitive humidity
to humidity range
than will also
the ELC have aso
resonator, certain
adding impact
a high- on
the response time ELC
humidity-sensitive of theresonator
tag. unit is a feasible solution to improve the sensor perfor-
mance.
3.2. The
Temperature
feature of Experiment
this chipless RFID humidity sensor is that it is reversible. When the
The thermal
PVA coating moisture expansion coefficient
is air-dried, the tagofcan thebepressure-resistant
basically restoredsubstrateto the initialof the chipless
state and
RFID
the usesensor currently
of a drying ovenused
caninquickly
the stress field isthe
shorten notrecovery
high, so sensitivity
time of the to tag.
temperature
Experimentsin the
environment
have shown that is low. Once theproperties
the electrical temperature threshold
of the tag areistemporary
exceeded,with it will cause irreversible
humidity changes
changes in the electrical characteristics of the tag sensor.
and the tag will not be permanently damaged and can be reused. It should be noted that
Considering
the response time ofthe theabove
sensor factors, this experiment
is affected adopts
by the thickness of the
the method
PVA film. of spreading
The increase the
intemperature-sensitive
the thickness will slow polymer
down the filmresponse
on the surface
time ofofthethetag.
microstrip
At the same resonator
time, unit to carry
the expan-
outofthe
sion theexperiment
PVA polymer andmatrix
conductsin thethe experimental
high humidity range test will
through the process
also have a certainshown
impactin
Figure 12, where Figure
on the response time of the tag. 12a is the 3D simulation of the temperature-sensitive experimental
test of the tag modeling of the experimental scene and Figure 12b shows the actual tag
temperature-sensitive
3.2. Temperature Experiment experimental test process. In this experiment, the water bath heating
method is used to replace the traditional high-temperature climate box. Compared with
The thermal expansion coefficient of the pressure-resistant substrate of the chipless
the high-temperature climate box, the heat conduction method of the water bath heating
RFID sensor currently used in the stress field is not high, so sensitivity to temperature in
method is more uniform and the temperature is controllable.
the environment is low. Once the temperature threshold is exceeded, it will cause irre-
In order to more accurately simulate the temperature changes in the actual environ-
versible changes in the electrical characteristics of the tag sensor.
ment, this experiment places an intrusive heater in the high-temperature-resistant water
Considering the above factors, this experiment adopts the method of spreading the
tank, and the heating temperature of the heater’s water bath can be adjusted intelligently.
temperature-sensitive polymer film on the surface of the microstrip resonator unit to carry
Wrap a layer of aluminum foil with good thermal conductivity on the surface of the water
out the experiment and conducts the experimental test through the process shown in Fig-
tank, fix the tag on the aluminum foil with high-temperature-resistant tape (3M company,
ure 12, Paul,
Saint whereMN, FigureUnited12a is the 3D
States) simulation
and make theofsurface
the temperature-sensitive
fully fit. The thickness experimental
of the alu-
test
minumof thefoil
tagis modeling
9 µm and of thethetwoexperimental
ports of the tag scene
areand
wired Figure 12b shows
to measure through the an
actual tag
RF cable
temperature-sensitive
to reduce external interference.experimental test process. In this experiment, the water bath heat-
ing methodIn orderis to
used to replace
reduce the traditional
the influence of heat losshigh-temperature
during heat transfer, climate box. temperature
a patch Compared
with
sensor is installed on the tag surface and an industry standard water temperature bath
the high-temperature climate box, the heat conduction method of the water tester
heating
is insertedmethod
intoisthe more uniform
water tank to and the temperature
record the change in is controllable.
tag temperature in real time. The
temperature experimental measurement can reach up to about 80 ◦ C, but the temperature is
higher than 75 ◦ C and the region is unstable, so the measurement range is selected between
25 ◦ C and 75 ◦ C.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 12 of 18
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12. Tag temperature sensing
Tag temperature sensingcharacteristic
characteristictest:
test:(a)
(a)Tag
Tagtemperature
temperature sensitivity
sensitivity test,
test, 3D3D sim-
simula-
ulation experiment scene modeling; (b) Tag temperature sensitivity characteristic test in the labora-
tion experiment scene modeling; (b) Tag temperature sensitivity characteristic test in the laboratory.
tory.
In this paper, the purchased rGO solution prepared by the thermal reduction method
In order
and PVA to more
solution wereaccurately
mixed in asimulate
ratio of 1:5 theand temperature
placed in a changes in the actual
glass container environ-
and evaporated
ment, this experiment places an intrusive heater in the high-temperature-resistant
naturally at room temperature to obtain a layer of rGO and PVA composite film, which water
has
tank,
good and the heating
temperature temperature
sensitivity. In the ofrange
the heater’s
of 46.85 ◦
waterC tobath ◦
can be
126.85 C, adjusted intelligently.
the dielectric constant
Wrap a layer
increases withofthe aluminum
increase in foiltemperature
with good thermal
[30]. Theconductivity
free space methodon theissurface
one of ofthethe water
effective
tank, fix the
analytical tag on the
methods for aluminum
measuring foil the with high-temperature-resistant
dielectric constant. The loss tangent tapeof(3M
the company,
composite
Saint Paul,temperature
film with MN, Unitedchanges States) and
can bemake the surface
expressed by the fully fit. The Equation
following thickness(6): of the alumi-
num foil is 9 um and the two ports of the tag are wired to measure through an RF cable to

ε = ε 0 − jε00
reduce external interference. (6)
ε00
In order to reduce the influence of heat δ = during
tan loss ε0 heat transfer, a patch temperature
sensor is installed on the tag surface and an industry standard water temperature tester is
where ε is
inserted relative
into to complex
the water tank topermittivity,
record the change ε0 is relative to real permittivity,
in tag temperature
00 is relative to
in real εtime. The tem-
virtual permittivity
perature experimental andmeasurement
tan δ is the loss cantangent.
reach up to about 80 °C, but the temperature is
higherFigure
than 13 75 shows
°C andthe therelationship betweenso
region is unstable, the frequency
the measurementresponse of the
range CSRR tem-
is selected be-
perature
tween 25 sensing
°C and 75 resonance
°C. unit S21 and the temperature change when the water bath is
heated. The composite film of rGO and PVA was attached to the surface gap of the CSRR
In this paper, the purchased rGO solution prepared by the thermal reduction method
resonator by a small amount of adhesive, the tag was completely attached to the thermally
and PVA solution were mixed in a ratio of 1:5 and placed in a glass container and evapo-
conductive aluminum foil and both ends of the tag were connected to a vector network
rated naturally at room temperature to obtain a layer of rGO and PVA composite film,
analyzer (SYSJOINT SV4401A). The water bath temperature was increased from room tem-
which has good temperature sensitivity. In the range of 46.85 °C to 126.85 °C, the dielectric
perature 24.6 ◦ C to 65 ◦ C in 10 ◦ C increments and from 65 ◦ C to 75 ◦ C in 5 ◦ C increments,
constant increases with the increase in temperature [30]. The free space method is one of
and the water bath temperature was held at each temperature for approximately 1–2 h with
the effective analytical methods for measuring the dielectric constant. The loss tangent of
each temperature increment, a certain settling time is reserved for the tag on the aluminum
the composite film with temperature changes can be expressed by the following Equation
foil to reach equilibrium with the temperature of the water bath, and the VNA records
(6):
the data. From Figure 13a, we can observe the shift of all the resonant frequencies of the
tag under the temperature change. InFigure ε = ε '−13b, jε the
'' frequency shift effect of CSRR is
partially magnified. The resonance frequency  of S21 is about 3.03 GHz before the polymer
 temperature ε '' (6)
film is not covered, and 3.017 GHz at room
 tan δ = after covering, which is reduced
by 23 MHz. As the temperature increases,  the resonant ε' frequency shifts from the initial
3.017 GHz to 2.97 GHz, and the frequency shift reaches 47 MHz. The analysis shows
where
that with ε is the
relative to complex
increase permittivity,
in temperature, ε′ is relative
the resonant to real permittivity,
frequency ε″ is relative
gradually decreases, and
to virtual permittivity and tan δ is the loss tangent.
the return loss of the temperature sensor S21 also decreases continuously. As shown in
FigureFigure 13 shows
14, through the the relationship
linear normalization between fitting theof frequency
the sensingresponse of the of
characteristics CSRR tem-
the CSRR
perature sensing resonance unit S21 and the temperature
◦
resonator unit in the temperature range of 24.6 C to 75 C, Figure 14a shows that the change
◦ when the water bath is
heated. The composite film of rGO and PVA was attached
sensitivity of the resonant frequency of the CSRR resonator with temperature change is to the surface gap of the CSRR
resonator
about 898.63 by aKHz/small◦ Camount of adhesive,
and Figure 14b shows the tagthatwas the completely
sensitivity of attached to the thermally
the resonant frequency
conductive
amplitude of aluminum
the CSRRfoil and both
resonator withends of the tagchange
temperature were connected to a vector
is about 0.10273 dB/◦ C. network
When
analyzer (SYSJOINT SV4401A). The water bath temperature
the CSRR resonant unit is used for temperature sensing, the frequency shift characteristics was increased from room
 and the
CSRR return loss
resonator unitofin
thethe
temperature
temperature sensor
range S21 of
also decreases
24.6 °C to 75 continuously.
°C, Figure 14a As shown
shows
in Figure 14, through the linear normalization fitting of the
the sensitivity of the resonant frequency of the CSRR resonator with temperature sensing characteristics of the
ch
CSRR resonator unit in the temperature range of 24.6 °C to 75
is about 898.63 KHz/°C and Figure 14b shows that the sensitivity of the resonant frequ°C, Figure 14a shows that
the sensitivity of the resonant frequency of the CSRR resonator with temperature change
amplitude of the CSRR resonator with temperature change is about 0.10273 dB/°C. W
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 is about 898.63 KHz/°C and Figure 14b shows that the sensitivity of the resonant frequency
13 of 18
the CSRR resonant unit is used for temperature sensing, the frequency shift character
amplitude of the CSRR resonator with temperature change is about 0.10273 dB/°C. When
ofthe
theCSRR
resonance
resonant and the
unit change
is used for in the depthsensing,
temperature of peaktheresonance
frequencyhave shift a good linear
characteristics
the
of measured
the
of resonance range.
the resonance Therefore,
andand
thethe
change the
changeininthe change
the depth
depth of in temperature
of peak
peak resonance
resonance canhave
have be areflected
a goodgood from tw
linearity
linearity in
mensions,
in the and the
measured experiments
range. show
Therefore, the that
change it has
in the best
temperature linearity
can be
the measured range. Therefore, the change in temperature can be reflected from two di- in the
reflected range
from two of 30–4
thedimensions,
somensions,
optimum and the experiments
resonant frequencyshowrange
that it has the best linearityto
corresponding in the
the range of 30–45 ◦ C,sensitiv
temperature
and the experiments show that it has the best linearity in the range of 30–45 °C,
so the optimum resonant frequency range corresponding to the temperature sensitivity is
about
so the 3.003–3.016
optimum
about
GHz.
resonant
3.003–3.016 GHz. frequency range corresponding to the temperature sensitivity is
about 3.003–3.016 GHz.

(a)
(a) (b)(b)
Figure
Figure 13.CSRR
13.
Figure CSRR
13. CSRR temperature
temperaturesensing
temperature sensing unit
unit
sensing unit resonance
resonance
resonance response: (a) resonance
response:
response: (a) S21 S21 resonance
(a) S21 response
resonance
response curve
response
curve
change
change ofoftag
change tag sensor;
ofsensor;
tag (b)(b)
sensor;
(b) Partial
Partialamplification
Partial amplification
amplification CSRR
CSRR resonance
resonance
CSRR unitunit
resonance S21 S21
S21unit
curve curve change.
change.
curve change.

(a) (b)
(a)Figure 14. (b)
Linear normalized fitting of CSRR resonator temperature sensitivity: (a) CSRR res-
onant frequency changes with temperature; (b) CSRR resonant frequency peak depth changes
with temperature.

For a more intuitive comparison, this paper summarizes some reported research works
of chipless RFID multi-parameter sensors in recent years, as shown in Table 3. This tag
has the advantage of sensing multiple parameters at the same time. By combining the
respective advantages of CSRR and ELC resonators, it realizes the partition setting of
different sensing function working frequency bands, improves the utilization of spectrum
and has good frequency shift characteristics in the measurement range, which can better
monitor the changes in temperature and humidity in the environment.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 14 of 18

Table 3. Comparison of the proposed tag with other chipless multi-parameter sensors in the literature.

Smart Sensing
Resonator Type Size (mm2 ) Range Sensitivity Reference
Materials Parameter
Crack and
Split box resonator 14.38 × 156 None NA NA [1]
moisture
ELC and U-shaped PVA and Humidity and 35–85%RH,
6.8 × 15 NA [8]
slots resonators Kapton encoding 6-bit
MWCNT and
Etched circular Humidity
7.4 × 7.4 × π Kapton® HN 40–70%RH NA [11]
slots resonator and gas
substrate
Humidity
35–85% RH,
ELC and U-shaped PVA and threshold
8 × 25 65–95 ◦ C, NA [16]
slots resonator Phenanthrene temperature
3-bit
and encoding
389 kHz/% RH,
Complementary Humidity, 20–90% RH, 1.52 MHz/%
GO@PI and
split ring 8×9 temperature 25–300 ◦ C, RH(60–90%RH), [19]
HTCC substrate
resonator (CSRR) and pressure 10–300 kPa 133 kHz/◦ C,
107.78 kHz/kPa
Asymmetric
Humidity,
circular four split GO, rGO and
25 × 25 temperature NA NA [24]
ring resonator Chitosan
and pH
(ACiSRR)
36.9% (RCS) for
Split ring resonator Temperature 30–60 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C,12.2%
18.5 × 46 SWCNT [31]
(SRR) and gas 500–20,000 ppm (RCS) for
20,000 ppm
U-shaped resonator Rogers
Crack and 0.1–0.5 mm,
and L-shaped 15 × 35 6010.2LM NA [32]
temperature 25–65 ◦ C
resonators substrate
Multistate-coupled Stanyl and Humidity and
NA 35–85% RH NA [33]
line resonators Kapton temperature
Ag@MoS2 and
Split ring resonator Humidity 0–60% RH,
NA polyimide (PI) 0.097% ppm−1 [34]
(SRR) and gas 0–100 ppm
substrate
Humidity, 30–85% RH, 2.18 MHz/RH,
CSRR and ELC PVA and
50 × 50 temperature 24.6–75 ◦ C, 898.63 KHz/◦ C, This work
resonators PVA-rGO
and encoding 4-bit 0.10273 dB/◦ C

3.3. Real-Time Monitoring and Wireless Transmission of Sensing Data

In this paper, a new method of tag spectrum detection and data extraction is pro-
posed and the feasibility of implementing chipless RFID reader mobile detection on fixed
sensor tags in the future is proposed from the perspective of engineering application.
Figure 15 shows a lightweight dynamic spectrum detection and data wireless transmission
architecture proposed in this paper, which mainly includes a lightweight low-cost VNA, mi-
crocontroller unit (MCU) with universal serial bus on-the-go interface (USB OTG) function,
Bluetooth receiver and transmitter and passive RFID tag. In the application scenario for
this experiment, the tag spectrum detection acquisition method rather than the traditional
detection method is more flexible and convenient. Through the MCU controller intelligent
interaction with the vector network analyzer, the Bluetooth module can support the smooth
transfer data and instructions and expand the scope of the sensor, which has some potential
engineering application prospects. This system is based on the Keil uVision5 software
development platform and uses C language to compile programs. Using C language
as a program development language, it can complete most of the functions of assembly
language, with high compatibility and portability.

Sensors 2022, 22, 6027
telligent interaction with the vector network analyzer, the Bluetooth module can support
the smooth transfer data and instructions and expand the scope of the sensor, which has
some potential engineering application prospects. This system is based on the Keil
uVision5 software development platform and uses C language to compile programs. Us-
ing C language as a program development language, it can complete most of the functions
15 of 18
of assembly language, with high compatibility and portability.

Figure
Figure 15. Dynamic spectrum
15. Dynamic spectrum detection
detection and
and data
data transmission
transmission system
system architecture.
architecture.

In
In Figure
Figure 16,
16,aasimple
simpledynamic
dynamictag tagspectrum
spectrumdetection
detectionexperiment
experiment scenario
scenario is set up,up,
is set in
which passive RFID tags are connected to VNA through RF cable, MCU
in which passive RFID tags are connected to VNA through RF cable, MCU communicatescommunicates with
low-cost VNA as
with low-cost VNAthe as
master controller
the master and tag-scattering
controller parameters
and tag-scattering in VNA are
parameters collected
in VNA are
by personal computer (PC) instructions. The interaction between the MCU
collected by personal computer (PC) instructions. The interaction between the MCU and and the small
VNA can VNA
the small be realized
can bethrough
realizedthe USB protocol.
through In this work,
the USB protocol. thework,
In this USB the
OTG USBinterface
OTG in- is
used to connect the master and slave devices. The USB OTG interface standard allows a
terface is used to connect the master and slave devices. The USB OTG interface standard
device to act as both a host and a slave, thus enabling bidirectional data transfer between
allows a device to act as both a host and a slave, thus enabling bidirectional data transfer
devices. When the MCU is used as the main control device, it can realize the real-time
between devices. When the MCU is used as the main control device, it can realize the real-
collection of the communication device class (CDC) data of the VNA in the form of a virtual
time collection of the communication device class (CDC) data of the VNA in the form of a
serial port and can realize the data reading of the digital electronic sensor through the
virtual serial port and can realize the data reading of the digital electronic sensor through
inter-integrated circuit (I2 C) 2bus. The scattering parameters are transmitted to PC in the
the inter-integrated circuit (I C) bus. The scattering parameters are transmitted to PC in
plural form by MCU onboard Bluetooth communication module (HC-05). At the same
the plural form by MCU onboard Bluetooth communication module (HC-05). At the same
time, MCU has multiple input/output (IO) interfaces and can be connected to a variety of
time, MCU has multiple input/output (IO) interfaces and can be connected to a variety of
digital sensors. The MCU in Figure 16 is connected with a highly sensitive temperature and
digital sensors. The MCU in Figure16 is connected with a highly sensitive temperature
humidity electronic sensor (DHT11) probe. The electronic sensor probe can be deployed
and
in anhumidity electronic
airtight box sensor
to monitor (DHT11) probe.
temperature The electronic
and humidity changes sensor
in theprobe
box incanrealbetime,
de-
ployed in an airtight box to monitor temperature and humidity changes in the
which is convenient for comparison with tag test data. All data can be sent to PC for data box in real
time, whichand
processing is convenient for comparison
dynamic display through with tag test data.
the Bluetooth All data
module, andcanthebe sentcan
users to PC for
select
data processing and dynamic display through the Bluetooth module, and the
the different devices to collect the data by issuing instructions from the PC. In addition, users can
select
by
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW the different
setting the clock devices
module,tothe collect
data the
can data by issuing
be collected instructions
regularly, whichfrom the PC.
reduces In of
the power
16 ad-18
dition, by setting the clock module,
consumption of the detection devices. the data can be collected regularly, which reduces the
power consumption of the detection devices.

Figure 16. RFID tag dynamic spectrum monitoring and data wireless transmission experiment.
Figure 16. RFID tag dynamic spectrum monitoring and data wireless transmission experiment.

Theamplitude
The amplitude AA (in
(in dB)
dB) and
and phase
phase (in
(in degrees)
degrees) measured
measured by
by aa vector
vector network
networkana-
an-
alyzer at each resonant frequency can be expressed using the scattering parameter SS in
lyzer at each resonant frequency can be expressed using the scattering parameter in
Equation(7)
Equation (7)[35]:
[35]:
◦
S = 10 A/20A/20
eiϕπ/180
iϕπ /180° (7)
S = 10 e (7)
Therefore, the MCU controller can extract the scattering parameters in the RFID tag
Therefore,
and obtain the MCUinformation
the amplitude controller can extract
of the the scattering
S parameter parameters
by collecting in the RFID
the complex form tag
of
and obtain the amplitude information of the S parameter by collecting the complex form
of the S parameter. The S21 response parameter of the two-port tag antenna sensor can be
extracted using Equation (8).

S = re2 S + im2 S

(2,1) (2,1) (2,1)
 (8)
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 16 of 18

the S parameter. The S21 response parameter of the two-port tag antenna sensor can be
extracted using Equation (8).
 q
S
(2,1) = re2 S(2,1) + im2 S(2,1)
(8)
 S (dB) = 20lgS
(2,1) (2,1)

As shown in Figure 16, there is still room for optimization in the passive RFID spectrum
dynamic detection and wireless transmission system. By matching appropriate transceiver
antennas at both ends of the two-port microstrip antenna, the wireless layout of tags and de-
tection equipment can be realized based on retransmission, and the measurement distance
of wireless detection based on retransmission in this work is about 3 cm. The lightweight
chipless RFID tag detection equipment is integrated and placed on automated instruments
such as drones and robots, which can realize a mobile chipless RFID detection system and
can realize real-time data collection and intelligence in combination with software such as
databases on the PC side processing to form a complete intelligent networked solution that
can be practically applied.

4. Conclusions
In this article, a 6-bit chipless RFID temperature and humidity sensor based on a
frequency domain is designed. The proposed CSRR resonator is arranged in the form
of coupling with the microstrip line, and an ELC resonator is added as the humidity
sensing unit. In this work, the humidity sensitivity of the ELC resonator and the CSRR
resonator is compared and analyzed, and the temperature sensitivity of the CSRR is
analyzed. The sensitivity of each sensing unit used in the tag was calculated by linear
normalization fitting. The three sensing functions of the proposed RFID multi-parameter
sensor are all quantified in their respective operating frequency bands, and there will
be no interference between the sensing resonant frequencies of different partitions, so a
flexible small-range frequency band detection can be used, which helps improve detection
capability. In addition, this paper proposes a lightweight RFID tag spectrum dynamic
detection and data wireless transmission architecture, which is more convenient and flexible
and conducive to the development of experiments and intelligent data collection. The
proposed concept provides a feasible idea to realize the possibility of chipless RFID tag
detection equipment in mobile detection.
The limitation of this paper is that the experiments are carried out under a single
variable condition and no further studies have been carried out on the simultaneous
changes in temperature and humidity. In this work, the proposed low-cost mobile detection
scheme is based on lightweight VNA, and further research needs to be carried out with
higher gain transceiver antennas. In the future, customized chipless RFID readers and
communication protocols will be developed and this work can greatly encourage the
large-scale deployment of chipless RFID tag sensors.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.C.; Methodology, L.L.; Project administration, L.C.;

Validation, L.C.; Writing—original draft, L.L.; Writing—review and editing, L.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This paper is supported by the university-enterprise cooperation project of “Key
Technology Research and Development of Intelligent Cockpit for Autonomous Driving” (Project
No. J2021-281), sponsored by Shanghai Institute of Technology and Guangzhou Xinchen Auto Parts
Co., Ltd.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6027 17 of 18

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