9.1.11.

Heating Values of Fuels

of combustion. If thie
Ifafuel contains hydrogen water
will be formed as one of the products
will be released than if the
water exists in vanou
the ur
water is condensed, a large amount of heat value
or gross heating and the
two heating values are defined ; the higher the
phase. For this reason

lower or net heating value.

obtained when the water formed by combustion is com.
The higher heating value, HHV, is
pletely condensed.
wh:' the water formed by combustion exists
The lower heating value, LHV, is obtained
completely in the vapour phase.
Thus (HHV), = (LHV), + m h ..9.26)
HHV), = (LHV), + m(u-u) ..9.27)
where, m =Mass of water formed by combustion,
hEnthalpy of vapourisation of water, kJ/kg,
u=Specific internal energy of vapour, kJ/kg, and
u= Specifie internal energy of liquid, kJ/kg.
In almost all practical cases, the water vapour in the products is vapour, the lower value is
the one which usually applies.
Fuel Calorimeters:
The heating value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat transferred from the calorimeter
in order to reduce the temperature ofthe products to the initial reaction temperature. Heating values
are reported as positive quantities and are used widely in the calculation of the thermal efficiency
of power systems.
Two types of fuel calorimeters used for the determination of heating values are
1. Bomb type calorimeter
2. Junkers-type calorimeter.
Bomb-type calorimeter. Refer Fig. 9.5. The bomb-type calorimeter, a constant-volume
system, is initially.charged with oxygen and a small sample of fuel. Subsequent to ignition and
combustion, the heat is transferred from the products to a surrounding water bath. The heating
value is caleulated essentially from the measured temperature increase of the system mass. The
calculated result is usually reduced to a standard heating value at 25°C. A heating value deter-
mined in a bomb-type calorimeter is designated as a constant-volume higher heating value. Water
vapour formed during the reaction is completely condensed especially when a few drops of water
are placed in the bomb prior to
sealing in order to saturate the gaseous atmosphere.
Junkers-type calorimeter. Refer Fig. 9.6. Junkers-type calorimeter is designed to burn a
gaseous fuel undera steady flow conditions at atmospheric pressure. Heat is transferred from the
products to water flowing steadily through the outer jacket of the calorimeter. The operating condi-
tions are adjusted to obtain a
gas outlet temperature equal to the inlet temperature of the fuel
combustion air. From observed water and
temperatures and measured quantities of fuel and jacket
water, the heating value is calculated and reduced to the
Some of the water corresponding value for 25°C operation.
vapour in the products condenses and drains from the calorimeter into a
ing vessel. This measured quantity of condensate is used in the collec
subsequent conversion of the
calor
metric heating value to the constant
pressure higher and lower heating values that are based,
respectively, upon complete and zero condensation of the water vapour formed
tion reaction. during the combus
 Thermometer

Copper
Oxygen valve calorimeter

Release valve- -Water

Bomb

Fuse wire

-Crucible
Cotton

Sealing water

Leads to
Mains fuse

Rheostat
Fig. 9.5. Bomb calorimeter.

Note. Although the constant-pressure heating value and the enthalpy of combustion are developed from
somewhat different concepts, there is a general similarity between these two terms. When the characteristics of
the value
the reaction
value
are
identical, equal
will be numerically constant-presure heating
but of opposite sign. and thesimilarity
A corresponding corresponding
existsenthalpy
of combustion
between the constant
volume heating value and the internal energy of combustion.
 To measuring
vessel

Water

Exhaust
Gas meter (Gases) to
atmosphere

Pressure
regulator
Condensate
Fig. 9.6. Junkers gas calorimeter.

9.1.12. Adiabatic Flame

Temperature
In a given combustion process, that takes place
in kinetic adiabatically and with no work or changes
potential energy involved, the temperature of the products is
or

adiabatic flame temperature'. With the referred to as the

assumptions of no work and no changes in kinetic or
potential energy, this is the maximum temperature that can be achieved for the given reactants
because any heat transfer from the
tend to lower the
reacting substances and any incomplete combustion would
temperature of the products.
The following points are
worthnoting:
() The maximum temperature achieved
with the type of reaction and
through adiabatic complete combustion varies
percent of theoretical air supplied.
An increase in the air-fuel ratio will effect a
decrease in the maximum
() For a given fuel and given pressure and temperature.
adiabatic flame temperature that can be achieved is temperature of the reactants, the maximu
with a 'stoichiometric' mixture.
iii) The adiabatic flame temperature can be
controlled by the amount of excess a r is
used. This is important, for example, in gas turbines, where the maximum tna
ture is determined by
metallurgical considerations
permissible
in the turbine, and close control of the
tempera
ture of the products is essential. temper