Introduction to Personality

A. Definition and Basics of Personality

Personality
 Is the unique combination of patterns that influence behavior, thought, motivation, and
emotion in a human being.
 An individual's personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior,
thought, motivation, and emotion.
Note: While there are many different definitions of personality, most focus on the pattern of
behaviors and characteristics that can help predict and explain a person's behavior.
Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic effects to the
role of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's personality.
In modern organizations, the personality attributes of a manager are considered important since they
affect the entire behavioral pattern of the person. In common parlance, personality refers to the
impression, that individual forms on others through his personal attributes making an attractive or
unattractive view.
Note: An individual’s personality is not a superficial fact or occurrence that can be easily
understood, merely on his personal appearance. Personality is the whole aspect of an individual
from a general point of view. It includes a person’s physical, psychological, and emotional aspects.
The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn by
performers to either project different roles or disguise their identities
a pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving which is distinct among people raised within a similar culture.
These similarities in personality are an offshoot of having been exposed to similar child-rearing practices.
Embodied as structure, it is accounted for by set institutions in society such as religion and folklore
Personality, which makes an individual stand apart, is the impression of characteristic attributes. It is an
aggregate of an individual’s physical, psychological, and behavioral aspects contributing to his ‘good
personality’ or no personality, according to the presence or absence of the characteristic attributes. Some
of these, which are of significant nature, are worth mentioning.

i. Omnibus – This personality view is the aggregate of a recognizable pattern of properties-of and
qualities.
ii. Integration and configuration – Under this view of personality, the organization of personal
attributes is stressed.
iii. Hierarchical – This aspect mainly deals with adaptation, survival, and evolution of the person to the
environment.
iv. Distinctiveness – the definition of this category speaks of the uniqueness of each personality.
Note: From the above areas, G.W. Allport has drawn his definition of personality as “Personality is
the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his
unique adjustment to his environment”.

In his definition, Allport has touched upon the dynamic aspect of an individual’s psychological
system, which makes the adjustment to the environment.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

“Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy, of a living being. It is an act of courage
thing in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the individual, the most successful
adaptation to the universal, conditions of existence, coupled with the greatest possible freedom of self-
determination.” — C.G. Jung

Additional Note: “Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish
one “person from another.” — Lawrence Ervin

Note: Personality means the constitution of the mental as well as the physical health of an
individual.
According to McClelland, “Personality is the most adequate conceptualization of an individual’s behavior
with all its details, which the scientist can provide in a moment.”

B. Nature of Personality
“Personality is the key to adjustment and mental health. A healthy, well- developed and well-integrated
personality is a guarantee of effective adjustments.” -Alexander Schneiders
The nature of every individual is attributed to his personality.
Note: Generally, an individual asserts through his behavioral characteristics. Matured persons with
their longstanding experience, take an objective attitude towards themselves and others. They also
introspect, to help improve upon their nature and behavior.

i. Self-Conscious:
Note: There is a vast difference between human beings and other species.
The special feature of his nature is ‘self-consciousness’, which makes him aware of his surroundings and
self-identity.

ii. Adaptability to Environment:

Note: Personality, off and on, does adjust according to the changes desired. Resistance to change
means a conflict with tension and unpleasantness. Normally, people adapt to changed situations and
challenges.
Adaptation to new situations often follows a modification in a behavioral pattern leading to smooth
working conditions and a conducive environment.

iii. Goal Oriented:

Note: Persons strive for the achievement of goals. Individuals do have the drive to achieve goals.
Wants and needs lead to motives.
The desire of an individual directs the behavior for the fulfillment of the same. Both the physiological and
social motives make behavioral changes.

iv. Integration of Personality:

Personality works consistently by integrating various activities (mental and experiences of the individual)
together.
Note: Personality differs in the form of its integration. Persons with developed personalities are
highly integrated with values and experiences. This depends on the standards of behavior, which
they have acquired right from childhood.

Sample Illustration: Characteristic of personality (Show picture slide #17)

If you apply for a job, you’ll be asked to list your personal qualities. Employers are assuming that
your personality is to an extent fixed and won’t change much from one year to the next.
Most of us can relate to that idea, but where does our personality come from? Is it in our genes or is
it created more by the circumstances of our childhood?
Of course, the answer is both. There are bound to be genes that influence our behavior simply
because our brain and the chemicals that operate within it are made by genes. But trying to find
any one of the hundreds of genes involved is notoriously difficult. The genetics of behavior is
complex because personalities are complex. Scientists are only just beginning to have any success in
understanding how genes influence behavior.

i. Personality is organized and constant

ii. Personality is psychological but is used by biological needs and processes.
iii. Personality causes behavior to happen.
iv. Personality is displayed through thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and many other ways.

Top 3 Determinants: Heredity, Environment, and Situation

Different theories propose different factors that determine an individual personality. The most popular
research work done by Freud deals with the identification of self-concept. Self-concept includes things
(factors) got by nature like genes, i.e., heredity and biological formations, and by nurture, i.e., through the
social and environmental factors. The major determinants of personality are heredity, environment, and
situation.

Determinant # 1. Heredity:
Heredity refers to those factors, which predispose to certain physical, mental, and emotional states.
It sets the outer parameters of an individual. It also limits the range of development of characters.
Note: The arrangement and structure of genes that are in the chromosomes are passed around 20% to 50%
from one generation to another. The studies reveal that twins though brought up in different places
exhibit similar characteristics.

Thus, heredity is the transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendent through, a mechanism lying
primarily in the genes. There are very many achievers in their own fields like Sachin Tendulkar, U.R.
Rao, N.R. Narayana Murthy, Former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao, who gave a new turn to the
Indian economy, and many such others, who are unique in their own, way. These achievers’ performance
is directed by hereditary factor to certain extent.

Determinant # 2. Environment:
Environment refers to the surroundings in which the individuals are brought up. The
environmental factors relating to the formation of personality includes culture, family, society
upbringing and experiences.
Note: Experiences relate to the confrontation with that of family members, relatives, and friends
and to the social groups, which they belong. Culture helps to find the similarity and difference in
behaviour.
Family environment refers to the individual’s upbringing, the social and economic status the family
holds and the size of the family. The society makes an individual to play different roles thus shaping
his/her their personality. Environment tends to strengthen or weaken hereditary traits. For
example, when an individual interacts with the environment through speech, his speech organs
guarantee that he/she is learning to speak.

Determinant # 3. Situation:
Situation has an effect both on environment and heredity. Situation demands certain behaviour.
Various psychologists have discovered what personality trait matters to an individual in his or her
career. Being successful or unsuccessful depends upon how the individuals control their behaviour
in various situations.
Note: For example, a candidate attending an interview may exhibit limited traits. The other trait or
behaviour is concealed or not exhibited.

C. Dimensions of Theories of Freud and Erickson (Psychoanalytic Theory)

Note: The psychoanalytic theory examines how an individual's childhood experiences and
subconscious influence personality development.
Sigmund Freud – Psychosexual Theory | Erick Erikson – Psychosocial Theory
Similarity: Both Freud and Erikson recognize the importance of the unconscious mind in
personality development.
Note: Both theorists center development around a form of conflict. When the conflict is not
resolved appropriately, emotional distress occurs, which can lead to mental illness. Childhood is
crucial to personality formation, and both theories say that childhood trauma can distort the
development of personality.
Difference: Freud's psychosexual theory emphasizes the importance of basic needs and biological
forces, while Erikson's psychosocial theory is more focused on social and environmental factors
Note: In Erikson's theory, conflict is resolved when a person learns to love and care for others. In
Freud's theory, conflict is resolved when a person receives adequate gratification during the early
stages of development.
D. Significance of Personality Development
Note: An individual’s personality refers to his/her appearance, characteristics, attitude, mindset,
and behavior with others.
Let us go through the importance of personality development.
1. Personality development grooms an individual and helps him make a mark of his/her own.
Individuals need to have a style of their own for others to follow them. Do not blindly copy others.
Note: You need to set an example for people around you. Personality development not only
makes you look good and presentable but also helps you face the world with a smile.
2. Personality development goes a long way in reducing stress and conflicts. It encourages
individuals to look at the brighter sides of life. Face even the worst situations with a smile.
Note: Flashing your trillion-dollar smile will not only melt half of your problems but also
evaporate your stress and worries. There is no point cribbing over minor issues and
problems.
3. Personality development helps you develop a positive attitude in life. An individual with a negative
attitude finds a problem in every situation. Rather than cribbing and criticizing people around, analyze
the whole situation and try to find an appropriate solution for the same.

Note: Remember, if there is a problem, there must be a solution as well. Never lose your
cool. It would make the situation worse. It is essential for individuals to behave well with the
people around them. Being polite with others will not only make you popular among other
people but also earn you respect and pride. You can’t demand respect by being rude to
people around.
4. Personality development plays an important role in developing not only your outer but also
inner self. A human being is a social animal. One needs people around.

Note: An individual needs to have that magnetic power which attracts people towards him.
You need to have that charisma of yours. Personality development helps you gain
recognition and acceptance from the society as well as people around.

5. Personality development helps an individual to inculcate positive qualities like punctuality,

flexible attitude, willingness to learn, friendly nature, eagerness to help others and so on.

Note: Personality development helps you develop an impressive personality and makes you
stand apart from the rest. Personality development also plays an essential role in improving
one’s communication skills. Individuals ought to master the art of expressing their thoughts
and feelings in the most desired way. Personality development makes you a confident
individual who is appreciated and respected wherever he goes.

E. Five Aspects of Personality

Note: It is important to note that each of the five primary personality traits represents a
range between two extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between
extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie
somewhere in between.

While there is a significant body of literature supporting these primary personality traits,
researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. That said, these five
traits are usually described as follows.

1. OPENNESS. This personality trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight.
People who are high in openness tend to have a broad range of interests. They are curious about
the world and other people and are eager to learn new things and enjoy new experiences.
Note: People who are high in this personality trait also tend to be more adventurous and creative.
Openness to new experiences has been linked to higher IQ. As a result, openness and intellect are
sometimes coupled as linked personality traits
HIGH LOW
Very creative Dislikes changes
Open to trying new things Does not enjoy new things
Focused on tackling new challenges Resists new ideas
Happy to think about abstract concepts Not very imaginative
Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts

Individual Differences:
Age and Openness: They discovered that older persons reported lower degrees of openness (along with
extraversion and neuroticism) than younger people. The study's findings suggest that our willingness to
accept new ideas and experiences diminishes with age
Gender. Men and women have different levels of openness to new experiences. When openness is
considered separately from intelligence as a personality trait, women are found to be more open than their
male counterparts.
Cultural Difference. Men and women have different levels of openness to new experiences. When
openness is considered separately from intelligence as a personality trait, women are found to be more
open than their male counterparts.
2. CONSCIENTIOUS. A trait that includes high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control,
and goal-directed behaviors. This organized and structured approach is often found among people
who work in science and even high-retail finance where detail orientation and organization are
required as a skill set.
Note: A highly conscientious person will regularly plan and analyze their own behavior to see how
it affects others. Project management teams and HR departments regularly have highly
conscientious people working in their teams to help balance out the structural roles within the
overall team development.
People low in conscientiousness tend to dislike structure and schedules, procrastinate on important tasks,
and fail to complete tasks as well.
3. EXTRAVERSION. is a trait that many will have come across in their own lives. It’s easily
identifiable and widely recognizable as “someone who gets energized in the company of others.”
Amongst other traits which include, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness, have made extraverted people widely recognizable over many years of social interaction.
The opposite is, of course, someone else in our lives we may know, an introvert. They prefer solitude
and have less energy in social situations. Being at the center of attention or making small talk can be quite
taxing.
4. AGREEABLENESS. Show signs of trust, altruism, kindness, and affection. Highly agreeable
people tend to have high prosocial behaviors which means that they’re more inclined to
be helping other people.
Sharing, comforting, and cooperating are traits that lend themselves to highly agreeable personality types.
Empathy towards others is commonly understood as another form of agreeableness even if the term
doesn’t quite fit.
The opposite of agreeableness is disagreeableness, but it manifests in behavior traits that are socially
unpleasant. Manipulation and nastiness towards others, a lack of caring or sympathy, and a lack of
taking interest in others and their problems are all quite common.
5. NEUROTICISM. Is characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Often
mistaken for anti-social behavior, or worse a greater psychological issue, neuroticism is a
physical and emotional response to stress and perceived threats in someone’s daily life.

Individuals who exhibit high levels of neuroticism will tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, and
irritability. Some individuals who experience sudden changes in character from a day-to-day perspective
could be highly neurotic and respond to high-stresses levels in their work and personal lives.
Anxiety, which plays a large part in the makeup of neuroticism, is about an individual's ability to cope
with stress and perceived or actual risk. People who suffer from neuroticism will overthink a lot of
situations and find difficulty in relaxing even in their own space.

4 Major Personality Perspective

I. Psychoanalytic Perspective (Sigmund Freud)

The psychoanalytic approach focuses on the importance of the unconscious mind (not the
conscious mind).

Note: In other words, the psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behavior is

determined by your past experiences that are left in the Unconscious Mind (people are
unaware of them).

This perspective on personality was created by psychiatrist Sigmund Freud who believed
that things hidden in the unconscious could be revealed in several different ways,
including through dreams, free association, and slips of the tongue.

3 levels of consciousness:
First is the unconscious mind, which always exists outside of your awareness.
Next is the preconscious mind, which includes all information that you are not currently
aware of but that can be recalled.
Finally, the conscious mind is your current state of awareness.

Id – biological component of the personality and includes your instincts. Operates in the
unconscious mind. Always selfish and needy. It operates according to the pleasure principle,
an idea that all you need should be met

Superego – exists in all 3 levels of consciousness. Always concerned with what is socially
acceptable. Pushes you to obtain the ego ideal or your view of what is right. It represents your
conscience or your view of what is wrong.

Ego – operates in the preconscious and conscious mind. Part of the personality that makes
your decisions. It makes the decisions and faces the consequences. Operates according to the
reality principle.

II. Humanistic Perspective (Abraham Maslow)

The humanistic perspective of personality focuses on psychological growth, free will, and
personal awareness. It takes a more positive outlook on human nature and is centered on
how each person can achieve their individual potential.

According to Abraham Maslow, people developed their personalities by fulfilling each of

their needs in a hierarchical fashion. Combining aspects of the behavioralist movement and
the pessimism of psychoanalysis, the humanistic theory explains how people are malleable
and their personality traits are subject to their current needs.
 Humanist theories were created with the belief that people were inherently good.

III. Social Cognitive Perspective (Albert Bandura)

The social cognitive perspective of personality emphasizes the importance of observational
learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes

The social cognitive theory says that people learn behaviors through their interactions and
observations of others, as well as their direct experience.

Four primary capabilities are addressed as important foundations of social cognitive

theory: symbolizing capability, self-regulation capability, self-reflective capability, and
vicarious capability.

1. Symbolizing Capability: People are affected not only by direct experience but also by
indirect events.

Note: Instead of merely learning through a laborious trial-and-error process, human

beings are able to symbolically perceive events conveyed in messages, construct possible
solutions, and evaluate the anticipated outcomes.

2. Self-regulation Capability: Individuals can regulate their own intentions and behaviors
by themselves. Self-regulation lies in both negative and positive feedback systems, in
which discrepancy reduction and discrepancy production are involved.

Note: That is, individuals proactively motivate and guide their actions by setting
challenging goals and then making effort to fulfill them. In doing so, individuals gain
skills, resources, self-efficacy, and beyond.
 3. Self-reflective Capability: Human beings can evaluate their thoughts and actions by
themselves, which is identified as another distinct feature of human beings.

Note: By verifying the adequacy and soundness of their thoughts in an enactive, various,
social, or logical manner, individuals can generate new ideas, adjust their thoughts, and
take actions accordingly.

4. Vicarious Capability: One critical ability human being feature is the ability to adopt
skills and knowledge from information communicated through a wide array of mediums.
By vicariously observing others’ actions and their consequences, individuals can gain
insights into their own activities.

Note: Vicarious capability is of great value to human beings’ cognitive development in

nowadays, in which most of our information encountered in our lives derives from the
mass media than trial-and-error processes

IV. Trait Perspective

The trait perspective of personality is centered on identifying, describing, and measuring the
specific traits that make up human personality. By understanding these traits, researchers
believe they can better comprehend the differences between individuals.

Note: Psychologists typically define personality as your characteristic patterns of

thinking and behavior. The trait perspective of personality explores your personality
traits and how many traits you have.

This approach lists several traits and individual differences between human beings and then
assesses how they might add up to form somebody’s personality. In business, people
occasionally rely on trait theories to see if someone has the right characteristics to take on a
leadership role.

Cardinal traits are fundamental to the direction of your life. Cardinal traits are the big characteristics
across your life, most likely described towards the end of your life as the main characteristic you have
become synonymous with. Not all people display a cardinal trait.
Central traits are the characteristics people come to expect from you on a daily basis. These are the traits
others would typically use to describe your personality.
Secondary traits are seen only in specific situations. Perhaps you are a relatively calm individual. . . until
someone threatens your young child, and you attack like a mother bear!