Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Effects of fuel injection parameters on emission characteristics of diesel

engines operating on various biodiesel: A review
P. Mohamed Shameer n, K. Ramesh, R. Sakthivel, R. Purnachandran
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore 641013, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Many researches have been carried out towards the reduction in noxious emissions from diesel engines.
Received 2 January 2016 This paper reviews the studies on the outcomes of operating parameters discrepancy on the engine
Received in revised form emission issues carried out by various authors in different diesel engines fuelled with biodiesel from
16 August 2016
different feedstocks. The main goal of this paper is to enlighten the momentous of injection parameters
Accepted 25 September 2016
Available online 25 October 2016
like injection timing and injection pressure on the engine emission characteristics. This paper touches
upon the advancement and retardation methods of fuel injection timing and injection pressure to inspect
Keywords: the engine emission indicators such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, oxides of nitrogen, smoke, par-
Engine ticulate matter and carbon dioxide contents. Comparative evaluation has been conversed accompanied
Biodiesel
by apropos causes for the deviation of emission characteristics.
Emission
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Injection timing
Injection pressure

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
2. Intention of the review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
2.1. Requisite of biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
2.2. Indian scenario of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
2.3. Global scenario of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
2.4. Sources of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
2.5. Benefits of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
2.5.1. Renewability, feasibility and availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
2.5.2. Higher combustion efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
2.5.3. Lower emission scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
2.6. Biodiesel – a vehicular fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
2.7. Biodiesel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
2.8. Emission indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
3. Injection timing and injection pressure changing technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
4. Effects of injection timing on emission characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
4.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
4.2. Hydrocarbon (HC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
4.3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
4.4. Particulate matter (PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
4.5. Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
4.6. Carbon dioxide (CO2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
5. Effects of injection pressure on emission characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
5.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
5.2. Hydrocarbon (HC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
5.3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277

n
Correspondence to: No 3/14 C, Muslim North Street, Viyasaraja Puram, Kalakad-627501. Tirunelveli. Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail addresses: pmohamedshameer@gmail.com (P. Mohamed Shameer), kasimaniramesh@gmail.com (K. Ramesh), sakthivelmts@gmail.com (R. Sakthivel),
purnamechatron@gmail.com (R. Purnachandran).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.117
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1268 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281

5.4. Particulate matter (PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279

5.5. Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
5.6. Carbon dioxide (CO2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280

1. Introduction
On comparing to gasoline engines, diesel engines are highly
efficient. Hence it has been used as a chief prime mover of major
engineering applications. At the same time, diesel engines are
accountable for the emission of environmental pollutants like
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, particulate
matter, hydrocarbon and other unsafe compounds which are the
culprit for rising global warming. The CO2 concentration in the
ambiance on the year 2030 has been predicted to acquire 80%
above the levels of the year 2007 [43]. Hence the reduction of
these pollutants is mandated by the government rules. Several
studies have been conducted over the past two decades for thin-
ning the emission scale. It was reported that the adoption of bio-
diesel in the diesel engine curbs the degree of emission. The
present range of engine operating parameters like fuel injection
timing and injection pressure are effective only for diesel fuel,
while for biodiesels they have to be modified and optimized. Many
researchers have analyzed the consequences of varying the oper-
ating parameters on performance, emission and combustion be-
haviors. This review paper focuses its light on the emission para-
meters of diesel engines powered by biodiesels with varied in-
jection timing and injection pressure.
2. Intention of the review
2.1. Requisite of biodiesel
Various sectors like transportation, agriculture and industries
are using diesel fuel as a major source of power. With ever-in-
creasing population, the usage of automobiles also increased,
which leads to the consumption of higher amount of fossil fuels.
As the stipulation of diesel fuel increases, the price of the fuel is
also escalating. The year by year increasing consumption of fossil
fuels from 1989 to 2014 has been evaluated [76] and displayed in
Fig. 1. Biodiesel is a cleaner burning replacement fuel for diesel
available from natural sources such as virgin and used vegetable
oil, algae and animal fats. This paper focuses on the use of bio-
diesel as a substitute to the petroleum fuels, as the biodiesel
provides environmental advantage by eliminating pollutant
emissions..
Previous reviewers in this area collected and reported the en-
gine exhaust emission results with different types of biodiesel
blends investigated by various authors upto the year 2014 [81–83].
Many new researches have been done concerning the effects of
injection parameters on the emission characteristics of various
biodiesel in the year 2015. The objective of this assessment is to
review the emission characteristics of different biodiesel blends
with standard, advanced and retarded fuel injection timing along
with the distinctiveness of standard, lower and higher fuel injec-
tion pressure, experimented by numerous authors up-to-date.
2.2. Indian scenario of biodiesel
The planning commission of India has initiated a biofuel project
on cultivation and production of biodiesel from jatropha and
karanja in 200 districts from 18 states in India. It was predicted
that India would be able to generate 288 metric tonnes of biodiesel
in the year 2012, which would complement 41.14% of demand for
diesel consumption in India [75]. According to BP's (British Pet-
roleum) Statistical Review of World Energy- 2015, India shows
increased fossil fuel consumption in the year 2014 which is 7.1%
higher than 2013 levels. In the year 2010 India projected highest
change in biofuel production from its former year by adding 0.113
million tonnes of oil, which was 85% higher to 2009 year biofuel

Fig. 1. Year by year increasing fossil fuel consumption (Million tonnes oil equivalent) from 1989 to 2014 (Source: BP's Statistical Review of World Energy- 2015).
 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281 1269

Nomenclature SOC start of combustion

SOI start of injection
IT injection timing LHV lower heating value
IP injection pressure BTE brake thermal efficiency
CAD crank angle degree HRR heat release rate
BTDC before top dead centre Std IT standard injection timing
ATDC after top dead centre Std IP standard injection pressure
CO carbon monoxide Adv IT advanced injection timing
CO2 carbon dioxide Ret IT retarded injection timing
HC hydrocarbon Mod IP modified injection pressure
PM particulate matter ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
NOx oxides of nitrogen

production. In the year 2014, India recorded 29.1% higher biodiesel
production than previous year with 0.320 million tones of bio-
diesel [76].
2.3. Global scenario of biodiesel
Global fossil fuel utilization grew by 0.8 million barrels per day
in the year 2014. Chinese consumption growth recorded the
highest increment by 2.6% and Japanese consumption recorded
the largest decline by
3%. In the year 2014, US consumption
increased by 1.2% than the level of year 2013 [76]. In Nicaragua,
Jatropha has been planted in 1000 ha area, after its fifth year
1600 t of oil extracted from 5000 t of seed [75]. In Nepal, the rural
women have been taught to extract oil and to use it in cooking
stove at 30% oil volume with 70% kerosene volume, which reduces
the smoke [78,79]. In United States and Europe, soybeans and
rapeseed are commonly used feedstocks for biodiesel production.
Meanwhile in Indonesia and Malaysia, palm oil is the primary
biodiesel source [77]. In the year 2009, USA and Europe used 50
million gallons and 350 million gallons of biodiesel annually as
20% volume of biodiesel with 80% diesel fuel. France uses 50% of
biodiesel along with diesel fuel [75]. In the year 2014, the biodiesel
production of France, China, Indonesia and Spain showed incre-
ment of 2.2%, 3.3%, 40.4% and 32.2% higher than the year 2013
levels. US show 5.6% higher biodiesel production in the year 2014
with massive production of 30.058 million tones. Global biofuel
production augmented by 7.4% in the year 2014 (Fig. 2) [76]..
pongamia, castor, jatropha and Calophyllum inophyllum [61] are
receiving higher attention among the biodiesel researchers. Fas-
cinatingly algae are also used to produce biodiesel, which can
grow in saline water and anyplace where there is enough sun-
shine. Different species of algae produce different amounts of oil.
Microalgae are photosynthesizing organisms that need only short
time for growing. Some study estimated that the yield of oil per
acre from algae is better than the vegetable oils [64]. But extreme
environmental conditions have to be maintained constantly for
algae growth, which is practically impossible in many countries.
Special care has to be taken for nurturing algae in a large scale.
2.5. Benefits of biodiesel
2.5.1. Renewability, feasibility and availability
Biodiesel can be produced from renewable oilseed crops like
pongamia, Calophyllum inophyllum, cottonseed, soybean, rape-
seed, etc,. They are readily available and renewable [68,69]. Sto-
rage of biodiesel is feasible like petroleum fuels when compared to
other alternative sources. It is safe to handle and transport as it is
biodegradable with high flash point than diesel [66,67,80].
2.5.2. Higher combustion efficiency
The higher heating values (HHVs) are relatively high for

2.4. Sources of biodiesel

Materials containing fatty acids are suitable to produce bio-

diesel. Vegetable oils, animal fats, oil processing wastes can be
used as raw material for biodiesel production [62]. Varieties of
biolipids are used to extract biodiesel. They are vegetable oil
feedstock, waste vegetable oil, non edible oils and animal fats like
lard and tallow. Vegetable oil is the most attractive alternative fuel
due to its environmental benefits. Researchers have identified
more than 340 oil containing crops, among which only palm, ja-
tropha, Calophyllum inophyllum, pongamia, cottonseed, soybean,
rapeseed, safflower, sunflower, etc., are considered as potential
substitute fuel for compression ignition engines [4–47]. Rapeseed,
soybean, sunflower, pongamia and jatropha are the most com-
monly used feedstock for biodiesel extraction. Palm oil has higher
oil content, which is able to produce 975 l of biodiesel per acre.
Meanwhile rapeseed, soybean and sunflowers can produce 435 l,
160 l and 280 l per acre respectively [63]. Most research articles
take soybean as a biodiesel source [65]. But these oils have alter-
native markets as commercial cooking oil, hence higher price
tagged resources. Hence edible oil fuels are not suitable because of Fig. 2. Global biodiesel production (%) from year 2004–2014 (Source: BP's Statis-
its expensive price than petroleum fuels. Non-edible oils like tical Review of World Energy- 2015).
1270 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281

biodiesel. Increase in the homogeneity of oxygen in fuel improves

combustion efficiency. Biodiesel is well known for its higher oxy-
gen content which improves the fuel combustion process. It con-
tains 11% oxygen by weight and null sulfur content [70]. Due to
higher lubricant properties of biodiesel, the life of diesel engine
could be extended.

2.5.3. Lower emission scale

Biodiesel provides reduction in carbon monoxide, smoke and
particulate matter concentration in exhaust comparable to petro-
leum diesel fuels. Combustion of pure biodiesel leads to 75–90%
drop in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and 90% diminu-
tion in unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) when compared to diesel
fuel combustion [70]. Depending on engine condition and oper-
ating parameters, nitrogen oxide emission levels show a slight
increase or decrease. As this paper focuses mainly on the emission
characteristics of biodiesel fuelled engine with varied operating
conditions, the varied emission levels for different biodiesel
feedstocks and its blends are discussed briefly in the subsequent
sections.

2.6. Biodiesel – a vehicular fuel

As biodiesel obtained from feedstocks have similar physical

properties to petroleum diesel fuel, it operates in compression
ignition (C.I) engines [73]. The best suitable biodiesel is specified
by its properties like viscosity, density, cetane number, high
heating value, aloud point, flash point and fire points according to
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) norms [74]. In
Europe currently the maximum level of 5.75% biodiesel addition is
allowed with conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel in diesel engines
is often used as a blend B20 (20% volume biodiesel and 80% vo-
lume conventional diesel) rather than using B100 (100% volume
biodiesel), as it reduce the emission as well as improve the engine
performance. Higher than 20% volume, biodiesel characterized
further reduction in emission but there is declination in the per-
formance characteristics [7,15,20,33,71,72].
2.7. Biodiesel production
Almost all authors go after transesterification for biodiesel
production in order to reduce the viscosity and molecular weight
of raw oil [1,5,13–15,17,21,29,31,32,41]. Transesterification process
is also named as alcoholysis, during which the alcohol reacts with
oil in the presence of catalyst resulted in ethyl or methyl esters
(biodiesel) and a by-product (glycerol). Methanol or ethanol is
employed as alcohol, whereas potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide is used as the catalyst. This method of biodiesel pro-
duction leads to the enhancement of volatility and cetane number
of biodiesel equivalent to that of diesel. Fig. 3 shows simple pro-
cessing flow diagram for biodiesel production. The properties of
biodiesel blends prepared are sorted in Table 1. The various diesel
engines used in the researches are listed and expressed in Table 2..
2.8. Emission indicators
Due to combustion reaction of fuel molecules, the vital emis-
sions from the engine that are prime pollutants harming the en-
vironment are,
 Carbon monoxide (CO).
 Hydrocarbon (HC).
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx).
 Particulate Matters (PM).
 Smoke.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2).
Fig. 3. Flow diagram for biodiesel production – transesterification process.
3. Injection timing and injection pressure changing technique
The different types of fuel injection systems used in the re-
search works are listed and described in Table 3. Altering the
number of shims between the fuel pump and engine, variation in
the injection timing was attained in terms of crank angle degree.
For retarding the injection timing the number of shims was in-
creased and for advancing the timing the shims was reduced
[2,4,6–9,11,12,15,17–19,24,26,27,29,31–35,38,40].
By adjusting the injector spring tension with the help of setting
screw, the injection pressure was modified [13,17–19,29,32,34].
Also by the removal and insertion of shims under nozzle spring
leads to changes in the preload of spring inside the injector which
resulted in the injection pressure modification [33].
4. Effects of injection timing on emission characteristics
The variation of emission indicators regarding the injection
timing modifications are tabulated precisely in Table 4.
4.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
Nwafor et al. investigated the effects of advanced injection
timing from 30 CAD BTDC to 33.5 CAD BTDC and 35.5 CAD BTDC
with rapeseed biodiesel in Petter model AC1 diesel engine and
reported that CO emission level decreased for advancing the fuel
injection timing [3]. Choi et al. fuelled Caterpillar 1Y3700 SCOTE D.
I. diesel engine with soybean biodiesel at both advanced and re-
tarded injection timing, observed that CO level increased at low
lad conditions and at high load the correlation between CO and
Particulate matter concentration was poor [7]. Cenk et al. studied
the variation of CO level by varying injection timings and depicted
that CO decreased by 13.54% for B5 blend at advanced IT of 25 CAD
BTDC, meanwhile CO increased by 1.21% for the same B5 blend at
retarded IT of 15 CAD BTDC while fuelling Lombardini 6 LD 400
engine with biodiesel [11]. Advanced IT leads to higher cylinder
Table 1
Various properties of biodiesel fuels.

S.No Ref. No Biodiesel Blend Calorific Viscosity Density Cetane Pour point Flash point Fire point Oxygen Sulfur Hydrogen Nitrogen Carbon
value @40 deg @15 deg number
MJ/kg cSt g/cm3 °C °C °C wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
ASTM D6751 ASTM D240 ASTM D445 ASTM D1298 ASTM D976 ASTM D93 ASTM ASTM
D2500 D5222

1. 1 Linseed B100 – 4.2 0.865 48
18 161 – 11.72 0.05 9.98 0.01 78.14
2. 3 Rapeseed B100 36.89 3.62 0.918 – – – – – – – – –
3. 4 Rapeseed B100 – 4.5 0.885 54
12 150 – 10.5 0.01 12 – 77.4
4. 5 Orange skin powder B30 40.992 4.1 0.8515 – – 70 83 36.79 1.94 mg/kg 3.8 1.73 44.44

P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
5. 6 Mahua B100 36.8 3.98 0.88 – 6 208 – – – – – –
6. 7 Soybean B20 – 2.82 0.8479 46.3 – – – 2.46 0.039 – – –
7. 7 Soybean B40 – 3.04 0.8632 47.1 – – – 4.92 0.03 – – –
8. 9 Chinese pistache B100 38.265 4.4 0.877 46 – – – – – – – –
9. 10 Soybean B100 4.11 – 0.88 47.1 – – – – 3 ppm – – –
10. 11 C18.08H34.86O2 B100 38.73 4.39 0.885 60.4 – 74.1 – – – – – –
11. 12 Jatropha B100 38.5–42 3.7–5.8 0.878–0.885 46–70 15–13 170–191 178–197 – 0.0024 – – –
12. 13 Waste cooking palm oil B100 38.034 4.55 0.866 66.9 9 170 – – 0 – – –
13. 14 Pongamia B100 36.5 4.8 0.878 51 – 172 – – – – – –
14. 14 Pongamia B40 40.1 3.85 0.859 51 – 81 – – – – – –
15. 15 Pongamia B20 43.126 3.49 – 51 3.6 91 – – – – – –
16. 16 Palm oil B100 40.03 5.53 – 64.6 – 182 – 11.1 o 1 mg/kg 12.3 – 76.5
17. 17 Waste cooking palm oil B100 38.034 4.027 0.866 66 9 170 190 9.816 0 13.308 0.616 76.26
18. 18 Crude rice bran B100 38.853 4.03 0.89 – – 169 – – – – – –
19. 19 Rapeseed B100 36 3.6 0.930 39 – 220 – – 10 mg/kg – – –
20. 20 Soybean B20 33.9 3 0.815 40.5 – – – – – – – –
21. 21 Waste cooking oil B100 38.85 4.4 0.878 51.34 – 190 – – 1 mg/kg – – –
22. 23 Rapeseed B100 38.2 5.51 0.884 51 – 138.5 – – 5.8 mg/kg – – –
23. 24 Soybean B100 38 7.16 0.883 65 – 170 – 11 – – – –
24. 24 Bioethanol B100 27 1.65 0.795 o 15 – 13 – 34.8 – – – –
25. 25 Used vegetable oil B100 40.001 4.2 0.882 54 – 78 – 9.1 1 mg/kg 12.79 – 78.11
26. 26 Rapeseed B100 37.57 4.43 0.883 52.6 – – – – – – – –
27. 26 Bioethanol B100 26.87 1.16 0.792 5 to 8 – – – – – – – –
28. 26 Rapeseed þbioethanol B10 þ E20 39.15 1.95 0.829 40 – – – – – – – –
29. 28 Karanja B50 40.8 3.51 0.856 – – – – – – – – –
30. 29 Jatropha B100 39.4 5.6 0.881 – – 156 171 10.97 0.001 11.81 0.119 77.1
31. 29 Tyre pyrolysis oil B100 38.1 3.35 0.913 – – 49 58 1.02 0.95 10.46 0.65 86.92
32. 29 Jatropha þtyre pyrolysis oil B80 þ 38.8 5.2 0.887 – – 132 NM 9.02 0.18 11.31 0.23 79.26
TPO20
33. 30 Karanja B100 37.98 4.42 0.881 50.8 – – – – – – – –
34. 32 Waste cooking oil B100 43.356 3.522 0.8 – – 70 – – – – – –
35. 33 Mahua B20 41.7 2.88 0.856 –
3 96 – – – – – –
36. 35 Canola B100 – 4.526 0.884 54.3 – 177.6 – – 2.5 mg/kg – – –
37. 35 Hazelnut soapstock B100 – 4.554 0.892 56.7 – 180.4 – – 2.4 mg/kg – – –
38. 36 Paradise tree B100 38.1 17.3 0.91 45
48 – 225 – – – – – –
39. 37 Palm oil B100 38.29 7.159 0.871 31.7 – – – – – – – –
40. 38 Palm oil B100 40.479 4.605 0.872 60 – 184.8 – 10.17 – – – –
41. 38 Beef tallow B100 39.933 4.1 0.87 61 – 169 – 10.2 – – – –
42. 38 Jatropha B100 39.809 4.44 0.876 52 – 175 – 9.97 – – – –
43. 38 Soybean B100 39.798 4.17 0.881 45 – 164 – 9.92 – – – –
44. 39 Bioethanol B100 – 1.13 0.789 – – – – – 0.347 13.13 – 52.14
45. 41 Annona B100 43 3.9 0.83 48 – 56 – – – – – –
46. 42 Karanja B50 40.8 3.51 0.856 – – – – – – – – –
47. 61 Calophyllum inophyllum B100 37.9 5.4 0.870 59.5 – 170 – – – – – –

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1272 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281

Table 2
Various models of diesel engines and its description.

S.No Ref. No Engine model Speed Power Stroke Bore Number of Compression ratio Displacement Cooling
cylinder system
rpm kW mm mm cm3

1. 1 Kirloskar 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM Air

2. 2 Agricultural direct injection type D-110 NM NM 130 108 4 17:01 NM NM
3. 3 Petter model AC1 3600 4.8 66.67 76.2 1 17:01 304 Air
4. 4 RUGGERINI RF51 3600 8.1 75 90 1 18.5:1 477 NM
5. 5 Direct injection stationary diesel engine 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 661 Air
6. 6 IDI with the pre combustion chamber 3000 9 111.1 76.2 1 20:01 NM Air
7. 7 Caterpillar 1Y3700 SCOTE D.I. Diesel engine 2100 74.6 164.1 137.2 NM 16.1:1 NM NM
8. 8 Computerized IC engine 1500 3.2 110 87.5 1 12–18.5:1 661 Water
9. 9 ZS195 (direct injection) and 195S-1 (indirect 2000 8.82 115 95 1 17:01 815 Water
injection)
10. 10 Ford Lion NM NM 88 81 6 17.3:1 NM NM
11. 11 Lombardini 6 LD 400 3600 7.5 68 86 1 18:01 395 NM
12. 12 Greaves Cotton model GL 400 II A 3600 5.59 68 86 1 18:01 395 Air
13. 13 TV1- KIRLOSKAR 1500 5.2 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM Water
14. 14 Kirloskar 1500 7.5 110 80 2 17.5:1 NM Water
15. 15 Kirloskar TV1 1500 5.2 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 661 Water
16. 17 TV1- KIRLOSKAR 1500 5.2 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM Water
17. 18 Kirloskar TAF1 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 661 Air
18. 19 Multi-cylinder turbo-charged type NM NM 86 86 4 18.2:1 1998.23 NM
19. 20 Single cylinder compression ignition engine NM NM 84.5 75 1 17.8:1 373.3 NM
20. 21 DC Dynamometer loaded engine NM NM 125 100 1 17.4:1 980 NM
21. 22 Multi-cylinder turbo-charged type NM NM 86 86 4 18.2:1 1998.23 NM
22. 23 MAN D2566 MUM four stroke NM NM 155 125 6 17.5:1 11,412 NM
23. 24 Direct injection diesel engine NM NM 84.5 75 1 17.8:1 373.3 NM
24. 25 Daedong ND 130DI NM NM 95 95 1 18:01 673 Water
25. 26 Dyno test bench type 4000 113 90 82.9 4 16.5:1 NM NM
26. 28, 30 AVL, 5402 1500 6 90 85 1 17.5:1 510.7 NM
27. 29,32 Kirloskar TAF1 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 661 Air
28. 33 Kirloskar TV1 1500 5.2 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM Water
29. 34 Kirloskar TAF 1 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 662 Air
30. 35 Antor/6LD400 3000 5.4 68 86 1 18:01 395 Air
31. 36 Kirloskar, TAF1 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 661 Air
32. 37 Single-cylinder engine modified from a four- NM NM 92 83.1 1 16.7:1 500 NM
cylinder diesel engine
33. 38 Yanmar L100V NM NM NM NM 1 NM 435 NM
34. 39 AVL 501 NM NM NM 130 1 15.78:1 1999 NM
35. 41 Kirloskar 1800 6.02 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM NM
36. 42 AVL 5402 NM 6 90 85 1 17.5:1 510.7 NM
37. 61 Kirloskar, TAF1 1500 4.4 110 87.5 1 17.5:1 NM Air

NM – Not Mentioned in the literature.

temperature and superior oxidation process between oxygen and
carbon molecules which tends to decrease in CO emission
[11,34,46]. Ganapathy et al. identified that advanced injection
timing in Greaves Cotton model GL 400 II A engine has less effect
in CO emission increment, but retarded IT leads to reduced CO
level with jatropha biodiesel.[12]. Kannan et al. advanced the fuel
injection timing from 23 CAD BTDC to 25.5 CAD BTDC and 28 CAD
BTDC, reported that CO declined and recorded the lowest CO
concentration of 0.2% at 25.5 CAD BTDC for waste cooking oil
methyl ester experimented in TV1- KIRLOSKAR engine [13]. Pan-
dian et al. investigated the effects of advanced and retarded IT's
with pongamia biodiesel in Kirloskar engine and reported that CO
level decreases for advanced IT and increases for retarded IT. At
advanced fuel injection timing, enhanced fuel spray penetration in
longer ignition delay period resulted in rapid combustion phase
leads to decrement in CO emission [14]. Similar variation result
from Pandian et al. was observed by Jaichandar et al. while using
pongamia biodiesel in Kirloskar TV1 engine [15] and also by Balaji
et al. with mahua biodiesel in Kirloskar TV1 engine [33]. At re-
tarded injection timing, the amount of fuel burned is increased
and decreased in subsequent diffusion combustion phase and
premixed combustion phase respectively. This leads to rich mix-
ture environment and incomplete combustion resulted in CO
emission enhancement [15,21,45]. Park et al. found that CO level
increased with advanced IT and vice versa result was observed for
retarded IT while experimenting with soybean biodiesel. Ad-
vanced IT leads to incomplete combustion and late burning due to
longer ignition delay period resulted in increased CO emission.
[20]. Similar trend of variation from Park et al. experiment was
observed by Kyunghyun et al. with biodiesel obtained from used
vegetable oil in Daedong ND 130DI engine [25] and also by Pingen
et al. [27]. Joonsik et al. investigated with waste cooking oil methyl
ester at advanced ITs and found the consequence that CO increases
at low load condition and reduced CO observed at high load
conditions. Advanced SOI leads to extended ignition delay period
and substandard atomization resulted in fuel rich zone at which
in-cylinder temperature and pressure are low. This attributed to
increased CO emission [21]. Labecki et al. found increase in CO
level when experimented Multi-cylinder turbo-charged type en-
gine with biodiesel at retarded IT of 4 CAD BTDC and at 0 CAD TDC,
maximum increase of 223% level at 0 TDC injection timing [22].
When jatropha and tyre pyrolysis oil was used in Kirloskar TAF1 as
biodiesel at a volume concentration of 80% jatropha and 20% tyre
pyrolysis oil, the advanced IT shows reduction in CO level which is
13.3% lower than the emission level of diesel and retarded IT
displayed increment in CO concentration which was 16.8% higher
than that of diesel [29]. Avinash et al. investigated the variation of
injection timing with karanja biodiesel in Kirloskar TAF1 engine
and reported that CO decreases for advanced IT and increases for
retarded IT [28,30]. Debabrata et al. reported that CO level
 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281 1273

Table 3
Various injection systems description.

S.No Ref. No Author Injector type Injection Included spray Number of Nozzle hole
pressure angle holes diameter
Units Mpa Degree mm

1. 2 Rosca BOSCH RO-KBL103S15 injectors, with RO-DLLA 17.7 NM NM NM

150S720 nozzles
2. 4 Flavio Ruggerini RF91 injection system NM NM NM NM
3. 6 Raheman CAV type BDN12SD12 injector NM NM NM NM
4. 7 Choi Electronically controlled common rail injector 20–120 125 6 0.26
5. 10 Donghui Common rail with piezolectric coupled nozzles 1.65 NM 6 NM
6. 11 Cenk Common rail direct injection 20 NM 4 0.2
7. 12 Ganapathy Injector with P type DSLA nozzles NM NM NM NM
8. 13 Kannan Pump in line nozzle injection system 22 120 3 0.3
9. 16 Olawole Common rail for D.I. diesel engine 30 NM 2 0.08, 0.16
10. 17 Kannan Solid Injection System 22 120 3 0.3
11. 19 Lukasz Common rail direct injection 80 NM 6 0.154
12. 20 Park Bosch common rail NM 156 6 0.128
13. 21 Joonsik Solenoid type injector (Bosch) 80 150 8 0.131
14. 23 Luka Bosch PES 6 A 95D 410 LS 2542 NM NM 1 0.68
15. 24 Park Bosch common rail NM 156 6 0.128
16. 25 Kyunghyun Common rail solenoid injector NM 153 7 NM
17. 26 Carlo CR/Bosch Solenoid CRI 2.16 60–80 NM 7 NM
18. 28 Avinash Injector driver (TEMS, TDA-3200H), an electronically 30 NM 6 NM
controlled injector
19. 29 Abhishek 3-Hole pump-line-nozzle injection system 20 NM 3 0.25
20. 30 Avinash BOSCH Common rail direct injection 30–100 NM 6 0.131
21. 33 Balaji Mechanical pump–nozzle injection 22.5 NM 3 NM
22. 34 Debabrata Pilot Fuel injector 20 NM 3 NM
23. 35 Erkan PF jerk-type fuel pump 18 160 4 0.24
24. 36 Karthikayan Common rail direct injection 18 NM 3 0.23
25. 37 Li Port fuel injection system 18 78 7 NM
26. 40 An Common rail, Denso NM NM 6 NM
27. 42 Atul Common rail direct injection 20–140 NM NM NM

NM – Not Mentioned in the literature.

decreased by 23% for advanced IT when compared to standard IT
[34]. Annona biodiesel shows decrement in CO level for advanced
IT and increment in CO level at retarded IT experimented in Kir-
loskar engine by Senthil et al. [41]. Atul et al. reported that CO
concentration in the emission increased for retarded IT for karanja
biodiesel [42].
4.2. Hydrocarbon (HC)
Nwafor et al. found that the advancement in injection timing
resulted in reduction of unburnt hydrocarbon emission for rape-
seed biodiesel [3]. Shivakumar et al. investigated the effects of fuel
injection timing for biodiesel and observed that HC decreased by
13% at advanced IT of 30 CAD BTDC and shows increment for re-
tarded IT of 24 CAD BTDC. At advanced IT, earlier SOC relative to
top dead centre and higher cylinder temperature resulted in de-
creased HC emission [8]. Similar reason was reported for fall in HC
emission by Debabrata et al. [34], Jingura et al. [50] and Yang et al.
[51]. When biodiesel blend concentration of B5 (5% biodiesel) was
used in Lombardini 6 LD 400 engine, advanced IT of 25 CAD BTDC
shows 13.54% decrement in HC level and retarded IT of 15 CAD
BTDC shows 1.21% increment in HC emission scale when compared
to standard IT of 20 CAD BTDC. At advanced IT, occurrence of peak
pressure at earlier CAD leading to higher pressure and higher
combustion temperature resulted in HC emission decline [11].
Ganapathy et al. studied the effects of injection timing of waste
cooking oil fuelled engine and reported that advancement in IT
leads to increased HC emission and retardation in IT leads to re-
duced HC concentration. At advanced IT, longer ignition delay
period leading to over-mixing of fuel resulted in increased HC
emission [12]. Same reason was highlighted by Sayin et al. for
decrease in HC level [47]. Kannan et al. observed that the advanced
IT leads to increase in HC level when fuelled with waste cooking
palm oil methyl ester [13]. Pandian et al. [14] and Jaichandran et al.
[15] studied the effects of injection timing using pongamia bio-
diesel and reported that the advancement in injection timing leads
to decrease in HC emission, meanwhile the retardation of injection
timing resulted in increase in HC concentration. Park et al. re-
ported that soybean biodiesel shows HC emission increment for
advanced IT and contrary result for retarded IT [20]. Joonsik et al.
observed very little change in HC emission scale for advanced fuel
injection timing for waste cooking oil ester [21]. Labecki et al. in-
vestigated the retarded IT effect of biodiesel and reported that HC
increases, maximum increase of about 324% at 0 CAD TDC was
recorded. Retarded IT leads to over rich mixture (under-mixing)
due to diminished ignition delay period resulted in higher HC
emission [22]. Used vegetable oil methyl ester has no obvious
change in HC emission at advanced IT, meanwhile retarded IT
shows increment in HC emission level during the study carried out
by Kyunghyun et al. [25]. Pingen et al. investigated on the variation
of fuel injection timing and observed that HC level reduced by 19–
50% for advanced IT and increased HC concentration of about 42–
51% for retarded IT. At retarded IT, decreased cylinder wall tem-
perature and decreased premixed combustion phase leads to
marginal increase in HC emission [27]. Identical reason was un-
derlined by Jaichandar et al. for augmentation in HC emission [15].
When jatropha (80%) and tyre pyrolysis oil (20%) were fuelled at
advanced IT, HC level reduced which is 14.2% lower than Diesel at
24.5 CAD IT and increased HC for retarded IT which is 14.6% higher
than Diesel at 20 CAD IT in the experimental study of Abishek et al.
[29]. Avinash et al. found that karanja biodiesel show decrement in
HC level at advanced IT and increment in the same for retarded IT
[28,30]. Similar trend of variation of HC emission was observed by
Senthil et al. using Annona biodiesel [41]. Saravanan et al. in-
vestigated the retarded fuel injection timing for waste cooking oil
ester in Kirloskar TAF1 engine and reported that HC increased by
 1274
Table 4
Effects of injection timing variation on emission indicators.

S.No Ref. No Std IT Adv IT Ret IT CO HC NOX PM SMOKE CO2

Unit CAD CAD CAD Effects of IT↑ Effects of Effects of Effects of IT↓ Effects of Effects of Effects Effects Effects of Effects of Effects Effects
IT↓ IT↑ IT↑ IT↓ of IT↑ of IT↓ IT↑ IT↓ of IT↑ of IT↓

1. 3 30 (33.5,35.5) BTDC NC ↓CO – ↓HC – – – – – – – ↓CO2 –

BTDC
2. 7 NM (2,5) ATDC (
7, ↑CO at low load condition, at – – – – ↓PM at low load – – – –

4, high load the correlation be- with split injection

1) tween CO and PM is poor at all strategy at all IT’s
ATDC IT’s

P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
3. 8 27 30 BTDC 24 – – ↓HC by 13% ↑HC ↑NOX by 5% ↓NOX by 7% – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke – –
BTDC BTDC
4. 10 NM NC (
4, – – – – – ↓NOX for ↓PM at – – – – –

2, 0, split injec- low load
2, 4) tion
ATDC strategy
5. 11 20 25 BTDC 15 ↓CO by ↑CO by 1.21% ↓HC by ↑HC by 1.21% ↑NOX by ↓NOX by – – ↓Smoke by ↑Smoke by – –
BTDC BTDC 13.54% for B5 for B5 13.54% for for B5 12.34% for 7.99% for 1.25% for 1.02% for B5
B5 B20 B20 B5
6. 12 345 340 350 Less ↑CO ↑HC ↓HC ↑NOX ↓NOX – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke – –
dependence
7. 13 23 (25.5, 28) BTDC NC ↓CO, Lowest – ↑HC, Lowest – ↑NOX – – – ↑Smoke – ↓CO2, –
BTDC CO (0.2%) at HC Lowest
25.5 CAD IT (42 ppm) at CO2
25.5 CAD IT (4.4%) at
25.5
CAD IT
8. 14 24 (27, 30) BTDC (18, 21) ↓CO ↑CO ↓HC ↑HC ↑NOX ↓NOX – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke – –
BTDC BTDC
9. 15 23 24 BTDC (20, 21, ↓CO ↑CO margin- ↓HC ↑HC margin- ↑NOX ↓NOX at – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke – –
BTDC 22) ally at 21CAD ally at 21CAD 21CAD IT marginally
BTDC IT IT at 21CAD IT
10. 17 23 (25.5, 28) BTDC NC – – – – ↑NOX – – – ↓Smoke, – – –
BTDC lowest at
25.5 CAD
11. 18 23.4 25.9 BTDC 20.9 – – – – ↑NOX ↓NOX – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke – –
BTDC BTDC
12. 19 9 NC (6,3) – – – – – – – ↓PM at – – – –
BTDC BTDC High
load
13. 20 (5, 10, (25, 20) BTDC NC ↑CO ↓CO ↑HC ↓HC ↑NOX ↓NOX ↓PM ↑PM – – – –
15,
20)
BTDC
14. 21 NM (
25,
20,
15,
10,
5) NC ↑CO at Low – Little effect – ↑NOX – – – ↓Smoke – – –
ATDC, 0 TDC load and ↓CO on HC
at High load.
15. 22 9 NC 4 BTDC, – ↑CO, Max in- – ↑HC, Max in- ↑NOX, Min ↓NOX, Max – ↑PM – ↑Smoke – –
BTDC 0 TDC crease 223% at crease 324% at reduction reduction
TDC IT TDC IT (6%) at (67%) at
9 CAD IT TDC IT
16. 25 17 (20, 23) BTDC (11,14) ↑CO ↓CO No notice- ↑HC ↑NOX, NOX ↓NOX, NOX – – ↓Smoke ↓Smoke, re- – –
BTDC BTDC able trend high at 23 low at 11 duced near-
in HC CAD IT CAD IT ly to zero for
variation 11 CAD IT
17. 27 NM (30, 35) ATDC (90, ↑CO ↓CO by ↓HC by ↑HC by ↑NOX ↓NOX by – – – – – –
 100, 39
50% 19
50% 42
51% 19%
110,
120,
130,
140)
ATDC
18. 29 23 (24.5, 26) BTDC (20, ↓CO, 13.3% ↑CO, 16.8% ↓HC, 14.2% ↑HC, 14.6% ↑NOX, 4.9% ↓NOX, Influence of IT de- – – – –
BTDC 21.5) lower than higher than lower than higher than higher than 14.9% low- creases PM, 9.3%
BTDC Diesel at 24.5 Diesel at 20 Diesel at Diesel at 20 Diesel at 26 er than lower than Diesel
CAD IT CAD IT 24.5 CAD IT CAD IT CAD IT Diesel at 20 at 24.5 CAD IT
CAD IT
19. 28, 30 NM (24,21,18,15,12,9,6,3,0.375) (1.875, ↓CO below 18 ↑CO ↓HC ↑HC – ↓NOX ↓PM ↑PM – – – –
BTDC 2.625, CAD IT
4.125)

P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
ATDC
20. 32 23.4 NC 20.9 – – – ↑HC by 34% – ↓NOX by – – – ↑Smoke by – –
BTDC BTDC 19% 50%
21. 33 23 (25, 27) BTDC (19, 21) ↓CO ↑CO, 11.1% No noticeable trend in HC ↑NOX ↓NOX, – – ↓Smoke ↑Smoke, – –
BTDC BTDC lower than variation 11.8%↓ for 5.7% lower
Diesel at 21 21 CAD and than Diesel
CAD IT 28%↓ for 19 at 21 CAD
CAD IT
22. 34 23 (24.5, 26, 27.5) BTDC NC ↓CO, 19% – ↓HC, 23% lower HC – ↑NOX, 39.4% – – – ↓Smoke, – – –
BTDC lower CO for for 26 CAD IT higher NOX 39.2% low-
26 CAD IT when compared for 27.5 CAD er Smoke
when com- with 23 CAD IT IT when for 26 CAD
pared with compared IT when
23 CAD IT with 23 CAD compare
IT with Diesel
23. 37 (
7) (
35) ATDC NC – – – – ↓NOX when – ↑PM – – – – –
ATDC gasoline ra-
tio is very
small
24. 41 27 (30, 33) BTDC 24 ↓CO, lowest ↑CO ↓HC, lowest HC at ↑HC ↑NOX ↓NOX, but – – ↑Smoke – – –
BTDC BTDC CO at 30 CAD 30 CAD IT lowest NOX
IT at 30 CAD
IT
25. 42 NM NC (
15, – ↑CO – ↑HC – ↓ NOX – – – – – –

12,

9,

6)
ATDC

NC – No Change in the injection timing, NM – Not Mentioned in the literature.

1275
1276 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
34% [32]. Balaji et al. found no obvious changes in HC emission
during the variation of injection timing [33]. Debabrata et al. ob-
served that advancement in injection timing leads to reduction in
HC concentration which is 23% lower than the standard IT [34].
Atul et al. reported the increasing trend of HC emission for karanja
biodiesel at retarded IT [42].
4.3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
Shivakumar et al. investigated the variation of NOx level by
advancing and retarding fuel injection timing as 30 CAD BTDC and
24 CAD BTDC respectively, reported that NOx increased by 5% for
advanced IT and the same decreased by 7% for retarded IT [8].
Soybean biodiesel shows reduction in NOx for split injection
strategy at retarded IT [10]. At retarded IT, SOC delay leading to
reduction in combustion temperature in the cylinder and reduc-
tion in residence time of burned gas in the cylinder resulted in
NOx diminution [10,21,32]. Cenk et al. experimented the variation
of injection timing by fuelling biodiesel and observed that ad-
vanced IT resulted in increase in NOx by 12.34% and retarded IT
leads to decrease in NOx by 7.99% for B20 blend [11]. Similar trend
of variation was reported by Ganapathy et al. while using jatropha
biodiesel [12]. Advancement in injection timing for waste cooking
oil resulted in increase in NOx emission level was observed by
kannan et al. [13]. Pandian et al. [14] and Jaichandar et al. [15]
experimented using pongamia biodiesel and reported that ad-
vanced IT leads to increase in NOx concentration and vice versa
result was observed for retarded IT. Retardation of IT leads to
shorter ignition delay period which diminish the mixture time
leading to slow burning rate and sluggish rise in temperature and
pressure, resulted in NOx emission decrement [15,29]. Kannan
et al. [17] and Joonswik et al. [21] used waste cooking oil ester and
waste palm oil ester respectively and investigated the con-
sequence of advanced IT, reported the increase in NOx emission
level. Saravanan et al. [18] and Park et al. [20] studied the variation
of injection timing by using crude rice bran oil and soybean oil
respectively and observed that NOx increased for advancement in
IT and NOx reduced for retardation of IT. Labecki investigated on
multi cylinder engine by fuelling biodiesel and reported that NOx
increased for advanced IT and NOx decreased for retarded IT in
which the maximum reduction of about 67% was recorded for
0 CAD TDC IT [22]. Kyunghyun et al. studied for advanced IT of 20,
23 CAD BTDC and retarded IT of 11, 14CAD BTDC, by fuelling used
vegetable oil ester and observed that maximum NOx recorded at
23 CAD BTDC IT and minimum NOx concentration was displayed at
11 CAD BTDC IT [25]. Pingen et al. reported that NOx increased for
advanced IT and NOx level reduced by 19% for retarded injection
timing [27]. Jatrophaþtyre pyrolysis oil ester shows increment in
NOx at advanced IT which is 4.9% higher than Diesel at 26 CAD IT
and decrement in NOx at retarded IT which is 14.9% lower than
Diesel at 20 CAD IT [29]. Karanja biodiesel shows decrement in
NOx for retarded injection timing [28,29,42]. NOx emission was
reduced by 19% for retarded injection timing of waste cooking oil
ester was observed by Saravanan et al. [32]. Balaji et al. in-
vestigated using mahua biodiesel and observed that NOx emission
was increased for advanced IT, meanwhile NOx was reduced by
11.8% for retarded 21 CAD BTDC and 28% reduction for retarded IT
of 19 CAD BTDC [33]. NOx concentration was increased by 39.4%
for advanced IT of 27.5 CAD BTDC was observed by Debabrata et al.
[34]. Senthil et al. found similar results like previous authors with
Annona biodiesel, increased NOx emission for advanced IT and
contrary result for retarded IT [41]. At advanced IT, longer ignition
delay period leads to low gas temperature and increased fuel
amount burned in premixed combustion phase resulting in in-
crease in in-cylinder pressure and temperature which leads to hike
in NOx concentration in emission [11,12,14,21,34,52].
4.4. Particulate matter (PM)
Choi et al. reported that PM content decreased for spilt injec-
tion approach at all injection timing variations for soybean bio-
diesel [7]. Many other researchers experimented and determined
that the advancement of injection timing leads to decrease in the
particulate matter for soybean biodiesel, pongamia biodiesel, and
karanja biodiesel [10,20,28,30]. At advanced IT, the availability of
time for oxidation process between oxygen and carbon molecules
results in finer combustion leading to decrease in PM emission
[28]. At high load conditions, PM decreases at retarded IT for ra-
peseed biodiesel. At retarded injection timing, piston shifts away
from the tip of the injector during fuel injection, hence the wall
impingement is fewer leading to reduction in PM emission [19].
Abishek et al. observed that at all injection timing PM shows 9.3%
inferior PM compared to diesel, when fuelled with jatrophaþtyre
pyrolysis biodiesel. At retarded IT, amplified fraction of diffusion
combustion resulted in increase in emission of PM [29]. Con-
tractively Pingen et al. reported that PM content shows increment
at advanced IT for palm biodiesel [27]. PM increases for the re-
tardation of injection timing for the biodiesels derived from soy-
bean oil and karanja oil [20,22,28,30].
4.5. Smoke
Cenk et al. studied the effects of injection timing on smoke
density in the emission and reported that smoke reduced by 1.25%
at advanced IT of 25 CAD BTDC and the same increased by 1.02% at
retarded IT of 15 CAD BTDC for B5 blend (5% biodiesel volume
concentration) [11]. At advanced IT, longer ignition delay period
leads to more accumulation of fuel, increase in cylinder tem-
perature and increased time for oxidation reaction resulted in
reduction of smoke level [11,14,17,34,46,57,59,60]. Kannan et al.
investigated that the smoke density decreases with advanced IT,
minimum smoke occurred at advanced IT of 25.5 CAD BTDC for
waste cooking palm oil ester [17]. Smoke content shows decre-
ment with advanced injection timing for jatropha biodiesel, pon-
gamia biodiesel, crude rice bran oil, waste cooking oil ester, used
vegetable oil ester and mahua biodiesel [8,12,14,15,18,21,25,33]. At
advanced IT, higher cylinder temperature and pressure leads to
improved combustion and resulted in reduced smoke level [8].
Meanwhile smoke content increased for waste cooking oil ester
and annona biodiesel at advanced ITs [13,41]. At retarded IT, the
lower in-cylinder temperature due to shorter ignition delay period
in the premixed combustion phase leads to restraining of oxida-
tion of soot particles resulted in higher smoke density [13,15,32].
Retarded injection timing leads to decrease in smoke density for
jatropha biodiesel, pongamia biodiesel and crude rice bran bio-
diesel [8,12,14,15,18,22]. Smoke at advanced IT, increased by 50%
for waste cooking oil ester fuelling [32]. Balaji et al. reported that
mahua biodiesel shows increment in smoke density at retarded IT
[33]. At retarded IT, lower LHV and less time for combustion pro-
duces more smoke [33,56]. At advanced IT of 26 CAD BTDC; smoke
reduced which is 39.2% lower than that of diesel [34]. Interestingly
smoke density reduced almost null for retarded IT of 11 CAD BTDC,
when fuelled with used vegetable oil ester [25].
4.6. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Only very few authors have analyzed the CO2 content in the
emission. Nwafor et al. reported that for the fuel injection timing
advancement from 30 CAD BTDC to 33.5 CAD BTDC and 35.5 CAD
BTDC, CO2 content decreased for rapeseed biodiesel [3]. At ad-
vanced IT, fewer CO2 emission was contributed by incomplete
combustion due to longer ignition delay period [3,13]. Kannan
et al. investigated the effects of injection timing variation on CO2
 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
emission and observed that the minimum CO2 content of 4.4% was
recorded at advanced IT of 25.5 CAD BTDC for waste cooking palm
oil biodiesel [13]. Kyunghyun et al. observed that the CO2 emission
level shows increment for both the advancement and retardation
of fuel injection timing for the engine fuelled with used vegetable
oil ester. Advanced IT leads to complete combustion due to en-
hanced physical activity of fuel particles i.e., faster movement with
higher velocity and rapid vaporization rate resulted in increased
CO2 emission [25].
5. Effects of injection pressure on emission characteristics
The variation of emission indicators regarding the injection
pressure modifications are tabulated in Table 5.
5.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
Sukumar et al. investigated the effects of higher fuel injection
pressure of about 220 bar and 240 bar in Kirloskar engine fuelled
with linseed biodiesel, observed that CO emission level decreased
[1]. Injection pressure was increased from 215 bar to 235 bar and
255 bar in direct injection stationary type diesel engine fuelled
with orange skin powder biodiesel at a blend concentration of B30,
the result was decrement in CO concentration upto 235 bar at
range of 0.26 kg/kW h, meanwhile at 255 bar CO emission level
increased at the range of 0.58 kg/kW h. At higher fuel injection
pressure, higher BTE and higher HRR due to complete combustion
resulted in lower CO emission [5]. At increased injection pressure,
longer combustion duration leads to lower peak pressure and
lower heat release rate resulting in increase in CO emission [5,44].
Cenk et al. investigated the effects of higher injection pressure of
about 220 bar which shows reduction in CO concentration by
6.85% for B5 blend and also reduction in CO was observed at lower
injection pressure of 180 bar [11]. Kannan et al. studied the con-
sequences of higher injection pressure of about 240 bar, 260 bar,
280 bar and 300 bar, they observed that CO decreases at higher
IPs. The lowest CO scale in the emission was recorded at 240 bar
[13]. Similar trend of CO reduction at higher IP was recorded by
Joonsik et al. [21] and Labecki et al. [22] using biodiesel obtained
from waste cooking oil. At increased IP, better mixing of air-fuel
and rapid evaporation of fuel sprays leads to complete combustion
which decreases CO emission [11,14,21,47,48]. Carlo et al. in-
vestigated the lower injection pressure of about 480 bar and
540 bar, reported that CO emission reduced by 40% while using
rapeseed biodiesel [26]. Aravind et al. studied the karanja biodiesel
powering engine at higher injection pressure of about 500 bar,
750 bar and 1000 bar, reported that CO emission increased for
higher IPs [28,30]. Similar result of CO reduction was observed for
karanja biodiesel by Atul et al. [42]. Mahua biodiesel shows de-
creased CO concentration in the emission at higher injection
pressure, the minimum CO level of 2.95 g/kW h at higher IP of
275 bar [33]. Nanthagopal et al. used Calophyllum inophyllum
biodiesel in Kirloskar TAF1 engine at higher injection pressure of
about 220 bar and 240 bar, observed that at higher IP the CO
concentration in the emission was increased [61].
5.2. Hydrocarbon (HC)
At higher injection pressure at the range of 220 bar and
240 bar, HC emission was increased for linseed biodiesel [1]. At
higher IP, the fuel droplets move faster at higher velocity which
hits the wall of the cylinder without proper mixing leading to
increased unburnt HC content [1,5,13,49]. Purushothaman et al.
investigated the higher injection pressure effects on HC emission
variation and reported that HC decreased for higher IP upto
1277
235 bar about 0.0119 ppm, meanwhile at 255 bar HC level in-
creased about 0.035 ppm using orange skin powder biodiesel. At
higher IP, availability of air-fuel mixture at lean condition and
complete combustion leads to decrease in HC emission [5]. Cenk
et al. identified that at higher injection pressure HC concentration
reduced by 0.030% and at lower injection pressure (180 bar) HC
level increased by 2.73% [11]. Waste cooking palm oil ester shows
reduction in HC emission at higher IPs, the lowest HC concentra-
tion is recorded at 240 bar which is 10 ppm higher than that of
diesel fuel [13]. Joonsik et al. [21] and Labecki et al. [22] using
waste cooking oil methyl ester studied the effect of higher fuel
injection pressure and reported that the HC emission level de-
creased for higher IPs. Higher injection pressure leads to better
atomization and finer mixing of air-fuel resulted in complete
combustion diminishing HC emission [14,21,32,33,61]. Carlo et al.,
experimented the effects of lower injection pressure of about
480 bar and 540 bar. They observed that the HC emission level
reduced by 30% for lower IP of 540 bar [26]. Avinash et al. [28,30]
and Atul et al. [42] in their experiments fuelled the engine with
karanja biodiesel and implemented the higher injection pressure
condition and observed that the HC level increased with injection
pressure increment. When the biodiesel obtained from waste
cooking oil was fuelled in the diesel engine at higher injection
pressures, HC level reduced by 14% for 230 bar and the same re-
duced by 20% for 250 bar [32]. Balaji et al. found that the HC
concentration decreased for higher IPs of about 250 bar and
275 bar. The lowest HC level of 0.11 g/kW h was recorded for
275 bar for fuelling mahua biodiesel [33]. Nanthagopal et al. re-
ported the reduced HC concentration upto 220 bar and escalated
HC level for 255 bar while fuelling Calophyllum inophyllum bio-
diesel. Higher injection pressure leads to poor entrainment of air
with surrounding fuel droplets resulting in incomplete burning
favoring higher levels of HC emission [61].
5.3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
Sukumar et al. studied using linseed biodiesel, reported that
the NOx concentration in the emission shows increment for higher
IPs of 220 bar and 240 bar [1]. At higher injection pressure, faster
movement of fuel spray and rapid vaporization rate reduces NOx
emission [1,13,40,54]. Contrarily the experimental study carried
out by Purushothaman et al. using biodiesel obtained from orange
skin powder observed the reduction in NOx at higher injection
pressure. Increase in fuel injection pressure leads to change in the
in-cylinder gas temperature, lower HRR in premixed combustion
phase and extended combustion duration resulting in NOx de-
crement [5]. When the injection pressure was increased to 220 bar
from the standard IP of 200 bar, NOx increased by 28.36% when
pure biodiesel (B100) was fuelled. On the other hand the lower IP
of 180 bar resulted in decreased NOx by 3.03% [11]. Kannan et al.
[13,17] and Joonswik et al. [21] used biodiesel extracted from
waste cooking oil to analyze the effects of higher injection pres-
sure and reported the increasing trend of NOx emission with
higher IPs. Saravanan et al. reported that the NOx emission de-
creased with higher IP and the same increased with lower IP for
crude rice bran oil ester [18]. Labecki et al. fuelled biodiesel in
multi cylinder engine and observed the increasing trend in NOx
emission with higher injection pressure which 30% lower than that
of diesel [22]. Saravanan et al. investigated the higher injection
pressure effects of waste cooking oil ester and reported that NOx
emission increased by 4% at 230 bar and the same increased by
13% for 250 bar [32]. Higher IP leads to higher heat release in
premixed phase resulting in higher in-cylinder temperature which
attributed to increase in NOx emission [21,22,32,55,61]. NOx
emission shows decreasing tendency with higher injection pres-
sure, the lowest NOx level of about 8.67 g/kW h was recorded at
 1278
Table 5
Effects of injection pressure variation on emission indicators.

S.No Ref. No Std IP Mod IP CO HC NOX PM Smoke CO2

bar bar Effects of IP↑ Effects of Effects of IP↑ Effects of Effects of IP↑ Effects of Effects of Effects of Effects of IP↑ Effects of Effects of IP↑
IP↓ IP↓ IP↓ IP↑ IP↓ IP↓

P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
1. 1 200 220, 240 ↓CO – ↑HC – ↑NOX – – – ↓Smoke – ↑CO2
2. 5 215 235, 255 ↓CO upto 235 bar – ↓HC upto 235 bar – ↓NOX – – – ↓Smoke upto 235 bar – –
(0.26 kg/kW h) and (0.019 ppm) and ↑HC (0.82 BSU) and ↑Smoke
↑CO for 255 bar for 255 bar for 255 bar (1.0 BSU)
(0.58 kg/kW h) (0.035 ppm)
3. 11 200 180, 220 ↓CO by 6.85% for B5 ↓CO ↓HC by 0.30% for B5% ↑HC by ↑NOX by 28.36% ↓NOX by – – ↓Smoke by 0.30% for B5 ↑Smoke by –
2.73% for for B100 3.03% for 2.73% for B5
B5 B100
4. 13 220 240, 260, ↓CO, Lowest at – ↓HC, Lowest at – ↑NOX – – – ↑Smoke – ↑CO2, Lowest at
280, 300 240 bar 240 bar, 10 ppm high- 240 bar, 6.3% low-
er than Diesel er than Diesel
5. 16 300 100,200 – – – – – – Influence of IP de- – – –
creases PM
6. 17 220 240, 260, – – – – ↑NOX – – ↓Smoke, 34.9% lower – –
280, 300 than Diesel at 280 bar
7. 18 210 230, 250 – – – – ↓NOX ↑ NOX – – ↑Smoke ↓Smoke –
8. 19 800 1000, – – – – – – ↓PM at – – – –
1200 High load
9. 21 800 1600 ↓CO – ↓HC – ↑NOX – – – ↓Smoke – –
10. 22 800 1000, ↓CO – ↓HC – ↑NOX, 30% lower – ↓PM – – – –
1200 than Diesel
11. 26 620, 700 480, 540 – ↓CO by – ↓HC by – ↑ NOX – ↑PM – – –
40% 30%
12. 28, 30 300 500, 750, ↑CO – ↑HC – – – ↓PM ↑PM – – –
1000
13. 33 225 250, 275 ↓CO, Minimum – ↓HC, lowest HC – ↓ NOX, Minimum – – – ↓Smoke, 21.4% lower – –
(2.95 g/kW h) at (0.11 g/kW h) at (8.67 g/kW h) at than Diesel at 275 bar
275 bar 275 bar 275 bar
14. 32 200 230, 250 – – ↓HC by 14% for – ↑ NOX by 4% at – – – ↓Smoke by 50% for – –
230 bar and ↓HC by 230 bar and ↑NOX 230 bar and ↓Smoke by
20% for 250 bar by 13% at 250 bar 35% for 250 bar
15. 42 500 1000 ↓CO – ↑HC – ↑NOX – – – – – –
16. 61 200 220, 240 ↑CO – ↓HC upto 220 bar and – ↑NOX – – – ↓Smoke, 34.3%, 36.6% – ↓CO2
↑HC for 255 bar and 57.6% for 240 bar,
220 bar and 200 bar
respectively
 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
275 bar. At higher IP, the SOC retardation leads to decrease in NOx
emission [33]. Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel shows increment
in NOx concentration at higher injection pressure of about 220 bar
and 240 bar [61]. Increase in IP leads to decrease in fuel particle
diameter and faster vaporization which enhances the rapid com-
bustion rate and increase in cylinder temperature resulting in
higher NOx emission [11,14,53,61].
5.4. Particulate matter (PM)
Olawole et al. investigated the effects of variation of fuel in-
jection pressure using biodiesel obtained from palm oil and re-
ported that the lower injection pressure of about 100 bar and
200 bar decreases particulate matter mass concentration. The
availability of time for oxidation process between oxygen and
carbon molecules at lower injection pressure resulted in better
combustion leading to decrease in PM emission [16]. Lukasz et al.
studied the effects of higher injection pressure of about 1000 bar
and 1200 bar using rapeseed biodiesel, observed that the PM level
of multi-cylinder turbo-charged engine type decreased at high
load operating conditions [19]. Similar trend of PM level fall with
higher IP was observed by Labecki et al. [22]. Carlo et al. identified
that the PM mass concentration shows increment for rape-
seed þbioethanol at lower injection pressure of about 480 bar and
540 bar. At lower injection pressure, the fuel spray injected close
to top dead centre which causes the wall impingement leading to
increase in the formation of particulate emission [26]. When kar-
anja biodiesel was fuelled in Kirloskar engine, the PM mass level
decreased for higher IP of about 500 bar, 750 bar and 1000 bar,
while the same increased for lower fuel injection pressure of range
300 bar. At higher IP, improved atomization leads to finer droplet
size distribution enhancing the complete combustion resulted in
reduced PM emission [28,30].
5.5. Smoke
Increase in fuel injection pressure resulted in decrement of
smoke density in emission for linseed biodiesel at 220 bar and
240 bar [1]. Similar trend of decreasing smoke at higher injec-
tion pressure was observed by Joonswik et al. while using
biodiesel extracted from waste cooking oil [21]. Purushothaman
et al. investigated the higher injection pressure for biodiesel
obtained from orange skin powder and reported that the smoke
opacity decreases upto 235 bar about 0.82 BSU and increment
in smoke at 255 bar about 1.0 BSU. At higher IP upto 235 bar,
the shorter combustion duration and reduced fuel rich zone
resulted in lower smoke level, further increment in IP leads to
longer diffusion combustion phase resulted in incomplete
burning favoring the smoke level increment [5]. When the
biodiesel of 5% volume concentration (B5 blend) was fuelled in
the diesel engine, the smoke density was reduced by 0.30% at
higher pressure of about 220 bar and the same increased by
2.73% for lower IP of 180 bar [11]. Kannan et al. investigated the
increased IP in the range of 240 bar, 260 bar, 280 bar and
300 bar on waste cooking oil ester and reported that smoke
increases with injection pressure [13]. Increment in injection
pressure leads to decrease in smoke intensity for waste cooking
palm oil ester at 280 bar which is 34.9% lower than that of
diesel [17]. At higher IP, better atomization breaks the fuel
particles into finer droplets and finer mixing of air-fuel en-
hancing complete combustion leads to the reduction of smoke
level [11,14,17,21,32,58]. Saravanan et al. reported that the in-
crease in injection pressure resulted in higher smoke density
and vice versa result was obtained at lower injection pressure
while fuelling crude rice bran methyl ester [18]. When mahua
biodiesel was fuelled and investigated, the smoke reduced at
1279
higher injection pressure, which is 21.4% lower than that of
diesel at higher IP of 275 bar [33]. Saravanan et al. used waste
cooking oil ester and identified that smoke opacity decreases
with higher fuel injection pressure. Smoke reduced by 50% at
230 bar, meanwhile at 250 bar the smoke reduced by 35% [32].
Nandhagopal et al. investigated the effect of higher injection
pressure of about 220 bar and 240 bar, reported that smoke
density decreases with increase in IP. Smoke reduced by 34.3%,
36.6%and 57.6% for 240 bar, 220 bar and 200 bar respectively.
Due to the reduction in injected fuel particle diameter at higher
pressure, the smoke opacity declined after combustion [61].
5.6. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 content variation with injection timing in the emission has
been analyzed by very few authors. Olawole et al. reported that
CO2 reduced with increased fuel injection pressure for linseed
biodiesel experimented in Kirloskar diesel engine [1]. For in-
creased fuel injection pressure of 240 bar, CO2 content amplified
for waste cooking palm oil ester. Lowest CO2 concentration was
recorded at 240 bar, which is 6.3% lower than diesel. Faster
movement of fuel particles at higher IP with higher velocity and
rapid vaporization rate resulted in increased CO2 emission [13].
When Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel was fuelled at higher
injection pressure of range 220 bar and 240 bar, the CO2 level
decreased with increase in fuel injection pressure. At higher IP,
poor entrainment of air with fuel droplets resulted in incomplete
combustion leads to lower CO2 emission [61].
6. Conclusion
Following conclusions are depicted based on the evaluation of
the above research works.
 Due to high viscosity of raw oil, transesterification process was
implemented to reduce its viscosity to produce biodiesel. The
biodiesel properties were tested based on ASTM standards to
feature the equivalent levels of diesel properties.
 It is stated that the discrepancy of operating parameters re-
sulted in biodiesel injection characteristics variation, which
leads to change in emission uniqueness. It is reported that the
injection timing and injection pressure play an important role in
the engine emission.
 Most of the authors reported that the advancement in injection
timing resulted in the reduction of carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbon, particulate matter, smoke and carbon dioxide. In the
meantime the oxides of nitrogen show augmentation for most
of the biodiesel at advanced fuel injection timing. Contradictory
results were reported for injection timing retardation.
 Many authors concluded that the increase in fuel injection
pressure of biodiesel resulted in reduction of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon, particulate matter, smoke and oxides of nitrogen.
Meanwhile Carbon dioxide emission increased for higher in-
jection pressure conditions. For decreased injection pressure,
the emission parameters were not varied extensively.
 Hence it is concluded that the biodiesel production from various
feedstocks have an immense significance as a substitute power
source for diesel. The emission characteristics of the compres-
sion ignition engine fuelled with biodiesel can be enhanced to
an eco-friendly rank by advancing the injection timing and in-
creasing injection pressure to an extent based on the biodiesel
properties.
1280 P. Mohamed Shameer et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 1267–1281
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