Taxonomy

refers to classification. An educational taxonomy provides a way for

educators
to view, develop, and evaluate learning objectives via a classification
system. It
is suitable for use at the course and curricular levels. For more than 60
years, educators
have turned to taxonomies to provide the terminology for objectives that
could be
behaviorally measured. Initially, educational taxonomies focused on the
cognitive or
thinking aspects of learning. Later, the affective (values) and
psychomotor (physical
skills) domains of learning were more fully developed.

THE USEFULNESS OF EDUCATIONAL TAXONOMIES

1- provides a common language and framework for classifying,
categorizing,
and defining educational goals.
2- facilitated a shift in focus from what is taught to what students are
expected to learn.
3- develop, communicate, and evaluate learning objectives.
4- a method for mapping the progression of student learning toward
larger program outcomes.

OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES.

The confusion seems to exist regarding the use of the term learning
“outcome” versus “objective.”
The outcome-based education movement of recent years advanced the
need for clearly articulated intended learner goals. But many educational
programs merely tinkered with the small word or title changes instead of
truly considering the differences. there are definite differences between
objectives and outcomes. Both describe products of learning, but
objectives are more specific and detailed, delineated into learning
domains (knowledge, skills, attitudes), stated as intentions,
and are more owned by individual instructors. Simply put, “Outcomes
relate directly to professional practice; objectives relate to instruction”.
It may be clearer to consider an outcome as the essential, significant
learning that the student achieves at the end of a course or at the end of
the program (most often, the term outcome is used at the program vs.
course level). Objectives are the behaviors (knowledge, skills, and
attitude) that are to be demonstrated at the end of a unit of instruction
(such as a learning module or course). What is most important
is that each nursing program has clarity and consistency in whatever
term is decided upon in order to avoid confusion or reluctance when
educators attempt to distinguish and align curriculum outcomes or
objectives to courses.

THE CONNECTION OF OBJECTIVES TO LEARNING THEORY

Most educational objectives are rooted in behaviorism. The behavioral

view posits that learning does not occur if the desired behavior produced
by education is not observable or measurable. This served nursing
education well, particularly in terms of skill acquisition. However, the
complexity and pace of new information assures that not every skill can
be taught. Students must learn to construct new knowledge throughout
their lives to adapt and thrive in unknown, ambiguous situations.
The constructivist view is that reality is built, or constructed, by the
person.
New information that is taken in is then integrated within the context of
previous knowledge, experiences, and perceptions to form new learning
and insight. Constructivist, behavioral, or other theories of learning can
be readily adapted for use with educational taxonomy.

DOMAINS OF LEARNING WITHIN TAXONOMIES

It became apparent that the best way to develop a comprehensive
taxonomy suitable for the evaluation of learning was to consider it
through three categories (domains) that affect the process of learning:
cognitive behavior, affective behavior, and psychomotor behavior.

THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM

The first level of the taxonomy is knowledge. For Bloom (1956) and his
group,
knowing
was considered to be foundational to all other levels. It is remembering
what is known and demonstrating it by recitation or recall. The second
level is
comprehension. Comprehension goes beyond knowledge as the person is
able to
grasp, understand, and make some sense of information.
The understanding may
not be complete but is indicative of being able to do something with
what you know.
The third level of the six-tier taxonomy is application. At this level, the
student
can solve a problem or issue that is new by applying what is known and
understood
from other experiences.
The fourth level is analysis, in which
one knows, understands, and can apply information well enough to then
break it
down into component parts, examine how it is organized and the
relationships that
exist among the parts. Bloom considered this analysis as a necessary
“prelude” to
being able to evaluate the sixth and final level.
The fifth level is synthesis. This involves the ability to take parts, such
as pieces
of information and put them together to form something that was not
“clearly
present” before. This level is most closely linked with creativity.
However, it is not
viewed as complete freedom of expression since there are generally
some set guidelines
or restrictions.
The sixth and final level of the taxonomy is evaluation. This level
incorporates
all of the previous levels in order to judge (quantitatively and/or
qualitatively)
the value of what is being studied. Criteria or standards are used in
making such
judgments. This clearly differentiates it from opinions, which may exist
without full
awareness or conscious use of logical criteria. Bloom did not see
evaluation as the last
step of the cognitive levels but as the real connection to the affective
domain, which is concerned with values.

In the new variant, nouns were replaced by action verbs. Also, the two
highest levels of the taxonomy were swapped. The new learning stages
are Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate and Create. The
authors also defined cognitive processes associated with these
instructional goals. For example, the ability to remember requires
recognizing and recalling.

The Affective Domain of Krathwohl

The affective domain is concerned with feelings

or emotions that are expressed as values and interests. This domain
includes
ethical and moral behaviors. Learners move from being aware of what
they are learning to a stage of having internalized the learning so that it
plays a role in guiding their actions.”
In valuing, students make choices and internalize the value of that
choices. It
implies that something has worth. Subcategories include acceptance of a
value by
being able to consistently describe its worth; preference of the value by
seeking it
out to fulfill a desire for it; and commitment, which is activated when
the learner
develops deep convictions about the value to the point of trying to
convince others
of the value, for example, “right to life” or “right to choose.” The final
level is organizing,
in which the learner is able to examine values, determine the most
significant
values, and organize them, even if some conflict with others.

The Psychomotor Domain of Simpson, Dave, and Harrow

There are three psychomotor taxonomies in education.

First, Simpson consists of:

• Perception: tuning into sensory cues (verbs: distinguish, identify,
select)
• Set: readiness to act (verbs: assume a position, demonstrate, show)
• Guided response: occurs early in the skill and indicates that the learner
is capable of completing the steps (verbs: attempt, initiate, try)
• Mechanism: can perform a complex skill at an intermediate stage (do,
act upon, complete)
• Complex overt response: involves correctness in performing the skill
(verbs: operate, carry out, perform)
• Adaptation: can modify skills in a new situation (verbs: adapt, change,
modify)
• Origination: creative ability to develop an innovative, unique skill that
replaces one that was learned (verbs: create, design, invent).

Second, Harrow developed a taxonomy based on reflex movement,

basic fundamental movements, perceptual abilities, skilled movements,
and non-discursive communication. The taxonomy is organized by
degree of coordination. At the lowest level, reflex movements include
automatic reactions. The next level, basic fundamental movement,
involves simple movements that can build to more complex sets of
movements. At the perceptual level, environmental cues are used to
adjust movements. Perceptual abilities at this level are described as
tactile, visual, kinesthetic, visual, auditory, and coordinated, whereas
physical abilities are described as agile, flexible, endurance, and
strengths. The level of nondiscursive communication is expressive and
interpretive, as in the use of body language.

Third, Dave published a taxonomy on constructivism including

imitation, manipulate, precision, articulation, and naturalization. The
taxonomy was based on neuromuscular movement and coordination and
underlies criteria proposed by Reilly and Oermann (1990), which were
based on a developmental approach to competency. The criteria for each
level, according to Reilly and Oermann, are:
• Imitation level: occasional errors are apparent in the necessary actions
of the skill and are accompanied by some weakness of gross motor
actions, and the time required to complete the skill is dependent on the
learner’s need (verbs: attempt, copy, duplicate, imitate, mimic)
• Manipulation level: coordination of movements occurs with some
variation in the time required to complete the actions of the skill (verbs:
complete, follow, play, perform, produce)
• Precision level: a logical sequence carries activities through to
completion, almost free of errors in noncritical actions, although the
speed of completion continues to be a concern (verbs: achieve
automatically, excel expertly, perform masterfully)
• Articulation level: logic is evident in the coordinated actions, few if
any errors are
noted, and the time required to execute the skill is considered reasonable
(verbs: customize, originate)
• Naturalization level: professional competence is noted in the skill
performance that is automatic and well-coordinated (verbs: naturally
performs and perfectly performs)

The Holistic Taxonomy of Hauenstein

Hauenstein (1998) proposed a taxonomy that synthesized cognitive,

affective, and
Psychomotor learning into a fourth domain he called the “behavior
domain.” He felt the original taxonomy lacked integration and
connection, both of which he considered necessary in order to achieve a
holistic curriculum that focused on student understanding,
skills and dispositions. He reduced the categories of the first three
domains from six to five. The cognitive domain involved the process of
knowing and the development of intellectual abilities and skills. The
affective domain is directed toward developing dispositions in relation to
feelings, values, and beliefs. The psychomotor domain is defined as the
development of physical abilities and skills that result from the input of
information and content.
The behavioral domain is the “tempered demeanor” that one displays as
a reaction to a social stimulus, an inner need, or both. The behavioral
domain consists of acquisition, assimilation, adaptation, performance,
and aspiration. The acquisition objective is the process of understanding,
perceiving, and conceptualizing new information. Assimilation
involves comprehending concepts in relation to prior knowledge and
explaining it in his or her own terms. Adaptation involves the ability to
modify knowledge, skills, or dispositions to conform to an established
standard or criterion. Performance is the ability to analyze, qualify,
evaluate, and integrate information with personal values and beliefs so
that it becomes ingrained and able to be repeated in either new or routine
situations.

Fink Taxonomy of Significant Learning

The Fink taxonomy grew from the work of Bloom but added major
Considerations in the areas of motivation and human interaction. The
taxonomy is circular versus hierarchical and is composed of six
categories: foundational knowledge, application, integration (making
connections), human dimension (student learning about themselves and
others. why one does what one does), caring, and learning how to learn.
The taxonomy sees learning as multidirectional and that significant
learning requires alignment among learning goals, learning activities and
learning assessment.

Biggs SOLO Taxonomy

The Biggs, Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO)
distinguishes five levels of learning by their cognitive processes. It
offers a way to view the progression of learning from surface to deep.
This is accomplished by moving through cognitive processes that grow
in complexity: prestructural: not knowing about the concept or area,
unistructural: knowing one facet of the concept or area, multistructural:
knowing several aspects of the concept or area, relational integrating
those aspects into a whole, and extended abstract, knowledge can be
generalized to other areas.
The Fink and SOLO taxonomies have been most frequently used at the
course level. The SOLO taxonomy in particular is often used in the
evaluation of writing development. However, the utility of each could be
a basis for progression through a curriculum of study such as nursing,
which is concerned with learner development in areas including human
interaction, motivation, and communication.

CRITICAL THINKING AND TAXONOMY

decision-making is a term that is becoming more frequently used in

nursing programs and in clinical practice. However, critical thinking is
foundational in decision-making in order to ensure that safe, reasoned
actions result. This ability to “think through” various situations is
therefore crucial for clarity and discernment among various options.
Many educators are moving toward a more facilitative role that
incorporates active learning strategies. This approach helps to ensure
what and how much is taught is associated with how student thinking
develops. It promotes using that knowledge in situations that can then be
assessed. Supporting students and acknowledging their accomplishments
promote a learning environment that is safe, comfortable, and positive.
This atmosphere promotes self-confidence and courage to explore
different and creative ways to consider issues and the effects of
decisions.
The diversity of previous learning experiences means that students may
come from backgrounds in which learning has been passive. Nurse
educators see the results of this in students who may come to class
unprepared and resist active learning through disengagement or
disruption. Critical thinking is complex and takes time to develop. Nurse
educators need to be persistent in engaging students and maintaining
expectations for preparation. Critical thinking is apparent at the higher
levels of the taxonomy and elements of critical thinking exist at every
level. acknowledged that problem-solving associated with critical
thinking is based on knowledge and the ability to apply the knowledge
to new situations and problems. The need for nursing programs to
develop and assess critical thinking skills in students was advanced by
the detailed qualities of critical thinkers and various assessments that can
be used to determine if critical thinking is developing in students.

ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Active learning involves such strategies as inquiry-based learning,

problem-based learning, case studies, team-based learning, discussion,
questioning that probes thinking, concept mapping, focused reflection,
self-assessment, learning portfolios, projects, simulations, interactive
computer modules, and writing assignments. Activities may be
individual or occur through collaboration within groups.
Collaborative activities promote abilities to learn from one another,
work within teams, develop social and communication skills, and
develop critical thinking skills through active discourse with one
another. Developing, implementing, and evaluating active learning
strategies take a good deal of thought and time. The activity should
correlate with course objectives and connect content to applying and
creating new ideas and solutions. Developing active learning strategies
that are reflective and authentic or world focused” can help to motivate
learner engagement and critical thinking skills. Assessments to gauge
what students are learning are beneficial in making adjustments in the
course such as content emphasis and more application using different
situational contexts. The many types of active learning strategies allow
for assessment of learning beyond multiple-choice tests. Nursing
programs can reflect the need for ongoing assessment as early as
the philosophy statements. It can be realized through the use of
outcomes that are subjected to periodic assessment. This can further
facilitate success in achieving intended learning outcomes.