BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS A Thermodynamic system is a certain quantity of matter or the space

which is under thermodynamic study or analysis. The imaginary outer edge of

Thermodynamic Systems and Control Volume the system is called its boundary. Examples of system are engine,
refrigerator, air-conditioner, washing machine, heat exchange, a condenser,
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships among heat, work,
etc.
temperature, density and energy. Any physical system will spontaneously
approach an equilibrium that can be described by specifying its properties.
Thermodynamics focuses largely on how a heat transfer is related to various
Types of System
energy changes within a physical system undergoing a thermodynamic
process. Such processes usually result in work being done by the system and 1) Open system: An Open system is a
are guided by the laws of thermodynamics. system in which the transfer of mass as
well as energy can take place across its
Thermodynamics comes from the Greek words, Therme, means
boundary. One example of an open
"heat", and Dynamis, meaning "work". Literally, thermodynamics means heat
system is an engine. In this case we
and work. There are three principal laws of thermodynamics. Each law leads
provide fuel to engine, and it produces
to the definition of thermodynamic properties which help us to understand and
power which is given out, thus there is exchange of mass as well as
predict the operation of a physical system.
energy. The engine also emits heat which is exchanged with the
Thermodynamics also involves with surroundings.
energy transformation such as conversion of
2) Closed System: A Closed
heat into work, chemical energy to electrical
system is a system in which the
energy, or of mechanical energy to electrical
transfer of energy takes place
energy.
across its boundary with the
 surrounding, but no transfer of mass takes place. A closed system is a
fixed mass system. The fluid like air or gas being compressed in the
piston and cylinder arrangement is an example of the closed system.
In this case the mass of the gas remains constant, but it can get
heated or cooled.
3) Adiabatic System. In an adiabatic system, mass can cross the control
surface, but energy in the form of heat is not allowed to across the
control surface of the system. This is a special case of an open
system. Energy in other forms can enter and leave the system.
Examples of adiabatic systems are insulated turbines, throttle valves,
water pumps, water turbines, insulated heat exchangers.
fluid flow is usually taken as the physical boundary of the part through
which the flow is occurring. The control volume concept is used in fluid
dynamics applications, utilizing the continuity, momentum, and energy
principles. Once the control volume and its boundary are established, the
various forms of energy crossing the boundary with the fluid can be dealt
with in equation form to solve the fluid problem. We perform a balance of
mass, momentum and energy that flow across the boundary and deduce
the changes that could take place to properties of flow within the control
volume.

Control Volume. Control

volume is defined as a fixed
region in space where one
studies the masses and
energies crossing the
boundaries of the region and
very useful in analyzing fluid
flow problems. Control volume is another method of approach which
focused on the observation of flow. The boundary of a control volume for
 Macroscopic and Microscopic Description ➢ Heterogeneous System is a system consists of a mixture of two or more
than two phases of matter. Since each constituent present in the system
Microscopic and Macroscopic are terms used to describe size.
has its own properties independent of each other, the system cannot be
Macro means "big" and Micro means "small". Microscopic is a term used for
analyzed as a single constituent, for examples, mixture of ice and water;
an object which can only be seen under a microscope. Macroscopic is a term
mixture of water and steam; dal, rice and water in a pressure cooker, etc,
which is used for objects which can be seen with the naked eye. The
microscopic description of a system is the complete description of each
particle in the system.
Properties and State of a System
The macroscopic description, which is in terms of a few properties is
➢ Property. Property is a characteristic which can be quantitatively
thus far more accessible and useable for engineering applications. The
evaluated or a characteristic quality of the system which depends on the
measurement of distance in meters and time in seconds are examples of
final system state. Pressure. temperature, velocity, energy, etc. are all
macroscopic. The microscopic point of view will be used only to explain some
properties. Things that are done, like work or heat flow, are not properties.
phenomena that cannot be understood by classical means.
Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive
and extensive properties.

Homogeneous System and Heterogeneous System Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive and
extensive properties.
➢ Homogeneous System is a system that consists of a single physical
phase, either solid, liquid or gas phase only. It is treated as one a) An intensive property is the property that does not depend on the

constituent for its analysis. Examples are ice, water and steam (three mass of the system or is any property that exists at a point in

.distinct phases of water), sugar or salt dissolved in water, air, oxygen gas space. Temperature, pressure, and specific volume, are examples of

and nitrogen gas. intensive properties.

 b) An extensive property is any property that depends on the size of the
system. The value of an extensive property varies directly with
the mass. Mass, volume and specific volume are examples of
extensive properties.
State. The state of an object is its condition described or measured by a list of
properties. For example, temperature and pressure may describe the state of
a gas. When a gas expands in the cylinder, the piston moves outward, the
properties of a system change and the system reaches to the new state 2. It
is called a change of state.
Path and Process
❖ Path is a locus of series of states through which a system passes between
initial and final states. A series of states in which a system passes during
a process is called the path of the process.
❖ Process is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one
thermodynamic state to another.
Classification of Processes
❖ Non-flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in a closed system.
❖ Flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in open system.
❖ Quasi-static process - when a process proceeds in such a manner that
the system remains almost infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all
times.
❖ Reversible process - when a process can be reversed to restore the
system to initial conditions without leaving any effect on the surroundings.
It passes through a series of equilibrium states.
❖ Irreversible process is a process which cannot be reversed by the same
path and follows in one direction only. It passes through a series of non-
equilibrium states.
❖ Adiabatic process - when a system does not experience any heat
exchange between the system and its surroundings while enclosed by an
ideal insulator.
Types of Processes
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a type of process for
which a particular property remains constant.
❖ Isothermal Process - the temperature remains
constant during the process
❖ Isobaric Process - the pressure remains constant
during the process.
❖ Isochoric (Isometric) Process - the volume remains
constant during the process.
❖ Isentropic Process - the entropy remains constant
during the process.
❖ Isenthalpic Process - the enthalpy remains constant
during the process.
Cycle
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of
processes that begins and ends at the
same state or a system that undergoes a series of processes in such a way
that its initial and final states are identical.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties
• Intrinsic Properties are the basic properties and cannot be defined terms
of other properties. Their values can be assigned independently for
example, length, mass, time, area volume, pressure, temperature, electric
current, etc.
• Extrinsic Properties are the properties whose values cannot be assigned
independently. These are characteristics of the motion or position of a
system and are measured in reference to certain datum such as velocity,
acceleration, potential energy, kinetic energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc.
DIMENSIONS OF UNITS
There are two widely used systems of units:
1. International System, S.I. units
2. English System
 𝐹 𝑙𝑏 𝑠2
𝑚 = 𝑎 = 𝑓𝑡 = 1𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 = 1𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚
⁄ 2
𝑠
Base Units for Length, Time, Mass and Force

Unit S.I. English

Units in the English System
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Quantity Unit

Time second (s) second (s) Length Ft

Mass Lbm
Mass kilogram (kg) slug (slug)

Time Sec
Force newton (N) pound (lb)
Force Lbf

°R
Temperature

Acceleration ft/sec2
Example: ft2
Area

The force unit is derived using Newton's 2nd Law: Density Ibm/ft
1𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 1𝑘𝑔 ∙ = 1𝑁 Energy ft-lbf
𝑠2

The mass unit is derived using Newton's 2nd Law: Power ft-lbf/sec
Pressure lbf/in2 (psi) Power J/s (W)

Volume ft3 Pressure N/m2 (Pa)

Volume m3
SI Units
Angular acceleration rad/s2

Quantity Unit
Angular velocity rad/s

Length Meter (m)

Entropy J/°K
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Frequency 1/s (Hz)
Time Second (s)
Heat N-m (J)
Force Newton (N)
Stress N/m2 (Pa)
Temperature K
Thermal conductivity W/m-°K
Acceleration m/s2
Velocity m/s
Area m2
Dynamic viscosity Pa-s
Density kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity e/s
Energy N-m (J)
Work N-m (J) 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑁
𝜔= → 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚
Specific heat J/kg-°K
Specific gravity sg

Specific gravity of a liquid is a dimensionless unit and is the ratio of density of

the liquid to the density of water at a specified temperature. The density of
water commonly used is 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
Density 𝝆 is a substance mass per unit volume. The higher the density, the 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density can help identify Specific gravity of a gas is a dimensionless unit and is the ratio of density of
a substance and is a physical property constant at a given temperature. air to the density of water at a specified temperature and pressure. The

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 density of air commonly used at 20°C and 1 atm (101.325 kPa) is 1.205
𝜌= → 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚 kg/m3.

Specific volume 𝝂 of a substance is the substance volume divided by its 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑠𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
mass. Specific volume is the reciprocal of the density of the substance. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3
𝜈= →
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
Temperature
Specific Weight 𝝎 of a substance is a substance weight per unit volume.
Temperature is a measure of the warmth or coldness of a substance
The specific weight for water at 4°C (39°F) is 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3).
with reference to some standard value. The temperature of a substance is
proportional to the stored molecular energy. The instruments for measuring
ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers and for measuring high ➢ 180 divisions between the points
temperatures are known as pyrometers.

Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit scale can be converted to

Temperature Scale Celsius scale using the equation:

Celsius Scale 5
℃= (℉ − 32)
9
➢ Temperature of an ice-water mixture is defined as 0º C
Temperatures expressed by the Celsius scale can be converted to
• This is the freezing point of water the Fahrenheit scale using the equation:

➢ Temperature of a water-steam mixture is defined as 100º C 9

℉= ℃ + 32
5
• This is the boiling point of water
Absolute Temperature
➢ Distance between these points is divided
into 100 segments or degrees Absolute temperature is the temperature measured using a scale
beginning at zero, with that zero being the coldest theoretically attainable
Fahrenheit Scales
temperature in nature. It is also commonly defined that an absolute
➢ Most common scale used in the US temperature scale is a temperature scale having only positive values.

➢ Temperature of the freezing point is 32º There are two common absolute temperature scales derived from the
Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius (or Centigrade scale) namely: the Rankine
➢ Temperature of the boiling point is 212º
scale, and the Kelvin scale. The absolute temperature scale that corresponds
to the Celsius scale is called the Kelvin (K) scale, and the absolute scale that approximately equals the pressure exerted by a dollar bill resting flat on a
corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale is called the Rankine (R) scale. table. Everyday pressures are often stated in kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).

The relationships between the absolute and relative temperature scales are: When pressure is measured relative to atmospheric pressure (101.325
kpa or 14.7 psi), it is called gauge pressure (psig) and when pressure is
𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
measured relative to a perfect vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (kpaa
𝑅 = ℉ + 460 or psia) The latter pressure scale was developed because almost all pressure
gauges register zero when open to the atmosphere. Therefore, pressure
➢ Triple Point - It is a state of equilibrium, where all three phases (solid,
gauges measure the difference between the pressure of the fluid to which
liquid and gas) of a substance coexist simultaneously. The triple point of
they are connected and that of the surrounding air.
water is 0.01°C (271.16K).
If the pressure is
➢ Boiling Point - it is a state of equilibrium, where liquid and gaseous
below that of the
phases of a substance coexist simultaneously.
atmosphere, it is
➢ Melting Point - it is a state of equilibrium, where solid and liquid phases of designated as a vacuum.
a substance coexist simultaneously. A perfect vacuum would
correspond to absolute
zero pressure. Gauge
PRESSURE pressures are positive if they Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure +
are above atmospheric Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The SI unit pressure is the
pressure and negative if
Pascal (Pa), which is a Newton per square meter (N/e). Pressure is measured
they are below atmospheric pressure. Figure at the right shows the
in any unit of force divided by any unit of area. A pressure of 1 Pa is small; it
relationships between absolute, gauge, vacuum, and atmospheric pressures.
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted against a surface by PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
the weight of the air above that surface. Pressure atmospheric is also called
the barometric pressure. Values of 1 Pure Substance

Pressure atmospheric are 101.325 kPa, 1.033 kg/cm2, 29.92 in Hg, 760 mm A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable

Hg or 14.7 psia. chemical composition even though there is a change of phase. In other
words, it is a system which is: (a) homogeneous in composition; (b)
homogeneous in chemical aggregation; (c) invariable in chemical
aggregation.

Examples :

a. Liquid
b. Water
c. mixture of liquid water and steam
d. mixture of ice and water
e. The mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is not a pure
substance.

➢ c
o
m
p
ri
 sing steam and water, is homogeneous in composition, since chemical ng events occur.
analysis would reveal that hydrogen and oxygen atoms are presents in
the ratio 2 : 1 whether the sample be taken from the steam or from the
water. ➢ Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it is not about

➢ containing uncombined hydrogen and oxygen gas in the atomic ratio 2 to vaporize

: 1 in the upper part, and water in the lower part. ➢ Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize

➢ however, is not homogeneous in composition, for the hydrogen and ➢ Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.

oxygen are present in the ratio 1 : 1 in the upper part, but in the ratio 2 ➢ Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and

: 1 (as water) in the lower part. vapor phases coexist in equilibrium

➢ Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor)

Phase Change Of A Pure Substance

Let's consider the results of heating liquid water from 20oC, 1 atm while At 1 atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid phase
keeping the pressure constant. We will follow the constant pressure process (compressed liquid).
shown in figure below. First place liquid water in a piston-cylinder device
where a fixed weight is placed on the piston to keep the pressure of the water
constant at all times. As liquid water is heated while the pressure is held
const
ant,
the
followi
 At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as a liquid
that is ready to vaporize (saturated liquid).

As more heat is transferred, part of the saturated

liquid vaporizes (saturated liquid– vapor
mixture).

At 1 atm pressure, the temperature remains constant at

100°C until the last drop of liquid is vaporized (saturated
vapor)
 Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure

As more heat is transferred, the temperature of the vapor starts The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure;
to rise (superheated vapor). therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.

• Water boils at 100oC at 1 atm pressure.

• Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given pressure.
If the entire process between state 1 and 5 described in the figure is
• Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance
reversed by cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the same
changes phase at a given temperature.
value, the water will go back to state 1, retracing the same path, and in so
doing, the amount of heat released will exactly match the amount of heat
added during the heating process.

T-v diagram for the

heating process of
water at constant
The liquid–vapor saturation curve of a pure substance
pressure (numerical values are for water).
 • Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy absorbed during melting.
It is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.

• Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of energy absorbed during

vaporization, and it is equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.

• The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on the temperature or

pressure at which the phase change occurs.

At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the
latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.

The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,

decreases with elevation.

T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-change processes of

a pure substance at various pressures
Critical Point is the point at which the
saturated liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical. At pressures above
the critical pressure, there is not a
distinct phase change process.

Latent Heat
*Numerical Values are for Water
• Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed or released during a
phase change process.
 T-v Diagram of a The P-v Diagram of a Pure Substance
Pure Substance
The general shape of the
➢ Saturated liquid
P-v diagram of a pure substance
states can be
connected by a line is very much like the T-v diagram,
called the saturated but the T = constant lines on this
liquid line.
diagram have a downward trend.
➢ Saturated vapor
states can be ➢ During the vaporization
connected by another process, both the temperature
line, called the and the pressure remain constant,
saturated vapor line.
but the specific volume increases.
➢ These two lines
meet at the critical
point, forming a dome as shown in figure at the left.

➢ All the compressed liquid states are located in the region to the left of
the saturated liquid line, called the compressed liquid region.

➢ All the superheated vapor states are located to the right of the
saturated vapor line, called the superheated vapor region.

➢ All the states that involve both phases in equilibrium are located under
the dome, called the saturated liquid–vapor mixture region, or the
wet region.
 Pressure-Temperature (P-T) Diagram for Pure Substances
The points representing the
coexistence of
i. solid and vapor lie
on the ‘sublimation
curve’,
ii. liquid and vapor lie
on the ‘vaporization curve’,
iii. liquid and solid lie on
the ‘fusion curve’.
In the particular case
of water, the sublimation
curve is called the frost line, the vaporization curve is called the steam line,
and the fusion curve is
called the ice line.
p-T diagram for a substance such as water
The slopes of sublimation
and the vaporization
curves for all substances are positive. The slope of the fusion curve, however
may be positive or negative. The fusion curve of most substances have a
positive slope. Water is one of the important exceptions.
Triple point
The triple point is merely the point of intersection of sublimation and
vaporization curves. It must be understood that only on p-T diagram is the
triple point represented by a point.
On p-V diagram it is a line, and on a U-V diagram it is a triangle.
— The pressure and temperature at which all three phases of a pure
substance coexist may be measured with the apparatus that is used to
measure vapor pressure.
— Triple-point data for some interesting substances are given in Table
1(found in next page)
P-V-T Surface
The P-V-T and T-V diagrams can
be combined into a single three-
dimensional surface as shown at
the right for a substance that
contracts when it freezes. In the
diagram, the solid phase regions
are also represented. The
regions where only one phase
exist are labeled solid, liquid and
vapor. The regions where two phases exist the regions are labeled as solid-
liquid, solid-vapor, and liquid-vapor. Along the triple line, a line constant
temperature and pressure, all three phases coexists.
Liquid-Vapor Terms
• Saturation

Phase Change Terminology and Definitions temperature. The phase

change temperature
corresponding to the
saturation pressure.
Sometimes called the
boiling temperature.

• Saturation
Phase Change Terminology and Definitions pressure. The phase
change pressure.
• Triple point—The only state at which the solid, liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium.
• Compressed
• Critical point (C.P.). The limit of distinction between a liquid and liquid. Liquid whose
vapor.
temperature is
• Critical pressure. The pressure at the critical point lower than the saturation
• Critical temperature. The temperature at the critical point temperature. Sometimes called
a sub-cooled liquid
• Gas—A vapor whose temperature is greater than the critical
temperature.
• Saturated liquid. Liquid at the saturation temperature corresponding
to the saturation pressure.
• Saturated vapor. A term including wet and dry vapor
• Dry (saturated) vapor. vapor which has just completed evaporation.
The pressure and
temperature of the vapor are the saturation values.
• Wet vapor. The mixture of saturated liquid and dry vapor during the
phase change.
• Superheated vapor. vapor whose temperature is greater than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the vapor.
• Degree of superheat. The term used for the numerical amount by
which the temperature of a superheated vapor exceeds the saturation
temperature.
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS IN COMMON
USE
Besides p-V diagram which is useful
because pressure and volume are easily
visualized and the T-s chart which is used in general thermodynamic
work, there are other charts which are of practical use for particular
applications. The specific enthalpy-specific entropy chart is used for
steam plant work and the pressure-specific enthalpy chart is used in
refrigeration work. Sketches of these charts are shown at the left.
These charts are drawn for H2O (water and steam) and represent the
correct shape of the curves for this substance.
IMPORTANT TERMS RELATING STEAM FORMATION
Enthalpy of wet steam (h). It is defined as the quantity of heat
required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into wet steam at constant pressure.
It is the sum of total heat of water and the latent heat and this sum is also
called enthalpy.
In other words
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔
If Steam is dry and saturated, then 𝑥 = 1 and ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔
Where ℎ − 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
ℎ𝑓 − 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖
 ℎ𝑓𝑔 − 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Then,

𝑚𝑠
𝑥=
𝑥 − 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑤

Sensible heat of water (hf ). It is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed by Wetness fraction. Ratio of mass of moisture to the total mass of steam
1 kg of water when it is heated from 0°C (freezing point) to boiling point considered. It is denoted by y and expressed

100°𝐶. 𝑚𝑤
Wetness Fraction(𝑦) = = (1 − 𝑥)
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑤
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡)
(1-x)-Priming-wetness fraction in percent.
𝑘𝐽
Cp=specific heat of water, 4.187 𝑘𝑔−𝑜𝐶
Enthalpy of Superheated Steam. The specific enthalpy of superheated steam can
t- temperature of water be calculated from

Latent heat or hidden heat (hfg). It is the amount of heat required to convert ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 )
water at a given temperature and pressure into steam at the same
where
temperature and pressure.
ℎ𝑠 - enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ/kg)
Dryness fraction (x). The term dryness fraction is related with wet
steam. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to the mass of ℎ𝑔 - specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
steam containing it. It is usually expressed by the symbol ‘x’.
𝑐𝑝𝑠 - specific heat of steam at constant pressure
If
𝑘𝐽
𝑐𝑝𝑠 - 1.8860 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° at standard atmosphere. Take note that 𝑐𝑝𝑠
ms=Mass of dry steam contained in steam considered
varies with temperature.
mw = mass of water particles in suspension in the steam considered
 𝑇𝑓 - Saturation temperature (℃)
𝑇𝑠 - Superheated Steam temperature (℃)
Enthalpy of Superheated Steam. The specific enthalpy of superheated
steam can be calculated from
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 )
where
ℎ𝑠 - enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ/kg)
ℎ𝑔 - specific enthalpy of saturated steam (kJ/kg)
𝑐𝑝𝑠 - specific heat of steam at constant pressure
𝑘𝐽
𝑐𝑝𝑠 - 1.8860 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° at standard atmosphere. Take note that 𝑐𝑝𝑠
varies with temperature.
𝑇𝑓 - Saturation temperature (℃)
𝑇𝑠 - Superheated Steam temperature (℃)
Superheated steam. When steam is heated after it has become dry
and saturated, it is called superheated steam and the process of heating is
called superheating. Superheating is always carried out at constant pressure.
The additional amount of heat supplied to the steam during superheating is
called as ‘Heat of superheat’ and can be calculated by using the specific heat
of superheated steam at constant pressure (cps), the value of which varies
from 2.0 to 2.1 kJ/ kg K depending upon pressure and temperature.
If Tsup., Ts are the temperatures of superheated steam in K and wet or
dry steam, then (Tsup – Ts) is called ‘degree of superheat’.
The total heat of superheated steam is given by
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠 )
The advantages obtained by using ‘superheated’ steam are as follows
(i) By superheating steam, its heat content and hence its capacity to do
work is increased without having to increase its pressure.
(ii) Superheating is done in a superheater which obtains its heat from
waste furnace gases which would have otherwise passed uselessly up the
chimney.
(iii) High temperature of superheated steam results in an increase in
thermal efficiency.
(iv) Since the superheated steam is at a temperature above that
corresponding to its pressure, it can be considerably cooled during expansion
in an engine before its temperature falls below that at which it will condense
and thereby become wet. Hence, heat losses due to condensation of steam
on cylinder walls etc. are avoided to a great extent
Specific Volume of Wet Steam. The wet steam is a mixture of dry vapor and
moisture. The specific volume of wet steam is the sum of moisture volume
and a fraction of volume during evaporation.
vg=Specific volume of dry steam at pressure p
Ts=Saturation temperature in K
Tsup-Temperature of superheated steam in K, and
vsup = Volume of 1 kg of superheated steam at pressure p,
Then,

𝑣𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔 𝑝 ∙𝑣𝑔 𝑝 ∙ 𝑣𝑠𝑢𝑝

=
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝
= 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑔 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝
𝑣𝑠𝑢𝑝 =
where 𝑇𝑠

𝑣𝑔 = specific volume of dry and saturated steam Internal Energy of Steam

𝑣𝑓 =specific volume of moisture (water) Internal energy is the energy associated with the random, disordered
motion of molecules or it refers to energy contained within the system.
𝑣𝑓𝑔 = specific volume change of steam during evaporation = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓
Internal energy also refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic
and molecular scale having a property whose value is the sum of all the

Specific Volume of superheated steam. As superheated steam behaves microscopic forms of energy. Internal energy also accounts of the gains and

like a perfect gas its volume can be found out in the same way as the gases. losses of energy of the system.

If, There are two ways internal energy can be changed:

 (1) by heating the system, and ug = internal energy of saturated vapor (kJ/kg

(2) by doing work on the system. The total heat is given by, ufg = internal energy change of vaporization (kJ/kg)

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣 Internal Energy of superheated steam can be found using

or 𝑢 = ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑝𝑣𝑠𝑢𝑝

𝑢 = ℎ − 𝑝𝑣 u = internal energy of superheated steam (kJ/kg)

where: hsup = enthalpy of superheated steam (kJ/kg)

u = internal energy of steam at pressure p (kJ/kg) = hg+ Cps(ts-tf)

h = specific enthalpy of steam (kJ/kg) hg = specific enthalpy of saturated steam, kJ/kg

p = saturation pressure (kPa) Cps= specific heat of steam at constant pressure

v = specific volume of saturated steam (m3/kg) = 1.860 (kJ/kg-°C) at std. atmosphere

Internal energy of wet steam can be found using, (Take note that Cps varies with pressure).

𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑢𝑓𝑔 ) tr = saturation temperature (°C)

where ts = superheated steam temperature (°C)

u = internal energy (kJ/kg) p = saturation pressure. kPa

uf= internal energy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg) vsup = specific volume of superheated steam (m3/kg)
 Entropy of Pure Substances Tsat = saturation temperature (°K)

Entropy of Wet Steam. It is the sum of entropy of saturated water sf and Tsup= superheated steam temperature (°K)

the entropy of partial evaporation.

Entropy Change During Heating of Water. Let 1 kg of water be heated
𝑘𝐽 from temperature T1 to T2 at constant pressure. The change in entropy is
𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑡= 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥𝑠𝑓𝑔 in
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 calculated by:

Entropy of Superheating Steam. The entropy change during 𝑇2

∆𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑙𝑛 ( )
superheating of 1 kg of dry steam from Tsat to Tsup at constant 𝑇1

pressure. where:
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑇 ∆s = change in entropy (kJ/kg-°K)
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∫ = 𝐶𝑝𝑠 ∫ = 𝐶𝑝𝑠 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
Cpw = specific heat of water, 4.187 kJ/kg-°K
The total entropy of superheated steam above the freezing point temperature
of water T = -absolute temperature (°K)

𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 T2 = final temperature (°K)

𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑠𝑓𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝𝑠 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
T1 = initial temperature (°K)
where:
The entropy of saturated water, sf from 273 K to Tsat can be obtained
Cps = specific heat of steam at constant pressure directly from the steam tables or it can be calculated as

= 1.860 (kJ/kg-°K) at std. atmosphere 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑠𝑓 = 𝐶𝑝𝑤 𝑙𝑛 ( )
237
(Take note that Cps varies with pressure).
Entropy Change During Evaporation. The specific entropy change and quality of steam
during evaporation is denoted by Sfg for saturated steam and
Mollier Chart is used only for superheated steam and when the quality of
obtained from steam tables. For saturated steam, entropy during
the steam is greater than 50%
evaporation can be calculated as:

ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑠𝑓𝑔 =
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

Mollier Diagram (H-S Chart)

➢ Also known as the

Enthalpy-Entropy diagram or
the H-S diagram

➢ It Plots the total heat

against entropy, describing the
enthalpy of thermodynamic
system.

➢ It is a graphical
representation of functional
relationship between enthalpy,
entropy, temperature, pressure
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT The following are the equivalence of the units of energy in engineering
applications:
1. Energy
1 ft-lbf = 1.286 x 10' Btu = 3.766 x 10-7 kW-hr
Energy is the capacity or ability to do work. It is a scalar quantity.
1 Btu = 778.3 ft-lbf = 2.928 x 10-4 kW-hr
Energy exist in one of several forms, such as heat, light, mechanical,
electrical and chemical energy. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, 1 kW-hr = 3.413 x 103 Btu = 2.655 x 106 ft-Ibf
but can be transformed from one form to another.

It is measured in kJ in SI unit, and kcal in MKS units. Potential Energy

The following are forms of energy: Potential energy (PE) of a system is a result of its elevation in a gravitational
(1) kinetic energy field.

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐽)

(2) radiant energy
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑔𝑧 𝐽/kg
(3) potential energy
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and z is the elevation of the
(4) thermal energy
system relative to some outside reference or datum plane.
(5) internal energy

Units used to measure energy:

Kinetic Energy
(a) mechanical units, such as Newton-meter (joule) or foot-pounds (ft-lbs)
in English system, Kinetic Energy of a system is a result of motion relative to some reference.

(b) thermal units, such as kilocalorie (kcal), calorie (cal), and British
thermal unit (Btu) in English system, and

(c) electrical units, such as watt-second (W-sec).

 where v is the velocity of the system with respect to some reference. Enthalpy

The sum of internal energy U and the product of pressure p and volume V. It

Internal Energy is also called total enthalpy and designated by H.

The Internal Energy of a system is the energy stored within the body 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
resulting from the kinetic and potential energy of its molecules. The sum
of all the microscopic forms of energy is called internal energy.

𝑈 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
2. Heat
where
Heat is a form of energy that flows between two systems ( or system
K.E= internal kinetic energy of molecules, and and its surroundings) by virtue of the temperature difference between
P.E = internal potential energy of molecules. them. If the temperature between two systems are the same, there would be
no heat transfer.

Mechanical Energy The units of heat transferred are measured in

Joules (J) or kilo Joules (kJ) in SI units and calories (cal) or
Mechanical Energy is the form of energy that can converted directly and
kilocalories (kcal) in MKS.
completely into mechanical work by an ideal mechanical device such as an
ideal pump or turbine. The common forms of mechanical energy are kinetic
and potential energies. Thermal (heat) energy is not a form of mechanical
Heat Supply and Heat Rejection
energy since it cannot be converted directly to work directly and completely.
The heat or heat energy is generally referred as heat transfer. Heat addition is
the transfer of heat into the system and heat rejection is the transfer of heat
from the system
 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇 then Cp =Cv=C 3. Work
Work is the same as heat is also a form of energy in transit. It is defined as
the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Energy can cross the boundary of the system as heat or work. Work is
also measured in kJ. Work done during process from state 1 to state 2
denoted by W.

Universally accepted sign conventions for heat energy.

1. Heat transferred to a system (heat supply), the sign is positive. Forms of Work Transfer

2. Heat transferred from a system (heat rejection), the sign is negative 1. Electrical work- is the work done on a charged particle by an
electrical field. In an electric field, the electrons in wire move under the
effect of electromotive force for doing work. (driving a motor, fan, etc.)
Specific Heat
Rate of electrical work transfer can be expressed as Watts and the rate
of work done in Joules

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑉𝐼∆𝑡 (Joules, J)

2. Mechanical Work- In physics, mechanical work is the amount of energy

transferred by a force or work done by a system is expressed as a product of
Force (F) and displacement (s). Like energy, it is scalar quantity, with SI unit
of Joules (J).
 𝑊=𝐹∙𝑠 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐽) flow work. Flow work is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow

When the force is not constant, the work done is obtained by: through control volume.

2 𝑊 = 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴 𝐿 = 𝑃𝑉

𝑊=න 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 where
1
F=Force

L=length of stroke P=Pressure

3. Moving boundary work – occurs because the mass of the
A=cross sectional area V=volume
substance contained within the system boundary causes a force, the
pressure times the surface area, to act on the boundary surface and
make it move.
5. Gravitational Work or change in potential energy is the work done
against the gravitational force. It is also known as gravitational
potential energy. The gravitational Force Fg acting on a body of mass is

𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔

where

g=acceleration due to gravity

4. Flow work is needed to push the fluid into or out of the boundaries of
a control volume is the mass flow is involved. This work is called the
6. Acceleration Work is the work associated with change in velocity 7. Shaft Work is the work done with energy transmission with rotating
of a system. This also known as change in Kinetic Energy. shaft. It is the product of torque(product of Force and radius shaft)) and
Acceleration force Fa according to Newton’s Second Law of motion angular displacement.

𝐹𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎 Consider a shaft rotating with N revolutions per minute and force F is

acting through an arm radius r , the torque is
where a is the acceleration, which is defined in terms of the
velocity v as

8. Spring Work. When the force is applied on a spring, its length changes.
If dx is the change in the length of a spring under force F then the work
done by the spring is

𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
 The force F exerted can be defined in terms of the spring constant k in 1ft-lbf/sec=4.6263Btu/hr=1.356x10-3 kW
N/m as 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
1Btu/hr=0.2162ft-lbf/sec=2.931x10-4kW

1kW=3.1413x103Btu/hr=737.6 ft-lbf/sec

1 hp=550ft-lbf/sec = 42.4 Btu/min

Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio of useful output and total input

Power

Power is the time rate of doing work. Power has units energy per unit time.
Units used to measure power:

1. mechanical units of power are horsepower (hp) and Watts (W) or

kilowatts.

2. Thermal units of power are British thermal units per hour (Btu/hr),

3. Electrical units of power are Watts(W) or kilowatts (kW)

Units of power in engineering applications

 Ideal Gases THE EQUATION OF STATE FOR A PERFECT GAS

Introduction A. Boyle’s Law

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or
molecules are perfectly elastic and which there are no intermolecular
attractive forces. Ideal gas can be visualize as a collection of perfectly
hard spheres which collide but otherwise do not interact with each other. In
such a gas, all the internal energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any
change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature.

An ideal gas and a perfect gas obeys the pV=nRT. They are characterized by
the three variables

a. absolute temperature (p)

b. Volume (V)

c. absolute temperature (T)

The specific heat capacities of ideal gas are not constant but are functions of
temperature while specific heat capacities of perfect gas is constant.
B. Charles’ Law
C. Gay-Lussac’s Law
“If any gas is heated at constant volume, the pressure of a gas of fixed
mass is directly proportional to the gas absolute temperature”
If P is the absolute pressure of the gas and T is the absolute temperature of
the gas then,
𝑃𝛼𝑇
D. Combined Gas Law
The combined gas law is a gas that combines Boyle’s Law, Charle’s law
and Gay-Lussac’s Law. This law has no official founder and its merely a
combination of the three preciously discovered laws. The statement of
Combined Gas Law is
“The ratio between the product of pressure-volume and the temperature of
a system remains constant”
If P is the absolute pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas
occupied and T is the absolute temperature of the gas then,
Ideal Gas Equations

An ideal gas can be characterized by the three state variables:

absolute pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T). The
relationship between them was derived from kinetic theory and is called the
ideal gas law. The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical
ideal gas and is good approximation to the behavior of many gases under
many conditions
Reversible Adiabatic Process or Isentropic Process
Polytropic Process
 IDEAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY OF AN IDEAL GAS Mass or Gravimetric Analysis

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Enthalpy of An Ideal Gas

MIXTURES INVOLVING IDEAL GAS

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure Specific Heat of the Mixture