Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Review article

Grid integration impacts and control strategies for renewable

based microgrid
Sana Fazal a, *, Md Enamul Haque a, Mohammad Taufiqul Arif a, Ameen Gargoom a,
Aman Maung Than Oo b
a
Deakin University, 75, Pigdons Road, Waurn Ponds, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
b
Auckland University of Technology, 55 Wellesley Street East, Auckland 1010, New Zealand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Microgrids are electricity distribution systems containing renewable or non-renewable-based distributed energy
Hierarchical systems resources (DERs), storage devices, and loads, which operate either in grid-connected mode or islanded mode.
Grid integration Their integration with the distribution network requires hierarchical control structure for maintaining stable
Primary control
operation and control, which is otherwise challenging due to several technical challenges related to the large-
Secondary control
Tertiary control
scale integration of inverter-based resources (IBR). Hence, this paper first identifies these major challenges
and then presents a comprehensive review of state-of-the-art hierarchical control structure for meeting expected
functionalities. Emergence of advanced control trends, such as rise of cooperative distributed control method­
ologies and unification of the traditional three layers of the hierarchical control into fewer (two or one) layers
considering applications and operation, are also described.

Introduction
A microgrid is a controllable entity incorporating DERs, storage
systems and loads, capable of operating in islanded or grid-connected
mode. It can reliably integrate renewable and non-renewable-based
DERs for supplying reliable electrical power to local customers [1,2].
Renewable energy based decentralized and distributed microgrids are
desirable for mitigating rising emissions and achieving future renewable
energy target. Vulnerabilities of relying on conventional generation
sources such as rising emission levels and fuel supply disruptions in
diesel generation, pave the way for realizing renewable based DERs as a
practical means of delivering reliable electrical power [3,4]. Yet,
intermittent nature of renewables cannot guarantee continuous power
generation. The fluctuating output power from solar systems or wind
turbines impacts the power quality [5,6]. Although a microgrid is an
appealing alternative for integrating renewable DERs, significant efforts
are required in designing robust control systems to ensure microgrid’s
secure, reliable, and economical operation.
Integration of DERs poses unique challenges, which must be miti­
gated to harness full potential of microgrids. Several key issues include:
(a) controlling power electronic interface of renewable DERs with
intermittent and non-dispatchable output power, (b) maintaining power
balance to keep grid voltage and frequency within acceptable opera­
tional limits, (c), mitigating harmonics in small-scale islanded microgrid
systems due to presence of unbalanced and non-linear loads, and IBR
units, (d) designing secure communication systems for microgrids for
protection against cyber-attacks, and (e) correctly modelling unbal­
anced conditions and disturbances in microgrid systems [7,8,9]. Recent
studies have seen a major shift towards dividing these control tasks
among different units, which gives rise to the development of decen­
tralised, distributed, and hierarchical control techniques [10]. With
increasing number of distributed generation (DG) units integrated in
microgrid systems, each sub-system can maintain its own stability and
control objectives with negligible interaction among units in a decen­
tralised control setting [11]. However, owing to potential cascading
overloading events occurring among sub-systems in such an environ­
ment, distributed control techniques use coordinated interaction among
units for assigning control tasks [12]. When this coordination is ach­
ieved based on different operational time-scales, this gives rise to the
idea of the hierarchical control topology (primary, secondary and ter­
tiary controls) [13].
As power electronic converters connect most DG units into the
microgrid system, these units can be termed as grid-forming, grid-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sfazal@deakin.edu.au (S. Fazal), enamul.haque@deakin.edu.au (M. Enamul Haque), m.arif@deakin.edu.au (M. Taufiqul Arif), a.gargoom@
deakin.edu.au (A. Gargoom), aman.oo@aut.ac.nz (A.M.T. Oo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103069
Received 16 September 2022; Received in revised form 7 December 2022; Accepted 23 January 2023
Available online 1 February 2023
2213-1388/Crown Copyright © 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Fazal et al.
following, and grid-supporting units, which require specific converter
control strategies. Primary control is used for regulating the output
voltages and currents of these inverters, while maintaining system sta­
bility and achieving accurate power sharing among these units [14–16].
Earlier control techniques applied to microgrids were limited to classical
droop techniques for power electronic interfacing DERs [17–19]. These
were under the assumption that an inverter’s output impedance is
purely inductive. However, under line impedance mismatches among
parallel-connected inverters, conventional droop proved to be inade­
quate in achieving accurate reactive power sharing. Various studies
have thus proposed alternate versions of conventional droop methods
for achieving this control objective [20–22]. Spatially distributed
inverter-based microgrids need sophisticated control techniques to
tackle their coordination and synchronisation constraints. Hence,
application of novel non-droop/communication-based control tech­
niques has also increased [23–25].
Secondary control mitigates frequency and voltage deviations in a
microgrid system. While traditional secondary control relied on a cen­
tral Microgrid controller (MGCC) to measure parameters and control all
DG units, modern literature has adopted distributed secondary control
schemes with communication systems [26–28]. MGCC may also embed
Tertiary control, which is responsible for global system economic opti­
misation. It communicates with the upstream network for optimum
resource allocation and enables feasible microgrid operation [29–32].
Since there is a lot of literature revolving around various forms of
microgrid control, the objective of this paper is to outline the evolution
of control in microgrids and provide a comparative analysis of these
approaches. Several works have already provided detailed reviews of
various microgrid control principles [13,33,34]. For instance, various
control schemes of microgrids from a system of systems (SoS) perspec­
tive have been discussed in [35]; however, primary focus is laid on
extending SoS perspective to microgrids. Authors in [36] reviewed
microgrid basics while highlighting future challenges and prospects
from a multi-disciplinary perspective, such as legal and regulatory is­
sues, and economic issues surrounding microgrids’ implementation.
Authors in [9] provided a review on microgrid control technology while
solely focusing on energy storage systems (ESSs), whereas authors in
[37] provided a thorough literature review on functional-layer based
classification of microgrid control. Since research in microgrid control is
intensified, this paper provides a summary of contemporary microgrid
controls, its applications, and challenges for future research. This paper
focuses on:
i. Challenges and impacts of renewable based microgrid in power
grid which include intermittency issues, power quality issues,
voltage and frequency fluctuations, and cyber-security issues,
ii. Providing an overview of state-of-the-art hierarchical control
strategies, such as multi-agent system (MAS), Model-Predictive
control (MPC) at inverter and system level, Consensus-based
leader and leader-less approaches, and artificial intelligence-
based control strategies,
iii. Identifying and placing various control strategies from recent
literature in the three levels of hierarchical control: (i) primary,
(ii) secondary and (iii) tertiary. This classification is beneficial for
researchers to differentiate between control levels based on their
operational time-scale and infrastructure requirements, and
iv. Identifying challenges encountered in microgrid control for pro­
posing areas of future research.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows: Section 2 reviews
microgrid basics and architectures. Section 3 identifies challenges per­
taining to integration of renewable-based microgrids with the power
grid, with section 4 summarising IEEE DG interconnection re­
quirements. This is essential to understand future control system re­
quirements for microgrids. Section 5 then encapsulates hierarchical
microgrid control which embeds all the standard interconnection
2
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
requirements with robust control layers for mitigating all the intercon­
nection issues. Section 6 finally concludes this paper.
Microgrid concept
Microgrid can be viewed as a single complex system or as SoS [35],
whereby each micro-source (Photovoltaic, diesel generator, etc.) con­
stitutes a sub-system and coordinates with others to deliver safe, reliable
and economic electrical power. A generic microgrid structure consists of
microsource and load controllers (MCs and LCs, respectively), genera­
tion sources, ESS for eliminating power fluctuations and imbalance,
loads, and a point of common coupling (PCC) for connecting/dis­
connecting the microgrid with the main grid, causing it to operate under
grid-connected mode or islanded mode, respectively [38]. A microgrid
central controller (MGCC) is also typically established to properly
manage energy balance and DERs in the microgrid system. MCs locally
monitor operating states and information of DERs to pass onto MGCC,
which processes the information to dispatch nominal set-points to each
DER controller for execution [39].
Generally, microgrids can be broadly classified as AC, DC or hybrid,
contingent upon the type of sources, load and distribution network.
However, rich and extended microgrid structural designs can be found
in the literature. For instance, the microgrid architecture proposed by
authors in [40] consist of three feeders with sensitive loads which can
island from the grid using a static switch. It also consists of 4 micro-
sources with autonomous peer-peer control mode and several non-
sensitive loads with fault ride-through capability. A similar topology is
presented by authors in [41] which uses three distribution feeders to
supply residential critical and non-critical loads with renewable DERs.
These are examples of the most used typical single bus topology
microgrids as shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (b), which are well suited for low
and medium voltage networks. Other generic microgrid architectures
may include (a) multiple bus topology for increased reliability for an
urban community and (b) multi-level topology for spanning larger areas
with geographically scattered DERs [42]. These are shown in Fig. 2(a)
and (b).
Traditionally, most research has been devoted to understanding and
improving AC microgrids due to their compatibility with existing AC
grid infrastructure. These improvements include reactive and active
power sharing accuracy, power quality, and frequency regulation.
However, DC microgrids are more reliable and efficient than AC
microgrids as they do not contain problems associated with unbalances,
synchronisation, and harmonics. Improvements in dc microgrids include
implementing coordinated control strategies and energy management
algorithms for voltage regulation. Hybrid microgrids comprises of ac
and dc distribution architectures, and ac and dc based DERs in the same
grid. Since the storage units and DERs are directly connected to either
the ac or dc grid, synchronisation is not required. Hence, hybrid
microgrids are an appealing means of integrating upcoming renewable
energy DERs and electric vehicles with minimum modification of cur­
rent distribution grid with reduced total cost [43].
Since controllability distinguishes microgrids from the rest of the
distribution system, control and management becomes challenging
[44]. As microgrids can operate under two modes, grid-connected and
islanded, the control is usually designed with different control strategies
for the two modes, i.e., electronically interfaced DG units exist in various
architectures and working conditions, grid- forming, grid-following, or
grid-feeding. The main challenges and requirements for MCs, LCs and
MGCCs is to then export excess power or import deficient power through
the inverter in grid-connected mode and regulate voltage and frequency
for achieving local power balance in islanded mode.
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Fig. 2. Multiple-bus topology microgrids: (a) Hybrid, and (d) Series connected
DC microgrids.

ii. Enabling bidirectional energy exchange between microgrids for

energy management [54]
iii. Deploying ESSs for smoothing renewable energy output and
reducing medium frequency deviations down to levels of 20–40
% [55,56,57]
iv. Developing adaptive damping control strategies associated with
wind farm for fulfilling grid code requirements [58]
Fig. 1. Microgrid single-bus topology structures: (a) Single-bus AC, and (b) v. Enabling load curtailment for improving energy balance [59]
Single-bus DC. vi. Integrating dispatchable generators for providing backup during
low renewable energy resource generation [60]
Challenges and impacts of renewable-based microgrid on power vii. Adopting MPC-based smoothed wind power input to electrical
grid systems for reducing low frequency oscillations, associated with
medium band wind power with greater fluctuation rate [61]
Intermittency of renewable-based resources viii. Utilising hybrid techniques combining two or more intermittency
mitigation techniques [62]
Innovations in IBR in microgrids has advanced enormously, the
unpredictability of which can lead to significant problems in operation System inertia and frequency stability
of the power system. Power generation levels may fluctuate, making the
microgrid susceptible to voltage and frequency deviations at PCC. Any mismatch between power supply and demand in an electrical
Moreover, as stochastic wind power penetration levels are rising in power system will result in frequency change proportional to the inertia
microgrids, adverse impacts associated with medium frequency range of the system. Equations (1)-(4) below describe these changes in system
(between 0.01 Hz and 1 Hz) power fluctuations are more prominent dynamics [63].
[45]. Hence, control systems have to be designed to suppress these ∫
integration issues [46,47,48]. Extensive literature has revolved around J = r2 dm = r2 m (1)
mitigating renewable energy resources intermittency for efficient plan­
ning and operation [49,50,51]. These can be broadly categorised into
1
eight different types including: K.E = J ω2m (2)
2
i. Introducing multiple renewable energy resources for com­ d
(
1 2
)
plementing each other for improving power output profile = Jω = Pm − Pe (3)
dt 2 m
[52,53]

3
S. Fazal et al.
K.E 12 J ω2m
H= = (4)
S S
The inertia and kinetic energy of synchronous generator are given by
equations (1) and (2), where r denotes the radius of rotational part of
synchronous generator, m represents the mass in kg and ωm denotes the
steady-state angular rotor speed. The swing equation in (3) demon­
strates the direct relationship between average accelerating power and
the stability of the power system. Any discrepancy between mechanical
(Pm ) and electrical (Pe ) power causes ωm to change. Equation (4) defines
the inertia constant, H, as the resistance against frequency deviations
due to stored kinetic energy in rotating machines during power mis­
matches, where S represents generation capacity of the power system
under study. In traditional power systems, kinetic energy of synchronous
generators provides stability under grid faults, or load and generation
variations, thereby limiting the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF);
however, high penetration of renewable IBR reduces mechanical inertia,
giving rise to higher ROCOF. The ROCOF denoted by equation (5) below
indicates frequency deviation after a rapid mismatch between genera­
tion and load as:
ROCOF =
ΔP*f
(5)
2S*H
where, ΔP denotes the power imbalance between generation and con­
sumption and f denotes the frequency of the system.
When a power system consists of a combination of synchronous
generator and a renewable energy resource contributing nothing to the
inertia of the system, frequency variations are higher, and if they exceed
a certain threshold value, the loads or IBR may trip. Consequently, a
microgrid with increased penetration of renewable energy resources
must withstand a severe ROCOF.
A comprehensive review of frequency regulation control strategies
available in wind energy systems either at individual wind turbine level
or wind farm level has been provided in [64]. A voltage-frequency
control for a microgrid proposed in [65] utilises V/f mode control to
keep voltage and frequency within acceptable limits. Battery reduces
frequency variations due to intermittent nature of renewable DERs.
Other approaches to improve microgrid inertia include:
i. Implementation of virtual inertia based synchronous generator
(VSG) control techniques in inverters [66],
ii. Utilisation of energy storage system to support frequency regu­
lation of PV-based microgrids [67],
iii. Emulation of non-linear oscillators with nominal AC grid fre­
quency as the natural frequency within the controls of an inverter
for its power stage regulation [68].
Voltage stability
Traditional power systems experience voltage instability due to long
transmission lines. However, as microgrids are characterised by short
feeder lines, voltage drops are relatively small. Nonetheless, with
microgrids evolving in current distribution networks, voltage instability
issues may rise. Currently, microgrids face voltage instabilities such as
really low steady-state and dynamic voltages, improper coordination of
DER reactive power vs voltage (QV) droop curves, inability of IBR DERs
to maintain steady voltage across the dc-link capacitor, and inability of
DERs to cater for demand increase in the long run [69].
Traditional power systems regulate reactive power by controlling
generator or compensated load terminal voltages. Microgrids however,
reflect any small changes in the DER terminal voltages to the entire
power system. Hence, system voltage controls are associated with DER
voltage control, and proper coordination of DER QV curves is then
necessary for mitigating voltage imbalance among buses, limiting high
circulating reactive currents, and preventing large voltage oscillations
[70]. These characteristics of a microgrid system worsen the total power
4
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
production and overall voltage profile during system disturbances [71].
Variations in reactive power sharing among multiple DERs in a
microgrid are traditionally curbed by utilising QV droop characteristics.
This is represented by equation (6) below as:
V
Q= [− RV2 sinδ + X(V1 − V2 cosδ)] (6)
R2 + X 2
where, V1 and V2 represent voltage magnitudes of two nodes in a
microgrid network separated by a line impedance Z = R + jX, and δ
denotes the phase angle difference between the two voltages.
For microgrids with large inductive feeders (X≫R) and small values
of δ, R can be neglected and sinδ≈δ and cosδ≈1. Hence, reactive power
directly couples with voltage magnitude; however, the premise of
microgrids being dominated by purely inductive lines is not valid as
inverters can have several variations of output impedances. Therefore,
this conventional droop mechanism typically does not achieve the
intended reactive power sharing accuracy. Several improved droop
/non-droop control techniques have thus been adopted for parallel-
connected inverters in DG systems, but more will be said on this in
Section 5.1.
Moreover, as voltage measurements vary across the entire microgrid
system, they cannot be used to enforce global reactive power sharing. If
maximum voltage droop can be defined by knowing network charac­
teristics of a microgrid system, voltage profile can be maintained within
acceptable limits.
Power quality and harmonics
Power quality problems have risen in small-scale islanded microgrid
systems due to presence of unbalanced and non-linear loads. IBR
generate harmonics, which when become large, cause excessive line
losses, circuit breaker tripping, communication failures, and over­
heating. Presence of distributed renewable energy resources in medium
voltage network gives rise to supraharmonics (current and voltage
waveform distortion in the range of 2–150 kHz) [72]. Grid code re­
quirements and standards have been imposed upon harmonics emission
for ensuring voltage and current waveforms compatibility with the grid.
All standards and requirements require current and voltage harmonic
distortion to be less than 5 %, except for stricter UK standards, requiring
current harmonics to be less than 3 % [73]. So far, no standards/limits
exist for supra-harmonics in the power system. Therefore, further
investigation and research is required into this for meeting customer
needs in a reliable and resilient manner. Existing literature surrounding
power quality mitigation techniques has been nicely summarised in
references [74] and [75] for readers to refer to.
Cyber-security issues
Physical electrical components, such as IBR, ESS and loads are
interconnected with information and communication technologies, with
their operations strictly governed by cyber system. High interaction
among these two systems lead to vulnerabilities, such as communication
failures, data safety, and mass data processing. Several studies have
analysed the cyber–physical system approach for microgrids and iden­
tified potential threats [76,77]. These have been summarised by authors
in [77] as:
i. Side channel attacks, which allow an attacker to selectively block
parts of system’s feedback control or hide power grid instabilities
ii. Distributed denial of service (DoS) attacks, which result in pro­
longed loss of legitimate access to the system
iii. Privacy leakage attacks on meters, which result in manipulation
of sensing or control signals, leading to unstable physical system
operation
S. Fazal et al.
iv. Malware and software threats such as Stuxnet, mounting to self-
destructing damages to microgrid elements
v. Theft of service attacks, resulting in vulnerabilities in SCADA
systems of grids.
Security of microgrids as cyber physical systems has been recognized
as a vital problem and many existing works have focused on attack
detection and isolation techniques. For instance, authors in [78] and
[79] propose novel cooperative mechanisms for detecting and miti­
gating well-planned set of balance attacks (stealth attacks) in the sec­
ondary voltage and frequency control sublayers. Under normal
operation, collaborative voltage and frequency secondary controllers
achieve the control objectives denoted by equation (7) as:
lim wk (t) = w* , lim Vav, dci (k) = Vdc
*
(7)
t→∞ k→∞
where, w* and Vdc *
represent the desired global system frequency and
voltage, respectively. However, under a cyber-attack, cooperative-based
consensus algorithm changes to equation (8) as:
wfk (t) = wk (t) + kwak , lim Vav, dci (k) = Vdc
a
(8)
k→∞
where, k = 1 represents an attack element denoted by wak and Vdc a
= Vdc
∕ *
. The first grid code requirement stipulates for the DER to regulate
Hence, under such circumstances, a cooperative vulnerability factor
and an event-driven attack-resilient controller mitigates stealth attacks
on voltage and frequency. Authors in [80] propose a resilience index-
based secondary frequency control for islanded ac microgrids. The re­
sults show a direct correlation between increasing the resilience index
and improved resistance of synchronization to false data injection cyber-
attacks. Moreover, DOS, Replay and false data injection attacks have
been modelled and studied for their impact on system variables of
voltage, frequency, and real and reactive powers in an independent ac
microgrid in [81]. It was observed that frequency channel was the most
susceptible communication link, with reactive power channel being the
least vulnerable. A secondary controller based on a reconfigurable
communication network keeps the microgrid system stable until the
cyber-attack has been identified and removed.
While detecting and counteracting cyber-security attacks is one way
of dealing with cyber-security issues in microgridsF, the second
approach involves developing distributed resilient control strategies for
mitigating the adverse effects of malicious attacks without detecting,
identifying, and then removing or recovering the compromised agents
[82–84]. For instance, a generalised extended state-observer (GESO)-
based distributed attack-resilient strategy for DC microgrids is proposed
by authors in [83]. The proposed method achieves accurate current
sharing and voltage regulation under a range of cyber-attacks (low-
frequency/grid-frequency/fifth-harmonics sinusoidal attack signals,
step signals and ramp signals). The developed resilient control strategy
provides a fast transient response with reduced communication burden,
as compared to adaptive compensation term-based or Sliding mode
observer-based control strategies in [85] and [86]. A distributed adap­
tive observer in [84] neutralises the effects of cyber-attacks against
sensors of DG units in single/three-phase microgrids for ensuring system
stability. The distributed containment approach controls each phase of
DG units independently and protects them against several cyber-attacks
on the communication links, information exchange, and local mea­
surements of/among DGs.
Nonetheless, microgrids need to have a self-healing ability to remain
operational in the presence of attacks. Contemporary methods need to
have a completely independent and automated restoration procedure
from TSOs to achieve system restoration [87]. At the converter level,
this may include automatically shifting to grid-forming mode, but design
requires plug and play control and stability analysis of converters. At the
grid level, cooperative awareness of multiple energy sources in a coor­
dinated way is required for sustaining microgrid operation.
5
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
Grid code requirements for DER integration
Conventionally, electric power systems (EPS) did not contain storage
and active generation at the distribution level. However, increasing
penetration of microgrids into the utility grid poses a need for power
system engineers to maintain system reliability and stability. Hence,
requirements and procedures to effectively integrate DERs into existing
power systems are developed by IEEE to effectively meet customer’s
electricity needs in a unified approach.
Defining two core functions i.e., dispatch function for computing and
distributing set-points for DERs and controllable loads, and transition
function for handling transition from grid-connected and islanded
modes, are the focus of the standard [88,89]. It discusses the following
operational aspects of DERs:
i. Voltage and reactive power control,
ii. Reactive power generation,
iii. Grid voltage and frequency tolerance,
iv. Fault ride-through capabilities,
v. Grid power quality and,
vi. Islanding and protection requirements.
voltage by controlling the amount of reactive power dispatch. The IBR
plant should be able to maintain a constant power factor by keeping the
reactive power within the capability limits, as specified by the TSO. It
should be able to regulate reactive power dispatch as a function of
voltage (VQ mode), see Fig. 3 (a), and active power (PQ mode), see Fig. 3
(b) [90].
The second grid code requirement necessitates DERs to inject (over-
excited) or absorb (under-excited) reactive power within the reactive
power capacity ranges specified in Table 1 for active power output levels
up to the maximum capacity [91]. The dispatched active power can be
higher or equal to minimum steady-state active power capacity (Pmin ), or
5 % of rated active power, Prated (kW). The demand for reactive power is
set by TSO, either locally or remotely. Here, category A contains mini­
mum performance requirements for low levels of DER penetration into
the grid while category B covers all additional requirements under high
DER penetration for reactive power generation.
Under the grid voltage and frequency tolerance requirement, DERs
are required to remain operational when the grid voltage and frequency
vary within tolerance band limits. However, grid disturbances might
lead to disconnection of IBR units. The abrupt disconnection causes
instability in the utility network hence, fault ride-through (FRT) capa­
bilities are imposed for IBR units to continue to act like active generation
sources. The FRT requirement covers a broad range of scenarios; (a)
zero-voltage ride-through, (b) low-voltage ride-through and (c) high-
voltage ride-through. The abnormal operating performance categories
are further classified as I, II and III, which specify technical settings for a
DER operating outside the continuous operating region. For instance,
abnormal operating performance Category III defines quality needs for
very high integration of DERs.
Discussion around power quality aspects in IEEE standard includes
limiting dc current injection, overvoltage contribution, rapid voltage
changes, flicker emission at PCC, and harmonic current distortion. The
injection of dc current by any DER must be limited to no more than 0.5 %
of full rated output current. Rapid voltage changes in the RMS voltage at
PCC at medium voltage level should not be more than 3 % of nominal,
and 3 % per second averaged over a period of one second. For low
voltage operation, the DER should limit step or ramp changes in RMS
voltage to less than 5 % of nominal value, and 5 % per second averaged
over a period of one second. Limits stated in Table 2 apply to inter-
harmonic current distortion, harmonic current distortion, and total
rated-current distortion (TRD) generated by DERs. Any other values may
be agreed upon by electric power system operator and DER operator
when DER is being used as an active filtering device.
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

transition function regulates control system operation during transitions

from grid-connected, and islanded modes and reconnection. It manages
transition for different scenarios: 1) planned islanding, 2) unplanned
Injection

islanding, 3) reconnection and 4) black start. IEEE standard requires the

DER to de-energise and trip within clearing time of 2 s-5 s under
Reactive Power (%)

Dead Band
Voltage (p.u.) intentional islanding. Among all the standard requirements for DERs,
, ,
FRT and protection capabilities are particularly the most important
ones.
Absorption

State-of-the art hierarchical control

Microgrids, characterised by multiple changes in configurations,

V L: Lower limit of voltage for distributed energy resources continuous operation require robust and adaptive controllers which can perform high-speed
V H: Upper limit of voltage for distributed energy resources continuous operation
computational critical tasks. The adoption of a hierarchical control
structure based on different time-scales is quite attractive, given fast
dynamics for controlling outputs and slower dynamics for economic
(a)
dispatching. A microgrid’s control architecture can be implemented in a
centralised or decentralised manner, consisting of communication lines,
a central controller, and local controllers. Centralized control uses
Reactive Power communication infrastructure and a central controller to control the
microgrid, while a decentralised control architecture uses local infor­
Injection mation and coordination among LCs, MCs and MGCCs to achieve control
objectives. While a central controller ensures global system operation by
being aware of each node in the system, susceptibility to single-point
failures and cyber-attacks makes the implementation of centralised
controllers infeasible on microgrids spanning large geographic areas
[92,77]. At the same time, a fully decentralised approach is also not
Active Power Active Power possible due to costly installation of additional equipment [13]. Hence, a
Absorption Generation
contemporary combination of both approaches, i.e., hierarchical
microgrid control is used which comprises of three functional layers; a)
primary (field level), b) secondary (microgrid level) and c) tertiary (grid
level) as shown in Fig. 4.
Although hierarchical microgrid control has been chosen as the
dominant mode of control, variable nature of renewable-based DERs and
Absorption loads is challenging these hierarchical control boundaries, causing
adoption of distributed and decentralized techniques for making
microgrid controllers more fast and adaptable [93,94].
Current research shows that plug and play operation can be achieved
(b) as accurately as possible by integrating the traditional three layers of the
hierarchical control structure into fewer levels (two or one) [95]. Due to
Fig. 3. Voltage-reactive power characteristic of DERs [91]. increase in distributed devices and systems, scalable control architec­
tures with integration of constraints (layering of controls and decom­
Table 1 position of objectives into sub-problems) on interactions/information
Minimum reactive power generation and absorption capacity. exchange between layers, commonly referred to as the laminar control
architectures, have been discussed in [96]. With these unified control
Category Active power (Pr ) Reactive power Reactive power
of DER operating range (% injection capacity absorption capacity architectures, the objective is to share minimum amount of information
of rated value) (% of rated value) (% of rated value) for reaching optimisation goals with reduced message traffic and well-
A 5 <Pr < 20 44 25 defined control functions among layers. However, further in-depth
B 5 <Pr < 20 44 44 investigation is required into the potential of unification of hierarchi­
cal levels for improving speed, efficiency, and optimality of microgrids.
Nonetheless, hierarchical microgrid control has been the dominant
Table 2
Maximum odd and even current harmonic distortion as percent of rated current mode of control so far, as scalable control architectures with well-
[91]. defined control functions are still maturing [97–99]. Hierarchical con­
trol not only achieves a successful compromise between fully centralized
Odd harmonic
h < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h < 50 TRD
and decentralised control schemes, but also successfully regulates many
controllable resources while meeting rigid performance requirements. It
4% 2% 1.5 % 0.6 % 0.3 % 5%
has a reliable and secure communication platform with interoperable
communication protocols. Hence, the following sections explain these
Even harmonic
three control layers (primary, secondary, and tertiary) in more detail.
h = 2 h = 4 h =6 8 ≤ h < 50
1.0 % 2.0 % 3.0 % Associated range as
specified above Control at primary level

Primary level controls consist of local controllers that regulate power

Islanding and protection requirements of the microgrid apparatus sharing between microsources, control voltage and current of power
require efficient implementation of the transition function, without the electronic converters, and stabilise system frequency. It is the first layer
microgrid elements being destroyed or causing an electric arc. The of control in a microgrid system which operates on the lowest time-scale

6
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Fig. 4. Hierarchical microgrid control architecture.

to apprehend initial deviations in frequency and voltage [100,101].
Deviations are minimised by relying on local measurements; hence,
communication infrastructure may or may not be needed (see Table 3).
As renewable-based microsources (AC or DC) are interfaced with
power electronic converters as either current source inverters (CSIs) or
VSIs, both inverter types can co-exist in a microgrid, operating as either,
grid-following or grid-forming mode; therefore, control becomes chal­
lenging. While a grid forming VSI provides voltage and frequency
regulation and is suitable for islanded mode of microgrid operation, a
grid following VSI controls active and reactive power, and does not
support frequency regulation.
Nonetheless, inner control of converters is necessary for regulating
output parameters of voltage and current, and for correct application of
outer control loops, i.e. droop/non-droop-based control and maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) [102]. The next sub-sections explore the
inner control dynamic behaviour of these two converter types and
examine outer power sharing control methods in more detail.
Grid-following: Inner current control
A DER interfaced with a grid-following VSI connected to a distribu­
tion network shown in Fig. 5 (a) exhibits the following three-phase
dynamic equation denoted by (9):
Vcabc − VPCCabc =
Lf diabc
+ Rf iabc
dt
Grid-following: Power and voltage control
The reference currents i*d and i*q are generated by a power controller
to regulate the amount of active and reactive powers dispatched by a
grid-following converter. Power components are expressed by equations
(14) and (15) below as:
P = VPccd id (14)
Q = − VPccd iq (15)
Thus, the outer loops of the active and reactive powers regulate the
powers P and Q to their nominal values, P* and Q* , to generate the dq-
axis current reference signals for the inner current control. The PCC
voltage, VPCC , can also be adjusted through iq as illustrated in Fig. 5(a).
Grid-forming: Inner voltage control
The control structure for grid-forming inverter is like grid-following
one (see Fig. 5(b)) except the two inner cascaded loops (voltage and
current) and an outer control loop. The reference voltages (Vd* and Vq* )
are tracked in the outer loop to generate i*d and i*q for an inner current
control loop. The dynamic equations for the voltage controller expressed
in dq-frame are denoted by (16) and (17) as:
Cf d
(9) VL = id − iLd + coCf VLq (16)
dt d

The currents and voltages in dq reference frame can be given by Cf d

VL = iq − iLq − coCf VLd (17)
equations (10)–(13) below as: dt q

Vcd − VPCCd = Rf id +
Lf did
− coLf iq (10) where, VL and iL represent load voltage and current, respectively.
dt Decoupling feed-forward terms are then introduced to eradicate the
coupling terms in voltage.
Lf diq
Vcq − VPCCq = Rf iq + + coLf id (11) Moreover, nominal frequency is added in the control structure to
dt
generate the angle, rather than relying on the PCC voltage angle for abc/
where, (10) and (11) are coupled by coLf and feed-forward terms are dq frame conversion. The dq reference currents are determined by
added for decoupling current control as shown in Fig. 5(a). The final dq- equations (18) and (19) below as [103]:
frame voltage is presented by (12) and (13) below.
i*d = uvd + iLd − coCf VLq (18)
Vcd = uid + VPCCd − coLf iq (12)
i*q = uvq + iLq + coCf VLd (19)
Vcq = uiq + VPCCq + coLf id (13)
k
Rf and Lf represent the filter resistance and inductance values with co where, uvd = lvd (kpd + ksid ) and uvq = lvq (kpq + siq ), and lvd and lvq are
denoting the grid frequency. PLL extracts the grid frequency and PCC voltage error measurement signals. Cf represents the filter capacitance
voltage angle, θpll while ensuring that the d-axis is aligned with the PCC value.
voltage. Here, uid = lid (kpi + ksii ) and uiq = liq (kpi + ksii ), with lid . and liq
Grid-forming: Outer droop control loop
being the error measurement signals corrected by the PI controller.
In grid-forming inverters, majority of power sharing methods rely on
droop control as an outer control loop for regulating the microgrid

7
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Table 3
Review of droop/non-droop-based power sharing techniques at primary level.
Application of Droop-based primary control methods
Method References Description Main features

Conventional Droop [116,117] Parallel-connected inverters controlled by frequency droop Communication independent, highly flexible, and reliable, and
and output voltage droop consisted of multiple cascaded control loops.
Angle Droop [118–120] Voltage angle and magnitude control real and reactive power, Less system frequency deviations were observed, and accurate power
respectively sharing was obtained but high value of droop gain may affect system
stability. Method can be extended to account for uneven power
generation and load profiles.
Virtual frequency Virtual frequency (ω ) and voltage (V ) control virtual powers
′ ′
Accurate decoupling of voltage and frequency achieved in resistive low
[107,121,122]
Droop (P’ and Q’), obtained by orthogonal frame transformation by voltage microgrids but operational limits of DGs must be considered in
an angle Ø control scheme.
Instantaneous Droop [123–125] Converter current sharing in DC microgrids achieved by Achieved good performance under transient conditions, minimised
calculating instantaneous virtual resistance values based on circulating currents and algorithm achieved equal current sharing.
droop index
Harmonic-based multi- [125–127] DC voltage harmonic frequencies and 3-D droop employing Minimised circulating currents, optimised power sharing and
dimensional Droop virtual impedances are used at DC and AC sides of a hybrid maintained system’s bus voltage around a nominal value. However,
microgrid, respectively trade-off exists between circulating current and circulating reactive
power.
Virtual Impedance Load current shared among converters by adding virtual Although proportional power sharing achieved in low voltage
[128–130]
Droop output impedance (ZD (s)) and reducing voltage losses by microgrids (R > X), the control scheme is communication dependent.
open-loop amplitude correction
Quadratic Droop [131–133] Proportional load and power sharing achieved by proposing Correctly mirrors behaviour of synchronous generators, automatically
controller quadratic voltage feedback controller regulates voltage and method can be extended to include non-uniform
R/X ratios in microgrid networks.
Application of Non-droop primary control methods
Robust Adaptive Droop [134–136] Distributed controllers communicate iteratively to find droop Accurate load sharing and DC bus voltage stability achieved with
characteristics of each DER unit in DC microgrids improved system transient response under various operating points in
DC microgrids.
Distributed adaptive [137–139] Voltage regulation and load sharing is achieved by Algorithm is not affected by loss of communication and adjusted virtual
droop communication among neighbouring converters in a DC impedances for proportional load sharing. Enhanced current sharing
microgrid and DC bus voltage were accuracy achieved but algorithm is subject to
microgrid data availability.
Robust Droop [140–142] Controller sets reference values of DERs for long-term power Control scheme obtained smooth mode transition, damped transient
controller sharing, whereby values of droop parameters are determined performance, but algorithm was subjected to full information
based on integrating cost function availability in microgrid network.
Average current [143–145] Control scheme contains three loops: a) voltage, b) inner- Average current information allows for accurate current sharing.
sharing current and c) outer current control loop Improved steady-state and transient responses were observed.

Circular chain [146–147] Current of previous inverter tracked by next, with first inverter It is a robust system with reduced interactive effects among converters.
tracking current of last to make a circular chain connection Accurate current distribution achieved.

frequency and voltage at PCC to their nominal values [38]. This is
achieved by emulating the behaviour of synchronous machines in steady
state with linear trade-off relationships between voltage and frequency
(V and f) and reactive and real powers (P and Q), respectively. Within
the frequency droop loop, frequency deviation is the input to the droop
block gain (m), which generates the droop reference power, P* . Simi­
larly, the reactive power loop has the voltage droop to set up a droop
reference power, Q* . The outer droop control can be mathematically
represented by equations (20) and (21) below as:
ω − ω* = − m(P − P* )
V − V * = − n(Q − Q* )
where,(ω − ω* ) and (V − V ) are the expressions for voltage and fre­
′
quency deviations from their desired values. Fig. 6 represents the
graphical relationship between the droop parameters.
The reference voltage generated by the droop control is fed to the
inner voltage control loop for processing nominal vs measured voltage.
The output of the voltage controller is the input to the current controller
with dq-frame reference current.
Given performance of conventional droop control is limited due to
output impedance mismatches of inverters in a microgrid system,
adoption of virtual impedance-based methods can successfully alleviate
these problems by increasing the X/R lines ratio [104]. However,
calculating the value of this impedance remains a challenging task once
power sharing gets altered due to changes in load and grid re-
configuration [105]. The study of more sophisticated droop functions
for accurate reactive power sharing is an active area of research then.
These solutions differ in concept, requirements, and applications (see
Table 3) but some of these control methods have been presented here as
follows:
i. A universal droop control in [106] and [107] whereby, both X
and R can no longer be neglected. The strong coupling between
both powers can be eradicated by introducing linear rotational
transformation matrix, T to achieve modified active and reactive
power, P and Q .
′ ′
ii. A consensus-based distributed voltage control in [108] for
(21) interconnected inverter-governed microgrids with inductive
power lines and arbitrary electrical architectures. The algorithm
(22) achieved accurate reactive power sharing while controlling all
voltage amplitudes to the nominal values.
iii. A consensus algorithm in [109] to modify output X and R of an
inverter for establishing a resultant controller which is capable of
correcting harmonic power sharing and eradicating circulating
harmonic currents.
iv. A power factor angle droop control in [110] for smoothly tran­
sitioning between islanded and grid-connected mode, which is
unaffected by transmission line impedance and load type in
standalone mode.
Grid-forming: non-Droop based control methods
It is worth mentioning that limitations of droop-controlled methods,
such as slow transient response and tedious tuning of control parame­
ters, has led to an increase in communication-based control methods for
converter control [111,112]. Non-droop/communication-based control

8
S. Fazal et al.
Fig. 5. Converter control topologies: (a) Grid-following, and (b) Grid-forming [103].
Fig. 6. Conventional P − f and Q − V droop characteristics.
methods provide improved voltage and frequency regulation under non-
linear loads and transient conditions. They can be implemented in a
centralised or decentralised topology, relying on communication infra­
structure for controlling energy from renewable DERs (see Table 3) [16].
Examples include a finite-control-set model-predictive control (FCS-
MPC) with reduced cost function calculations and calculation time in
[113], and intelligent control-based techniques such as fuzzy logic,
artificial neural network (ANN) and genetic algorithms [114].
Research in primary control level is extensive, yet pre-mature with
room for improvement. While droop control strategies are well
researched for microgrids with several stochastic variables, the main
focus here is to improve existing methods. Hence, novel methods, such
as Green-leaf hopper flame optimisation algorithm in [115] is used to
regulate voltage and frequency in an islanded microgrid closer to the
operating limits.
An adaptive back-stepping fractional-order sliding mode control
maintains DC voltage stability in a DC microgrid during load changes,
faults and uncertain generations and outperforms conventional PI con­
trollers in [148]. A multi-objective genetic algorithm based statcom
device is used in [149] to enhance microgrid stability and reduce os­
cillations in voltage, power and frequency at the point of common
coupling by optimising statcom controller’s gains without any delay in
the control signal.
9
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
Control techniques at secondary level
Secondary control corrects any deviations arising from primary
control of voltage and frequency in a microgrid system. It operates on a
lower time-scale to provide control commands to primary layer for
economic management and synchronisation of a microgrid network
with the utility. Secondary control is realised in a centralised or
decentralised topology to further reduce harmonics and unbalances in
power by regulating DERs based on their primary controllers (see
Table 4) [150]. MGCC takes up a central role for coordinating DERs and
optimising microgrid operation in a centralised topology [100]. Exam­
ples include:
i. A master–slave control strategy for picking a strong micro ter­
minal (master) for setting voltage and frequency set-points for
weaker micro terminals (slaves) in [151].
ii. AI-based energy management methods in [152] and [153] for
optimising microgrid operation, reducing grid power fluctua­
tions, increasing energy storage lifecycle and extracting
maximum power from renewable DERs.
iii. A cohesive voltage and frequency secondary control in [154] for
improving an islanded microgrid’s resilience and operation. A
central MGCC regulates primary droop curves of DERs for
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Table 4
Review of secondary control techniques.
Centralised secondary control methods
Method References Description Main features

MGCC and Master-Slave [151–165] MGCC sends instructions for each device based on input Novel and robust energy management method which achieved
control parameters such as powers, state-of-charge of batteries and dc steady state performance and performed well under severe
link voltage; master inverter controls slave inverters dynamic conditions.
Fuzzy logic controller [152,166,167] Maintain battery state-of-charge and power balance with Reduced fluctuations in power injected to grid with increased
fuzzy controller lifespan of storage system.
Neural network controller [153,168,169] Inputs include parameters of microgrid components Extracted maximum power from DERs and accurately regulated
and Reinforcement powers with minimised purchased energy. Also, improved usage
learning of ESS and minimised frequency deviations.
Centralised secondary [154,170,171] MGCC communicates set-points for generators whereby, Algorithm performed well under various renewable generation
controller values are determined by convergence process incorporating penetration and loading scenarios. Frequency and voltage were
Levenberg-Marquardt method also restored within acceptable limits at each bus, but trade-off
existed between operation point and system losses.
Hybrid-agent based [172,173] Maintain system parameters under a Hybrid MGCC and MAS- Distributed MAS system takes over centralised MGCC controller
secondary control based secondary control in islanded microgrid under communication failures and power quality and system
stability is always maintained.

Decentralised secondary control techniques

Distributed control [158,174,175] Dedicated local controllers with primary and secondary System is not affected by failure of a single unit and algorithm can
control achieve accurate active power sharing in high R/X microgrids.
MAS [176–178] Dedicated agent of each element of a microgrid aims at Power consumption followed production, reduced battery
minimising operational costs requests occurred during operation and accurate voltage and
frequency restoration was achieved in renewable-based DER
microgrids.
MPC [179–181] Novel control method based on Genetic algorithm for Improved microgrid management under uncertainties with
networked microgrids to optimise operation based on 24hr reduced computational time.
prediction horizon
Distributed MAS [182,183] Voltage controllers based on backstepping and sliding-mode Accurate voltage restoration achieved with improved
methods of MAS and NN, whereby information exchange performance under various load conditions with reduced
occurs between adjacent units chattering phenomenon.
Event-triggered [184,185] Sampled data-based occurrence-generated communication An initialisation-free algorithm with reduced consumption of
communication-based platform for information exchange at secondary level communication which achieved accurate active power sharing
control and frequency regulation.

restoring balance to reactive/active power and frequency/
voltage.
iv. An observer-based centralised fault-tolerant secondary method in
[155] for fault estimation and negation.
Although these methods perform well under various operating con­
ditions, heavy reliance on central communication makes them suscep­
tible to single point failures. Decentralised architecture on the other
hand, shares the responsibility of control optimisation among distribu­
tion network operator, MGCC and local controllers [13]. Decentralised
secondary control techniques use autonomous and dedicated local
controllers, utilising local information for minimising microgrid’s
operational costs, and supporting system parameters [11,156,157]. For
instance, a fully decentralised secondary control system comprising of
each DG unit’s primary and secondary controllers is proposed in [158].
The system restores voltage and frequency back to nominal values and
achieves accurate reactive power sharing. Secondary controllers are
placed between communication infrastructure and primary control, for
producing control signals for primary layer. Refer to Table 4 for more
implementations.
Control methods at tertiary level
Tertiary control being the highest layer of control in grid-connected
microgrids, regulates interaction with the overall distribution system
operation comprised of neighbouring microgrids and the upstream
network [33]. Refer to Table 5 for literature on tertiary control schemes.
Tertiary control operates at the lowest time-scale for economic dis­
patching, optimum operation scheduling and regulating bidirectional
power flow between main grid and microgrid [100,150,20]. While
centralised tertiary control schemes have been more widely adopted for
control of microgrids, a fully distributed tertiary control at each DG unit
has been implemented in [159]. The integrated control method consists
of distributed primary control (DPC), distributed secondary control
(DSC) and distributed tertiary control (DTC) for increased flexibility and
reliability. DPC is based on traditional droop control, whereas DTC is
based on a nonlinear droop control. The control law is represented by
equation (23) as:
fi = fp (Pi ) + fs (α,fi,meas) + ft (β, Pi , τi (Pi ) ) (23)
Here, α and β represent gain coefficients of DTC and DSC, respec­
tively, and fi and fi,meas denote the output frequency and measured fre­
quency, respectively. Other distributed tertiary control schemes are
being used to solve microgrid problems of black start operation, storage
energy management and total harmonic distortion regulation
[30,160–163].
Tertiary control also provides load balance and ensures smooth
transition between grid-connected and islanding modes. For instance,
authors in [164] provide a communication-based master slave-peer-peer
integration control strategy for smoothly switching between both
operative modes of a microgrid. Under grid-connected operation, the
microgrid regulates frequency and voltage while maintaining required
power generation, simultaneously. When the communication system
fails, microgrid runs under peer control strategy for increased robust­
ness. Moreover, in three phase distribution systems, single-phase loads
or unsymmetrical transmission lines can introduce voltage unbalances.
This may lead to deteriorated voltage sensitive equipment [187]. Ter­
tiary control can be used for equalising compensation efforts among
multiple DGs in an economical way. While additional compensation
apparatus, such as series or shunt active power filters in [189] and [190]
have been deployed for counteracting unbalances at the expense of
increased investment cost, authors in [187] propose a tertiary control to
attain ideal unbalance compensation and multiple-power-quality-level
(MPQL) control in a technically feasible way. This method enables
consideration of power quality requirements and compensation limits of
various buses and DGs in the system.

10
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Table 5 management of a household equipped with its own power and energy
Review of Techniques at tertiary level. storage unit is presented in [207]. The controller optimises storage unit,
Method References Description Main features predicts heat and electricity consumption, and exchanges energy with
an external supplier.
Master-slave and [164,186], Provide microgrid Resilient control against
peer-peer optimum operation communication failures Moreover, MPC application in controlling storage systems in
integration by considering due to incorporation of microgrids has been studied by researchers in
tertiary control multiple variables peer-peer control which [208,209,210,211,212,213] and [214]. A microgrid comprising of PV
under control established smooth and battery ESS is controlled under MPVC and MPPC combined control
switching between grid-
connected and islanded
strategy in [212]. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is
modes. controlled using MPC-based system for reducing ripples in harmonics
Tertiary [50,187] Control microgrid Microgrid voltage and related to control variables of current and voltage in [213].The efficacy
compensator variables of voltage current synchronized of the proposed control system lies in reducing eddy current losses in dc
and current to with desired power
current of superconducting coil, which can have positive effects when
exchange required exchange at PCC.
power at PCC However, large, applied to VSC and dc/dc chopper in SMES system in microgrids.
unbalanced currents Reference [214] uses MPC control strategy for managing dynamic power
flow if improperly flow between distributed storage energy modules in an AC microgrid.
operated. Non-linearities associated with lithium-ion batteries are modelled along
Genetic [187,188] Tertiary control Economic optimisation
algorithm- regulates global realised in higher level
with intermittent PV modules. Strategy is effective in terms of reducing
based tertiary power quality based power scheduling with computational times by a factor of 1000 with practical real-time
control upon objective unbalanced system applications.
function and system modelled and
constraints simplified.
Artificial Intelligence-based control methods
Distributed [159,30], Scheme consists of Regulated frequency,
control distributed local achieved optimum Physical modelling and numerical calculations of microgrid systems
controllers operation of DGs., and are no longer sufficient for designing robust control systems due to rise
particular to each improved microgrid in partial observability issues and uncertainties. Artificial intelligence-
DG dynamics and stability. based smart controllers such as ANN-based controllers, adapt to un­
certainties and do not require a priori knowledge of the system. Hence,
Contemporary control techniques there has been an increasing interest in their applicability in restoring
voltage and frequency, sharing load proportionally, providing protec­
This section introduces several popular modern control techniques tion, optimizing dispatch of power, and providing load forecasting in
based on literature. Compared with conventional linear controllers, microgrids [215–217].
these techniques provide superior dynamic performance during all A highly accurate long term prediction model of wind and solar
operating conditions, but with drawbacks such as chattering phenome­ energies and energy consumption of microgrid based on modified fruit
non and complex mathematical modelling (see Table 6) [191–194]. fly optimisation algorithm and Group Method of Data Handling neural
network has been developed for Favignana island in [218]. An artificial
Introduction to Multi-Agent system (MAS) neural network-based prediction tool for solar energy in [219] aids
MAS comprises of several intelligent agents working together to microgrids with their instantaneous control. Microgrid controllers
satisfy microgrid control objectives. Agents are characterised by au­ weigh results obtained from the prediction tool to predict energy pro­
tonomy, social interactive nature, reactivity and self-adaptability for vided by PV generators. Hence, back-up systems associated with
performing microgrid protection, control optimisation and market microgrid control such as fuel converters, switch on only when they are
operation [195,196,197,198]. A distributed MAS strategy decomposes needed. Moreover, other neural network-based controllers for regu­
complex large-scale power system into subsystems and harnesses intel­ lating microgrid voltage and frequency include:
ligent features of each sub-system for sharing information and coordi­
nating control. By managing several noncommunicative agents with a i. A neural network predictive controller (NNPC) for optimising the
central controller, MAS utilises identical agents to make autonomous performance of virtual synchronous generators in low voltage
decisions regarding their control actions in a centralised setting. Finally, (non-inductive) microgrid networks in [220]. The controller
by characterising agents based upon their level of authority, MAS uti­ consists of neural network block for modelling the system and
lises hierarchy to optimise microgrid control in a hierarchical environ­ optimiser for optimising the error.
ment. MAS techniques applied at primary, secondary and tertiary level ii. A neural network control at the secondary level of a microgrid
in a hierarchical setting have agents in each layer which differ in the network in [221]. The secondary controller stabilizes system
control roles assumed and rely on communication channels for infor­ voltage and frequency after being subjected to various distur­
mation exchange and autonomous operation [199,200,201]. The con­ bances such as grid disconnection and variation in system pa­
nectivity of agents, their control tasks as well as the type of information rameters (turbine gain, automatic voltage regulator gains and
shared, determine the overall performance of the system under control. time constant).
It should be mentioned that these three levels have same control ar­ iii. A neural network based PID controller in microgrid communities
chitecture and design methodology as the common MAS architecture. for minimising frequency deviation in [222]. The trained neural
network optimised the PID gain values associated with the lowest
MPC-based techniques at grid level value of frequency deviation after being subjected to 5000
MPC has gained popularity in modelling microgrids for solving dy­ random input and output data sets.
namic economic optimisation problems [202,203,204]. Like the
converter-level MPC, grid-level MPC contains three main features, i.e., Although neural network-based implementations are gaining
predictive model, solving algorithm and cost function. However, it dif­ tremendous importance in microgrid domain, it has not yet been fully
fers from the previous such that it optimizes performance of the overall explored in networked microgrids. Hence, future research scope should
microgrid system subjected to multiple objectives and constraints include investigating power sharing, optimal power flow management
[205,206]. For instance, an MPC-based controller for energy and independent market trading techniques in networked microgrids.

11
S. Fazal et al.
Table 6
Summary of main characteristics of control techniques [114].
Linear Artificial Intelligence (ANN, MPC
Fuzzy Logic)
Control complexity Medium High Low-
Medium
Model and Needed Not needed Needed
Parameters
Prior knowledge Not Needed Not Needed
Needed
Constraint No No Yes, possible
Inclusion
Performance Average Good Good-
excellent
Reinforcement learning (RL)-based techniques
Classical controllers cannot run effectively under system distur­
bances, such as reconfiguration and connection of a new DG/ESS/load.
Such events occur frequently in microgrids, which can change their
dynamics. In this context, advanced control methods such as RL-based
control techniques work by improving agent actions while maximising
the reward function [223]. RL can be mathematically expressed as a
Markov decision process, comprising of an agent, a reward signal, and
the environment. An agent interacts with its environment to return its
present state and respective reward (deterministic and stochastic) [224].
Several RL-based control implementations in literature include:
i. A reinforcement learning (RL)-based secondary frequency control
of microgrids in [225] converges the frequency signals of DG
units to their nominal value of 50 Hz in a very short interval of
time, after being subjected to transmission parameter variations
or connected resistive/ inductive load changes. The active power
levels are maintained below the ratings, without the need to
inject high instantaneous power to the grid.
ii. A distributed secondary control of frequency and voltage resto­
ration based on RL for droop-controlled MAS-based multi
microgrids is proposed in [226]. Each agent calculates its local
frequency and voltage, and all agents communicate the global
information. RL-based pinning agents regulate other existing
agents to the nominal values of voltage and frequency, which are
updated every 0.1 s.
iii. A four-bus battery ESS is simulated to study the developed
asynchronous advantage-actor critic based multi-agent RL algo­
rithm in [227]. The efficacy of the proposed solution is achieved
when frequency regulation and SoC balancing coordination is
achieved simultaneously under DoS attacks.
Consensus leader and leader-less based methods
With the application of multi-agent concept in microgrids, consensus
theory has been used as the basic theory for coordinated control of
agents [228]. Each agent uses local information and consensus protocol
to mutually coordinate with neighbouring agents for reaching a
consensus state.
The application of consensus algorithm for restoring microgrid
voltage and frequency has been realised at the secondary level of hier­
archical microgrid control [229,230]. This has been more prominent in
designing consensus-based cooperative control strategies for coordi­
nating both, grid-forming and grid-following inverters [231,232]. Since
both inverter types are essential for ensuring microgrid plug-and-play
capability and ensuring maximum renewable energy sources’ uti­
lisation, cooperative control study of grid-forming and grid-following
inverters has been presented by authors in [231]. A model unification
method is employed for combining control states and developing a
universal second-order input-to-voltage control mode of several DGs for
regulating their voltages to a reference consensus range.
Moreover, a leader–follower consensus based algorithm for
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
RL Consensus/MAS
Low online but High Medium-High depending upon network topology and nature of
offline interactions among agents
Not needed Needed
Not needed in model Not Needed
free RL
Yes Yes
Sub-optimal Excellent
frequency/voltage restoration and power sharing among grid following
and grid-forming units is proposed in [232]. Grid-forming units serve as
leaders whereas grid-following units serve as followers. The proposed
controller establishes the necessity of achieving coordination among
units for regulating equal active power sharing, keeping circulating vars
within limits and restoring frequency back to the nominal values under
disturbances.
Consensus control has also been applied for energy management in
microgrid systems [233–235]. For instance, the economic dispatch
problem with a quadratic cost function for a microgrid comprising of 5
buses in [236] is solved by consensus theory. The optimal incremental
cost of each bus is calculated for meeting the demand and supply bal­
ance. The application of consensus algorithm in optimising the eco­
nomic energy dispatch of microgrids is promising. As a future research
direction, how to leverage this theory for achieving coordination be­
tween several dynamic units (ESS, DGs, etc.) of a microgrid system is
worth exploring.
Conclusion
This paper outlined the research development in microgrid control
and critically analysed the three hierarchical levels: primary, secondary,
and tertiary. It provided a systematic classification of several control
methods published in literature in these three categories and further
identified centralized, distributed, and decentralized control methods.
The published literature showed several droop and non-droop based
active and reactive power sharing methods present at primary level with
further room for improvement.
Furthermore, secondary level control was also presented, aimed at
apprehending secondary voltage and frequency errors arising from pri­
mary control of a microgrid, and providing optimal economic manage­
ment. This was done by an MGCC regulating specific areas of a microgrid
system either in a centralised or decentralised topology.
Finally, tertiary level control in a microgrid system was highlighted,
aimed at determining the optimal energy flow within a microgrid system
and obtaining a cost-effective system operation. This was achieved by
coordinating neighbouring microgrids with the upstream/distribution
electric power system considering microgrid projects dynamics and
external factors. It was further observed that combination of contem­
porary control techniques is rising for providing more robust microgrid
control. Rise of cooperative control methods and blurring of hierarchical
control levels require further investigation as the means for potentially
improving operational stability/reliability in microgrid applications.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sana Fazal: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing –
review & editing. Md Enamul Haque: Supervision, Writing – review &
editing. Mohammad Taufiqul Arif: Supervision, Writing – review &
editing. Ameen Gargoom: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Amanullah Maung Than Oo: Writing – review & editing.
12
S. Fazal et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069

Declaration of Competing Interest [29] Mohammed A, Refaat SS, Bayhan S, Abu-Rub H. Ac microgrid control and
management strategies: Evaluation and review. IEEE Power Electron Mag 2019;6
(2):18–31.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [30] Dörfler F, Simpson-Porco JW, Bullo F. Breaking the hierarchy: Distributed control
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence and economic optimality in microgrids. IEEE Trans Control Network Syst 2015;3
the work reported in this paper. (3):241–53.
[31] Xin H, Zhao R, Zhang L, Wang Z, Wong KP, Wei W. A decentralized hierarchical
control structure and self-optimizing control strategy for FP type DGs in islanded
Data availability microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2015;7(1):3–5.
[32] Meng L, Dragicevic T, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Tertiary and secondary control
levels for efficiency optimization and system damping in droop controlled DC–DC
No data was used for the research described in the article. converters. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2015;6(6):2615–26.
[33] Vasilakis A, Zafeiratou I, Lagos DT, Hatziargyriou ND. The evolution of research
References in microgrids control. IEEE Open Access Journal of Power and Energy 2020;7:
331–43.
[34] Y. Zhou and C. N.-M. Ho, “A review on microgrid architectures and control
[1] R. H. Lasseter, “Microgrids,” in 2002 IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter
methods,” in 2016 IEEE 8th International Power Electronics and Motion Control
Meeting. Conference Proceedings (Cat. No. 02CH37309), 2002, vol. 1: IEEE, pp.
Conference (IPEMC-ECCE Asia), 2016: IEEE, pp. 3149-3156.
305-308.
[35] Mahmoud MS, Rahman MSU, Fouad M-S. Review of microgrid architectures–a
[2] Murugaperumal K, Srinivasn S, Prasad GS. Optimum design of hybrid renewable
system of systems perspective. IET Renew Power Gener 2015;9(8):1064–78.
energy system through load forecasting and different operating strategies for
[36] Hirsch A, Parag Y, Guerrero J. Microgrids: A review of technologies, key drivers,
rural electrification. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2020;37:100613.
and outstanding issues. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;90:402–11.
[3] Fu Q, Hamidi A, Nasiri A, Bhavaraju V, Krstic SB, Theisen P. The Role of Energy
[37] Martin-Martínez F, Sánchez-Miralles A, Rivier M. A literature review of
Storage in a Microgrid Concept: Examining the opportunities and promise of
Microgrids: A functional layer based classification. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
microgrids. IEEE Electrif Mag 2013;1(2):21–9.
2016;62:1133–53.
[4] Raghuwanshi SS, Arya R. Reliability evaluation of stand-alone hybrid
[38] Ahmethodzic L, Music M. Comprehensive review of trends in microgrid control.
photovoltaic energy system for rural healthcare centre. Sustainable Energy
Renewable Energy Focus 2021;38:84–96.
Technol Assess 2020;37:100624.
[39] Zuo K, Wu L. A review of decentralized and distributed control approaches for
[5] Dondi P, Bayoumi D, Haederli C, Julian D, Suter M. Network integration of
islanded microgrids: Novel designs, current trends, and emerging challenges.
distributed power generation. J Power Sources 2002;106(1–2):1–9.
Electr J 2022;35(5):107138.
[6] Lopes JP, Hatziargyriou N, Mutale J, Djapic P, Jenkins N. Integrating distributed
[40] P. Piagi and R. H. Lasseter, “Autonomous control of microgrids,” in 2006 IEEE
generation into electric power systems: A review of drivers, challenges and
Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2006: IEEE, p. 8 pp.
opportunities. Electr Pow Syst Res 2007;77(9):1189–203.
[41] H. Gaztanaga, I. Etxeberria-Otadui, S. Bacha, and D. Roye, “Real-time analysis of
[7] Mariam L, Basu M, Conlon MF. Microgrid: Architecture, policy and future trends.
the control structure and management functions of a hybrid microgrid system,” in
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:477–89.
IECON 2006-32nd Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics, 2006: IEEE, pp.
[8] Hemamalini S. Review on microgrid and its protection strategies. International
5137-5142.
Journal of Renewable Energy Research (IJRER) 2016;6(4):1574–87.
[42] Dragičević T, Lu X, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. DC microgrids—Part II: A review of
[9] Zamora R, Srivastava AK. Controls for microgrids with storage: Review,
power architectures, applications, and standardization issues. IEEE Trans Power
challenges, and research needs. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14(7):2009–18.
Electron 2015;31(5):3528–49.
[10] Mehrizi-Sani A. Distributed control techniques in microgrids. In: Microgrid.
[43] Barik AK, Jaiswal S, Das DC. Recent trends and development in hybrid microgrid:
Elsevier; 2017. p. 43–62.
a review on energy resource planning and control. Int J Sustain Energ 2022;41(4):
[11] Yazdanian M, Mehrizi-Sani A. Distributed control techniques in microgrids. IEEE
308–22.
Trans Smart Grid 2014;5(6):2901–9.
[44] Krismanto A, Mithulananthan N, Lee KY. Comprehensive modelling and small
[12] Kelash H, Faheem H, Amoon M. It takes a multiagent system to manage
signal stability analysis of RES-based microgrid. IFAC-PapersOnLine 2015;48(30):
distributed systems. IEEE Potentials 2007;26(2):39–45.
282–7.
[13] Olivares DE, et al. Trends in microgrid control. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2014;5(4):
[45] G. P. Zhou et al., “Research on wind power fluctuation and its impacts on power
1905–19.
system frequency,” in Applied Mechanics and Materials, 2013, vol. 291: Trans Tech
[14] Moghaddam MJH, Bigdeli M, Miveh MR. A Review of the Primary-Control
Publ, pp. 407-414.
Techniques for the Islanded Microgrids/Pregled primarnih krmilnih tehnik za
[46] Barra P, de Carvalho W, Menezes T, Fernandes R, Coury D. A review on wind
otocne mikromreze. Elektrotehniski Vestnik 2015;82(4):169.
power smoothing using high-power energy storage systems. Renew Sustain
[15] Rokrok E, Shafie-Khah M, Catalão JP. Review of primary voltage and frequency
Energy Rev 2021;137:110455.
control methods for inverter-based islanded microgrids with distributed
[47] Guo T, Liu Y, Zhao J, Zhu Y, Liu J. A dynamic wavelet-based robust wind power
generation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;82:3225–35.
smoothing approach using hybrid energy storage system. Int J Electr Power
[16] Vandoorn T, De Kooning J, Meersman B, Vandevelde L. Review of primary
Energy Syst 2020;116:105579.
control strategies for islanded microgrids with power-electronic interfaces.
[48] Y. Zhao, X. Shi, B. Zhou, and X. Wang, “Wind power fluctuation smoothing with
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;19:613–28.
BESS considering ultra-short-term prediction,” in 2019 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid
[17] Dai M, Marwali MN, Jung J-W, Keyhani A. Power flow control of a single
Technologies-Asia (ISGT Asia), 2019: IEEE, pp. 4025-4030.
distributed generation unit. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2008;23(1):343–52.
[49] Lamsal D, Sreeram V, Mishra Y, Kumar D. Kalman filter approach for dispatching
[18] Mishra SK. Design-oriented analysis of modern active droop-controlled power
and attenuating the power fluctuation of wind and photovoltaic power generating
supplies. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2009;56(9):3704–8.
systems. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2018;12(7):1501–8.
[19] Rocabert J, Luna A, Blaabjerg F, Rodriguez P. Control of power converters in AC
[50] Guerrero JM, Loh PC, Lee T-L, Chandorkar M. Advanced control architectures for
microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2012;27(11):4734–49.
intelligent microgrids—Part II: Power quality, energy storage, and AC/DC
[20] Naik J, Dash P, Bisoi R. Optimized droop controller based energy management for
microgrids. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2012;60(4):1263–70.
stand-alone micro-grid using hybrid monarch butterfly and sine-cosine algorithm.
[51] Jiang Q, Wang H. Two-time-scale coordination control for a battery energy
Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2021;46:101310.
storage system to mitigate wind power fluctuations. IEEE Trans Energy Convers
[21] Sun Y, Hou X, Yang J, Han H, Su M, Guerrero JM. New perspectives on droop
2012;28(1):52–61.
control in AC microgrid. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2017;64(7):5741–5.
[52] A. Naeem and N. U. Hassan, “Renewable energy intermittency mitigation in
[22] Tayab UB, Roslan MAB, Hwai LJ, Kashif M. A review of droop control techniques
microgrids: State-of-the-art and future prospects,” in 2020 4th International
for microgrid. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017/09/01/ 2017;76:717–27. https://
Conference on Green Energy and Applications (ICGEA), 2020: IEEE, pp. 158-164.
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.028.
[53] Ren Y, et al. Optimal design of hydro-wind-PV multi-energy complementary
[23] Avila NF, Chu C-C. Distributed pinning droop control in isolated AC microgrids.
systems considering smooth power output. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess
IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2017;53(4):3237–49.
2022;50:101832.
[24] Jayachandran M, et al. Challenges in achieving sustainable development goal 7:
[54] Wu Q, Xie Z, Ren H, Li Q, Yang Y. Optimal trading strategies for multi-energy
Affordable and clean energy in light of nascent technologies. Sustainable Energy
microgrid cluster considering demand response under different trading modes: A
Technol Assess 2022;53:102692.
comparison study. Energy 2022:124448.
[25] Nasirian V, Shafiee Q, Guerrero JM, Lewis FL, Davoudi A. Droop-free distributed
[55] Simla T, Stanek W. Reducing the impact of wind farms on the electric power
control for AC microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;31(2):1600–17.
system by the use of energy storage. Renew Energy 2020;145:772–82.
[26] Arani AAK, Gharehpetian GB, Abedi M. Decentralised primary and secondary
[56] Worighi I, Maach A, Hafid A, Hegazy O, Van Mierlo J. Integrating renewable
control strategies for islanded microgrids considering energy storage systems
energy in smart grid system: Architecture, virtualization and analysis. Sustainable
characteristics. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2019;13(14):2986–92.
Energy Grids Networks 2019;18:100226.
[27] Lou G, Gu W, Wang L, Xu B, Wu M, Sheng W. Decentralised secondary voltage
[57] Kumar D, Dhundhara S, Verma YP, Khanna R. Role of optimal sized dual energy
and frequency control scheme for islanded microgrid based on adaptive state
storage based microgrid for ancillary service support to utility grid. Sustainable
estimator. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2017;11(15):3683–93.
Energy Technol Assess 2022;54:102675.
[28] Yang J, et al. Decentralised control method for DC microgrids with improved
[58] Xi X, Geng H, Yang G, Li S, Gao F. Two-level damping control for DFIG-based
current sharing accuracy. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2017;11(3):696–706.
wind farm providing synthetic inertial service. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2017;54(2):
1712–23.

13
S. Fazal et al.
[59] Alahmed AS, Al-Muhaini MM. An intelligent load priority list–based integrated
energy management system in microgrids. Electr Pow Syst Res 2020;185:106404.
[60] Li H, Zhang R, Mahmud MA, Hredzak B. A novel coordinated optimization
strategy for high utilization of renewable energy sources and reduction of coal
costs and emissions in hybrid hydro-thermal-wind power systems. Appl Energy
2022;320:119019.
[61] Sun Y, Ye H, Sun X, Miao F. Wind power fluctuation mitigation based low-
frequency oscillation. The Journal of Engineering 2017;2017(13):1299–306.
[62] Farzin H, Fotuhi-Firuzabad M, Moeini-Aghtaie M. A stochastic multi-objective
framework for optimal scheduling of energy storage systems in microgrids. IEEE
Trans Smart Grid 2016;8(1):117–27.
[63] Ratnam KS, Palanisamy K, Yang G. Future low-inertia power systems:
Requirements, issues, and solutions-A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020;
124:109773.
[64] Aziz A, Oo AT, Stojcevski A. Frequency regulation capabilities in wind power
plant. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2018;26:47–76.
[65] Sadees M, Roselyn JP, Vijayakumar K, Ravi A. Techno economic analysis of
microgrid with an efficient energy management system and inverter control
strategies. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2021;48:101602.
[66] Yousef MY, Mosa MA, Ali A, El Masry SM, Ghany AA. Frequency response
enhancement of an AC micro-grid has renewable energy resources based
generators using inertia controller. Electr Pow Syst Res 2021;196:107194.
[67] Mosa MA, Yousef MY, El Masry SM, Ghany AA, Ali A. Frequency support of AC
microgrid with high penetration of photovoltaic using super-capacitor.
Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2022;53:102364.
[68] Awal M, Husain I. Unified virtual oscillator control for grid-forming and grid-
following converters. IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power
Electronics 2020;9(4):4573–86.
[69] Farrokhabadi M, et al. Microgrid stability definitions, analysis, and examples.
IEEE Trans Power Syst 2019;35(1):13–29.
[70] Solanki BV, Cañizares CA, Bhattacharya K. Practical energy management systems
for isolated microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2018;10(5):4762–75.
[71] Gaur P, Singh S. Investigations on issues in microgrids. Journal of Clean Energy
Technologies 2017;5(1):47–51.
[72] A. Novitskiy, S. Schlegel, and D. Westermann, “Analysis of supraharmonic
propagation in a MV electrical network,” in 2018 19th International Scientific
Conference on Electric Power Engineering (EPE), 2018: IEEE, pp. 1-6.
[73] Alkahtani AA, et al. Power quality in microgrids including supraharmonics:
Issues, standards, and mitigations. IEEE Access 2020;8:127104–22.
[74] Carlos J. “Power quality issues of smart microgrids: applied techniques and
decision making analysis,” Decision Making Applications. Modern Power Systems
2019:89.
[75] Y. Naderi et al., “Power quality issues of smart microgrids: applied techniques and
decision making analysis,” in Decision making applications in modern power systems:
Elsevier, 2020, pp. 89-119.
[76] S. Sahoo, T. Dragičević, and F. Blaabjerg, “Cyber security in control of grid-tied
power electronic converters–challenges and vulnerabilities,” IEEE Journal of
Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, 2019.
[77] X. Zhong, L. Yu, R. Brooks, and G. K. Venayagamoorthy, “Cyber security in smart
DC microgrid operations,” in 2015 IEEE first international conference on dc
microgrids (ICDCM), 2015: IEEE, pp. 86-91.
[78] Sahoo S, Mishra S, Peng J-C-H, Dragičević T. A stealth cyber-attack detection
strategy for DC microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2018;34(8):8162–74.
[79] Sahoo S, Yang Y, Blaabjerg F. Resilient synchronization strategy for ac microgrids
under cyber attacks. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2020;36(1):73–7.
[80] Sadabadi MS, Sahoo S, Blaabjerg F. A fully resilient cyber-secure synchronization
strategy for AC microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2021;36(12):13372–8.
[81] Rath S, Pal D, Sharma PS, Panigrahi BK. A cyber-secure distributed control
architecture for autonomous AC microgrid. IEEE Syst J 2020;15(3):3324–35.
[82] Chen Y, Qi D, Dong H, Li C, Li Z, Zhang J. A FDI attack-resilient distributed
secondary control strategy for islanded microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2020;
12(3):1929–38.
[83] Lu J, Zhang X, Hou X, Wang P. Generalized Extended State Observer-Based
Distributed Attack-Resilient Control for DC Microgrids. IEEE Trans Sustainable
Energy 2022.
[84] J. Zhou, Y. Xu, L. Yang, and H. Sun, “Attack-resilient distributed control for
islanded single-/three-phase microgrids based on distributed adaptive observers,”
Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, 2020.
[85] Zuo S, Altun T, Lewis FL, Davoudi A. Distributed resilient secondary control of DC
microgrids against unbounded attacks. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2020;11(5):
3850–9.
[86] Tan S, Xie P, Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC, Han R. Cyberattack Detection for
Converter-Based Distributed dc Microgrids: Observer-Based Approaches. IEEE Ind
Electron Mag 2021.
[87] Tan S, Wu Y, Xie P, Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC, Abusorrah A. New challenges in the
design of microgrid systems: Communication networks, cyberattacks, and
resilience. IEEE Electrif Mag 2020;8(4):98–106.
[88] Basso TS, DeBlasio R. IEEE 1547 series of standards: interconnection issues. IEEE
Trans Power Electron 2004;19(5):1159–62.
[89] IEEE Std 2003;1547–2003:1–28. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2003.94285.
[90] Ahmed M, Meegahapola L, Vahidnia A, Datta M. Stability and control aspects of
microgrid Architectures–A comprehensive review. IEEE Access 2020;8:
144730–66.
[91] Photovoltaics DG, Storage E. IEEE standard for interconnection and
interoperability of distributed energy resources with associated electric power
systems interfaces. IEEE Std 2018:1547–2018.
14
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
[92] E. S. N. Raju P and T. Jain. Chapter 2 - Distributed energy resources and control.
In: Chauhan RK, Chauhan K, editors. Distributed Energy Resources in Microgrids.
Academic Press; 2019. p. 33–56.
[93] D. Zhu, R. Yang, and G. Hug-Glanzmann, “Managing microgrids with intermittent
resources: A two-layer multi-step optimal control approach,” in North American
power symposium 2010, 2010: IEEE, pp. 1-8.
[94] Gupta R, Sossan F, Paolone M. Grid-aware distributed model predictive control of
heterogeneous resources in a distribution network: Theory and experimental
validation. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2020;36(2):1392–402.
[95] Kaur J, Sood YR, Shrivastava R. A two-layer optimization approach for renewable
energy management of green microgrid in deregulated power sector. J Renewable
Sustainable Energy 2017;9(6):065905.
[96] Schneider KP, et al. A distributed power system control architecture for improved
distribution system resiliency. IEEE Access 2019;7:9957–70.
[97] Ma L, Zhang J. An Adaptive Hierarchical Control Method for Microgrid
Considering Generation Cost. IEEE Access 2020;8:164187–99.
[98] Hou X, et al. Distributed hierarchical control of AC microgrid operating in grid-
connected, islanded and their transition modes. IEEE Access 2018;6:77388–401.
[99] Ali W, et al. Hierarchical Control of Microgrid Using IoT and Machine Learning
Based Islanding Detection. IEEE Access 2021;9:103019–31.
[100] L. Aloo, P. Kihato, and S. Kamau, A Review of Control Strategies for Microgrid with
PV-Wind Hybrid Generation Systems. 2018.
[101] Meng L, Sanseverino ER, Luna A, Dragicevic T, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM.
Microgrid supervisory controllers and energy management systems: A literature
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;60:1263–73.
[102] T. Dragicevic, L. Meng, F. Blaabjerg, and Y. Li, “Control of Power Converters in ac
and dc Microgrids,” in Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering:
Wiley, 2019.
[103] Alsaif A, Miao Z, Fan L. In: IEEE; 2019. p. 1–6.
[104] Li Z, Chan KW, Hu J, Guerrero JM. Adaptive droop control using adaptive virtual
impedance for microgrids with variable PV outputs and load demands. IEEE Trans
Ind Electron 2020;68(10):9630–40.
[105] Felisberto KDR, de Godoy PT, Marujo D, de Almeida AB, de Barros Iscuissati R.
Trends in Microgrid Droop Control and the Power Sharing Problem. Journal of
Control, Automation and Electrical Systems 2022;33(3):719–32.
[106] De Brabandere K, Bolsens B, Van den Keybus J, Woyte A, Driesen J, Belmans R.
A voltage and frequency droop control method for parallel inverters. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2007;22(4):1107–15.
[107] Li Y, Li YW. Power management of inverter interfaced autonomous microgrid
based on virtual frequency-voltage frame. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2011;2(1):
30–40.
[108] Schiffer J, Seel T, Raisch J, Sezi T. Voltage stability and reactive power sharing in
inverter-based microgrids with consensus-based distributed voltage control. IEEE
Trans Control Syst Technol 2015;24(1):96–109.
[109] Qi Y, Lin P, Wang Y, Tang Y. Two-dimensional impedance-shaping control with
enhanced harmonic power sharing for inverter-based microgrids. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2019;34(11):11407–18.
[110] Sun Y, Li L, Shi G, Hou X, Su M. Power factor angle droop control—A general
decentralized control of cascaded inverters. IEEE Trans Power Delivery 2020;36
(1):465–8.
[111] Wang X, Li YW, Blaabjerg F, Loh PC. Virtual-Impedance-Based Control for
Voltage-Source and Current-Source Converters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;
30(12):7019–37. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2014.2382565.
[112] McGrath BP, Holmes DG. Multicarrier PWM strategies for multilevel inverters.
IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2002;49(4):858–67. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TIE.2002.801073.
[113] Xia C, Liu T, Shi T, Song Z. A Simplified Finite-Control-Set Model-Predictive
Control for Power Converters. IEEE Trans Ind Inf 2014;10(2):991–1002. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TII.2013.2284558.
[114] Yaramasu V, Wu B. Model predictive control of wind energy conversion systems.
John Wiley & Sons; 2016.
[115] Sahoo SC, Barik AK, Das DC. Synchronized voltage-frequency regulation in
sustainable microgrid using novel Green Leaf-hopper Flame optimization.
Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2022;52:102349.
[116] Guerrero JM, De Vicuna LG, Matas J, Castilla M, Miret J. A wireless controller to
enhance dynamic performance of parallel inverters in distributed generation
systems. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2004;19(5):1205–13.
[117] Mortezapour V, Lesani H. Hybrid AC/DC microgrids: A generalized approach for
autonomous droop-based primary control in islanded operations. Int J Electr
Power Energy Syst 2017;93:109–18.
[118] Majumder R, Ghosh A, Ledwich G, Zare F. In: IEEE; 2009. p. 1–8.
[119] Kolluri RR, Mareels I, Alpcan T, Brazil M, de Hoog J, Thomas DA. Power sharing
in angle droop controlled microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2017;32(6):
4743–51.
[120] Espina E, Espinoza M, Cárdenas R. In: IEEE; 2017. p. 1–6.
[121] Li Y, Li YW. In: IEEE; 2009. p. 2490–6.
[122] Fathi A, Shafiee Q, Bevrani H. Robust frequency control of microgrids using an
extended virtual synchronous generator. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2018;33(6):
6289–97.
[123] Augustine S, Mishra MK, Lakshminarasamma N. Adaptive droop control strategy
for load sharing and circulating current minimization in low-voltage standalone
DC microgrid. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 2014;6(1):132–41.
[124] Augustine S, Mishra MK, Narasamma NL. In: IEEE; 2014. p. 1–6.
[125] Ghanbari N, Bhattacharya S. Adaptive droop control method for suppressing
circulating currents in dc microgrids. IEEE Open Access Journal of Power and
Energy 2020;7:100–10.
S. Fazal et al.
[126] Eisapour-Moarref A, Kalantar M, Esmaili M. Power Sharing in Hybrid Microgrids
Using a Harmonic-Based Multidimensional Droop. IEEE Trans Ind Inf 2019;16(1):
109–19.
[127] Bunker KJ, Weaver WW. Multidimensional droop control for wind resources in dc
microgrids. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2017;11(3):657–64.
[128] Zhang G, Jin Z, Li N, Hu X, Tang X. In: IEEE; 2014. p. 1–6.
[129] Eskandari M, Li L. Microgrid operation improvement by adaptive virtual
impedance. IET Renew Power Gener 2018;13(2):296–307.
[130] Matas J, Castilla M, De Vicuña LG, Miret J, Vasquez JC. Virtual impedance loop
for droop-controlled single-phase parallel inverters using a second-order general-
integrator scheme. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2010;25(12):2993–3002.
[131] Simpson-Porco JW, Dörfler F, Bullo F. Voltage stabilization in microgrids via
quadratic droop control. IEEE Trans Autom Control 2016;62(3):1239–53.
[132] J. W. Simpson-Porco, F. Dorfler, and F. Bullo, “Voltage Stabilization in Microgrids
via Quadratic Droop Control,” arXiv, p. arXiv: 1507.00431, 2015.
[133] Simpson-Porco JW, Dörfler F, Bullo F. In: IEEE; 2013. p. 7582–9.
[134] Vu TV, Perkins D, Diaz F, Gonsoulin D, Edrington CS, El-Mezyani T. Robust
adaptive droop control for DC microgrids. Electr Pow Syst Res 2017;146:95–106.
[135] Sedhom BE, Hatata AY, El-Saadawi MM, Abd-Raboh E-H-E. Robust adaptive H-
infinity based controller for islanded microgrid supplying non-linear and
unbalanced loads. IET Smart Grid 2019;2(3):420–35.
[136] Gibson TE, Annaswamy AM, Lavretsky E. On adaptive control with closed-loop
reference models: transients, oscillations, and peaking. IEEE Access 2013;1:
703–17.
[137] Nasirian V, Davoudi A, Lewis FL. In: IEEE; 2014, 2014:. p. 1147–52.
[138] Hu J, Duan J, Ma H, Chow M-Y. Distributed adaptive droop control for optimal
power dispatch in DC microgrid. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2017;65(1):778–89.
[139] Lu X, Guerrero JM, Sun K, Vasquez JC. An improved droop control method for dc
microgrids based on low bandwidth communication with dc bus voltage
restoration and enhanced current sharing accuracy. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2013;29(4):1800–12.
[140] Pota HR, Hossain M, Mahmud MA, Gadh R. In: IEEE; 2014. p. 1–5.
[141] Zhong Q-C. Robust droop controller for accurate proportional load sharing among
inverters operated in parallel. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;60(4):1281–90.
[142] Shuai Z, He D, Fang J, Shen ZJ, Tu C, Wang J. Robust droop control of DC
distribution networks. IET Renew Power Gener 2016;10(6):807–14.
[143] Palizban O, Kauhaniemi K. Hierarchical control structure in microgrids with
distributed generation: Island and grid-connected mode. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2015;44:797–813.
[144] Xiao S, Yim-Shu L, Dehong X. Modeling, analysis, and implementation of parallel
multi-inverter systems with instantaneous average-current-sharing scheme. IEEE
Trans Power Electron 2003;18(3):844–56. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPEL.2003.810867.
[145] Sun X, Lee Y-S, Xu D. Modeling, analysis, and implementation of parallel multi-
inverter systems with instantaneous average-current-sharing scheme. IEEE Trans
Power Electron 2003;18(3):844–56.
[146] Wu T-F, Chen Y-K, Huang Y-H. 3C strategy for inverters in parallel operation
achieving an equal current distribution. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2000;47(2):
273–81.
[147] S. Chiang, C. Lin, and C. Yen, “Current limitation control technique for parallel
operation of UPS inverters,” in 2004 IEEE 35th Annual Power Electronics Specialists
Conference (IEEE Cat. No. 04CH37551), 2004, vol. 3: IEEE, pp. 1922-1926.
[148] Prasad EN, Sahani M, Dash P. A new adaptive integral back stepping fractional
order sliding mode control approach for PV and wind with battery system based
DC microgrid. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2022;52:102261.
[149] El Zoghby HM, Ramadan HS. Isolated microgrid stability reinforcement using
optimally controlled STATCOM. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2022;50:
101883.
[150] Vandoorn TL, Vasquez JC, De Kooning J, Guerrero JM, Vandevelde L. Microgrids:
Hierarchical control and an overview of the control and reserve management
strategies. IEEE Ind Electron Mag 2013;7(4):42–55.
[151] Y. Zhu, F. Zhuo, and L. Xiong, “Communication platform for energy management
system in a master-slave control structure microgrid,” in Proceedings of The 7th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2012, vol. 1: IEEE,
pp. 141-145.
[152] T. T. Teo, T. Logenthiran, W. L. Woo, and K. Abidi, “Fuzzy logic control of energy
storage system in microgrid operation,” in 2016 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies - Asia (ISGT-Asia), 28 Nov.-1 Dec. 2016 2016, pp. 65-70, doi:
10.1109/ISGT-Asia.2016.7796362.
[153] Chettibi N, Mellit A, Sulligoi G, Pavan AM. Adaptive neural network-based
control of a hybrid AC/DC microgrid. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2016;9(3):1667–79.
[154] de Nadai Nascimento B, et al. Centralised secondary control for islanded
microgrids. IET Renew Power Gener 2020.
[155] Chan JCL, Lee TH. Sliding mode observer-based fault-tolerant secondary control
of microgrids. Electronics 2020;9(9):1417.
[156] Z. Chen, K. Wang, Z. Li, and T. Zheng, “A review on control strategies of AC/DC
micro grid,” in 2017 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical
Engineering and 2017 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC/
I&CPS Europe), 2017: IEEE, pp. 1-6.
[157] Tucci M, Meng L, Guerrero JM, Ferrari-Trecate G. Stable current sharing and
voltage balancing in DC microgrids: A consensus-based secondary control layer.
Automatica 2018;95:1–13.
[158] Shafiee Q, Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC. Distributed secondary control for islanded
microgrids—A novel approach. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2013;29(2):1018–31.
[159] Xin H, Zhang L, Wang Z, Gan D, Wong KP. Control of island AC microgrids using a
fully distributed approach. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2014;6(2):943–5.
15
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
[160] Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM, Miret J, Castilla M, De Vicuna LG. Hierarchical control
of intelligent microgrids. IEEE Ind Electron Mag 2010;4(4):23–9.
[161] E. Espina, J. Llanos, C. Burgos-Mellado, R. Cardenas-Dobson, M. Martinez-Gomez,
and D. Saez, “Distributed Control Strategies for Microgrids: An Overview,” IEEE
Access, 2020.
[162] Che L, Shahidehpour M, Alabdulwahab A, Al-Turki Y. Hierarchical coordination
of a community microgrid with AC and DC microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid
2015;6(6):3042–51.
[163] Lu X, Guerrero JM, Sun K, Vasquez JC, Teodorescu R, Huang L. Hierarchical
control of parallel AC-DC converter interfaces for hybrid microgrids. IEEE Trans
Smart Grid 2013;5(2):683–92.
[164] X. Zhang, J. Guan, and B. Zhang, “A master slave peer to peer integration
microgrid control strategy based on communication,” in 2016 IEEE PES Asia-
Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), 2016: IEEE, pp. 1106-
1110.
[165] Caldognetto T, Tenti P. Microgrids operation based on master–slave cooperative
control. IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics 2014;
2(4):1081–8.
[166] D. A. Avilés, F. Guinjoan, J. Barricarte, L. Marroyo, P. Sanchis, and H.
Valderrama, “Battery management fuzzy control for a grid-tied microgrid with
renewable generation,” in IECON 2012-38th Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society, 2012: IEEE, pp. 5607-5612.
[167] Zhao H, Wu Q, Wang C, Cheng L, Rasmussen CN. Fuzzy logic based coordinated
control of battery energy storage system and dispatchable distributed generation
for microgrid. J Mod Power Syst Clean Energy 2015;3(3):422–8.
[168] Du Y, Li F. Intelligent multi-microgrid energy management based on deep neural
network and model-free reinforcement learning. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2019;11
(2):1066–76.
[169] Yan Z, Xu Y. Data-driven load frequency control for stochastic power systems: A
deep reinforcement learning method with continuous action search. IEEE Trans
Power Syst 2018;34(2):1653–6.
[170] Mehrizi-Sani A, Iravani R. Potential-function based control of a microgrid in
islanded and grid-connected modes. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2010;25(4):1883–91.
[171] Tan KT, Peng X, So PL, Chu YC, Chen MZ. Centralized control for parallel
operation of distributed generation inverters in microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid
2012;3(4):1977–87.
[172] A. D. Bintoudi et al., “A hybrid agent-based secondary control for microgrids with
increased fault-tolerance needs,” 2018.
[173] A. D. Bintoudi et al., “Novel hybrid design for microgrid control,” in 2017 IEEE
PES Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), 2017: IEEE,
pp. 1-6.
[174] Lu X, Yu X, Lai J, Guerrero JM, Zhou H. Distributed secondary voltage and
frequency control for islanded microgrids with uncertain communication links.
IEEE Trans Ind Inf 2016;13(2):448–60.
[175] Shafiee Q, Stefanović Č, Dragičević T, Popovski P, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM.
Robust networked control scheme for distributed secondary control of islanded
microgrids. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2013;61(10):5363–74.
[176] Mbodji AK, Ndiaye ML, Ndiaye PA. Decentralized control of the hybrid electrical
system consumption: A multi-agent approach. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;
59:972–8.
[177] Dou C, Yue D, Zhang Z, Ma K. MAS-based distributed cooperative control for DC
microgrid through switching topology communication network with time-varying
delays. IEEE Syst J 2017;13(1):615–24.
[178] Mao M, Jin P, Hatziargyriou ND, Chang L. Multiagent-based hybrid energy
management system for microgrids. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 2014;5(3):
938–46.
[179] Rodríguez del Nozal Á, Gutiérrez Reina D, Alvarado-Barrios L, Tapia A,
Escaño JM. A MPC Strategy for the Optimal Management of Microgrids Based on
Evolutionary Optimization. Electronics 2019;8(11):1371.
[180] Parisio A, Wiezorek C, Kyntäjä T, Elo J, Strunz K, Johansson KH. Cooperative
MPC-based energy management for networked microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid
2017;8(6):3066–74.
[181] A. Parisio, C. Wiezorek, T. Kyntäjä, J. Elo, and K. H. Johansson, “An MPC-based
energy management system for multiple residential microgrids,” in 2015 IEEE
international conference on automation science and engineering (CASE), 2015: IEEE,
pp. 7-14.
[182] Li J, Zhang D. Backstepping and sliding-mode techniques applied to distributed
secondary control of islanded microgrids. Asian J Control 2018;20(3):1288–95.
[183] Shen X, Wang H, Li J, Su Q, Gao L. Distributed secondary voltage control of
islanded microgrids based on RBF-neural-network sliding-mode technique. IEEE
Access 2019;7:65616–23.
[184] Ding L, Han Q-L, Zhang X-M. Distributed secondary control for active power
sharing and frequency regulation in islanded microgrids using an event-triggered
communication mechanism. IEEE Trans Ind Inf 2018;15(7):3910–22.
[185] Chen M, Xiao X, Guerrero JM. Secondary restoration control of islanded
microgrids with a decentralized event-triggered strategy. IEEE Trans Ind Inf 2017;
14(9):3870–80.
[186] Zhao D, Zhang N, Liu Y, Zhang X. Synthetical control strategy for smooth
switching between grid-connected and islanded operation modes of microgrid
based on energy storage system. Power System Technology 2013;37(2):301–6.
[187] Meng L, Tang F, Savaghebi M, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Tertiary control of
voltage unbalance compensation for optimal power quality in islanded
microgrids. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2014;29(4):802–15.
[188] L. Meng, J. M. Guerrero, J. C. Vasquez, F. Tang, and M. Savaghebi, “Tertiary
control for optimal unbalance compensation in islanded microgrids,” in 2014
S. Fazal et al.
IEEE 11th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD14),
2014: IEEE, pp. 1-6.
[189] Singh B, Al-Haddad K, Chandra A. A review of active filters for power quality
improvement. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 1999;46(5):960–71.
[190] George S, Agarwal V. A DSP based optimal algorithm for shunt active filter under
nonsinusoidal supply and unbalanced load conditions. IEEE Trans Power Electron
2007;22(2):593–601.
[191] Wang P, Poovendran P, Manokaran KB. Fault detection and control in integrated
energy system using machine learning. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2021;
47:101366.
[192] Zhang T, Ji W, Qiu Y. A framework of energy-consumption driven discrete
manufacturing system. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2021;47:101336.
[193] Hassan M, et al. Lyapunov based adaptive controller for power converters used in
hybrid energy storage systems. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2020;42:
100853.
[194] Kumar AW, din Mufti MU, Zargar MY. Fuzzy based virtual inertia emulation in a
multi-area wind penetrated power system using adaptive predictive control based
flywheel storage. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 2022;53:102515.
[195] Khan MW, Wang J. The research on multi-agent system for microgrid control and
optimization. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;80:1399–411.
[196] W.-D. Zheng and J.-D. Cai, “A multi-agent system for distributed energy resources
control in microgrid,” in 2010 5th International Conference on Critical Infrastructure
(CRIS), 2010: IEEE, pp. 1-5.
[197] Jiang W, Yang K, Yang J, Mao R, Xue N, Zhuo Z. A multiagent-based hierarchical
energy management strategy for maximization of renewable energy consumption
in interconnected multi-microgrids. IEEE Access 2019;7:169931–45.
[198] J.-C. Gu et al., “Application of multi-agent systems to microgrid fault protection
coordination,” in 2016 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control
(IS3C), 2016: IEEE, pp. 188-191.
[199] Han Y, Zhang K, Li H, Coelho EAA, Guerrero JM. MAS-based distributed
coordinated control and optimization in microgrid and microgrid clusters: A
comprehensive overview. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2017;33(8):6488–508.
[200] Z. Jian, A. Qian, J. Chuanwen, W. Xingang, Z. Zhanghua, and G. Chenghong, “The
application of multi agent system in microgrid coordination control,” in 2009
International Conference on Sustainable Power Generation and Supply, 2009: IEEE,
pp. 1-6.
[201] Liu W, Gu W, Sheng W, Meng X, Wu Z, Chen W. Decentralized multi-agent
system-based cooperative frequency control for autonomous microgrids with
communication constraints. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 2014;5(2):446–56.
[202] Hooshmand A, Malki HA, Mohammadpour J. Power flow management of
microgrid networks using model predictive control. Comput Math Appl 2012;64
(5):869–76.
[203] Cominesi SR, Farina M, Giulioni L, Picasso B, Scattolini R. A two-layer stochastic
model predictive control scheme for microgrids. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol
2017;26(1):1–13.
[204] Sachs J, Sawodny O. A two-stage model predictive control strategy for economic
diesel-PV-battery island microgrid operation in rural areas. IEEE Trans
Sustainable Energy 2016;7(3):903–13.
[205] Hu J, Shan Y, Guerrero JM, Ioinovici A, Chan KW, Rodriguez J. Model predictive
control of microgrids–An overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021;136:110422.
[206] A. Hooshmand, M. H. Poursaeidi, J. Mohammadpour, H. A. Malki, and K.
Grigoriads, “Stochastic model predictive control method for microgrid
management,” in 2012 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT), 2012:
IEEE, pp. 1-7.
[207] R. Negenborn, M. Houwing, B. De Schutter, and J. Hellendoorn, “Model
predictive control for residential energy resources using a mixed-logical dynamic
model,” in 2009 International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control, 2009:
IEEE, pp. 702-707.
[208] Yilmaz UC, Sezgin ME, Gol M. A Model Predictive Control for Microgrids
Considering Battery Aging. J Mod Power Syst Clean Energy 2020;8(2):296–304.
[209] Garcia-Torres F, Bordons C. Optimal economical schedule of hydrogen-based
microgrids with hybrid storage using model predictive control. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2015;62(8):5195–207.
[210] Garcia-Torres F, Bordons C, Ridao MA. Optimal economic schedule for a network
of microgrids with hybrid energy storage system using distributed model
predictive control. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2018;66(3):1919–29.
[211] Akter MP, Mekhilef S, Tan NML, Akagi H. Model predictive control of
bidirectional AC-DC converter for energy storage system. J Electr Eng Technol
2015;10(1):165–75.
[212] Hu J, Xu Y, Cheng KW, Guerrero JM. A model predictive control strategy of PV-
Battery microgrid under variable power generations and load conditions. Appl
16
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023) 103069
Energy 2018/07/01/ 2018,;221:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2018.03.085.
[213] Nguyen T-T, Yoo H-J, Kim H-M. Applying model predictive control to SMES
system in microgrids for eddy current losses reduction. IEEE Trans Appl
Supercond 2016;26(4):1–5.
[214] Morstyn T, Hredzak B, Aguilera RP, Agelidis VG. Model predictive control for
distributed microgrid battery energy storage systems. IEEE Trans Control Syst
Technol 2017;26(3):1107–14.
[215] Al Sumarmad KA, Sulaiman N, Wahab NIA, Hizam H. Energy Management and
Voltage Control in Microgrids Using Artificial Neural Networks, PID, and Fuzzy
Logic Controllers. Energies 2022;15(1):303.
[216] Vigneysh T, Kumarappan N. Artificial neural network based droop-control
technique for accurate power sharing in an islanded microgrid. International
Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems 2016;9(5):827–38.
[217] Trivedi R, Khadem S. Implementation of artificial intelligence techniques in
microgrid control environment: Current progress and future scopes. Energy and
AI 2022:100147.
[218] Heydari A, Garcia DA, Keynia F, Bisegna F, De Santoli L. A novel composite neural
network based method for wind and solar power forecasting in microgrids. Appl
Energy 2019;251:113353.
[219] Rodríguez F, Fleetwood A, Galarza A, Fontán L. Predicting solar energy
generation through artificial neural networks using weather forecasts for
microgrid control. Renew Energy 2018;126:855–64.
[220] Saadatmand S, Shamsi P, Ferdowsi M. Power and frequency regulation of
synchronverters using a model free neural network-based predictive controller.
IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2020;68(5):3662–71.
[221] M. Jafari et al., “Adaptive neural network based intelligent secondary control for
microgrids,” in 2018 IEEE Texas Power and Energy Conference (TPEC), 2018: IEEE,
pp. 1-6.
[222] S. K. Akula and H. Salehfar, “Frequency control in microgrid communities using
neural networks,” in 2019 North American Power Symposium (NAPS), 2019: IEEE,
pp. 1-6.
[223] Sutton RS, Barto AG. Reinforcement learning: An introduction. MIT press; 2018.
[224] Barbalho P, Lacerda V, Fernandes R, Coury D. Deep reinforcement learning-based
secondary control for microgrids in islanded mode. Electr Pow Syst Res 2022;212:
108315.
[225] Adibi M, Van der Woude J. Secondary Frequency Control of Microgrids: An
Online Reinforcement Learning Approach. IEEE Trans Autom Control 2022.
[226] W. Liu, Z. Wen, Y. Shen, and Z. Zhang, “Reinforcement learning-based distributed
secondary optimal control for multi-microgrids,” in 2017 IEEE Conference on
Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2), 2017: IEEE, pp. 1-4.
[227] Chen P, Liu S, Chen B, Yu L. Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for
Decentralized Resilient Secondary Control of Energy Storage Systems Against DoS
Attacks. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2022;13(3):1739–50.
[228] J. Zeng, J. Yan, C.-J. Xu, and Z. Lan, “Application of Consensus Algorithm in
Micro-Grid,” in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Information
Technologies and Electrical Engineering, 2019, pp. 1-5.
[229] Zhou Q, Tian Z, Shahidehpour M, Liu X, Alabdulwahab A, Abusorrah A. Optimal
consensus-based distributed control strategy for coordinated operation of
networked microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2019;35(3):2452–62.
[230] Alhasnawi BN, Jasim BH, Sedhom BE. Distributed secondary consensus fault
tolerant control method for voltage and frequency restoration and power sharing
control in multi-agent microgrid. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2021;133:
107251.
[231] Zhang C, Dou X, Wang L, Dong Y, Ji Y. Distributed Cooperative Voltage Control
for Grid-Following and Grid-Forming Distributed Generators in Islanded
Microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2022.
[232] Singhal A, Vu TL, Du W. Consensus Control for Coordinating Grid-Forming and
Grid-Following Inverters in Microgrids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2022.
[233] Ruan B, Yu D, Li S. Consensus algorithm based distributed energy management
strategy of microgrids [J]. Power System Protection and Control 2018;46(15):
23–8.
[234] Kai M, Yangqing Y, Shanying Z, Jie Y, Xinping G. Distributed algorithm for
economic dispatch based on gradient descent and consensus in power grid.
Scientia Sinica Informationis 2018;48(10):1364–80.
[235] Song C, Yu M, Tan W. Event-triggered-based consensus approach for economic
dispatch problem in a microgrid. Sci Sin Inf 2018;48:1395–408.
[236] Wang R, Li Q, Zhang B, Wang L. Distributed consensus based algorithm for
economic dispatch in a microgrid. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2018;10(4):3630–40.