Communication 1

1. Channels of communication
Information may be carried by a number of different channels, as follows.

(a) Wire pairs

1. A transmitter is connected to a receiver by a pair of insulated copper wires.

2. There is very high attenuation of high frequency signals, so repeated amplification must be
provided at regular intervals.. Energy is lost as heat in the resistance of the wires and also as
radiation since the wires act as aerials.
3. Several wire-pairs are arranged next to one another, will pick up each other’s signals. This
effect is known as cross-talk or cross-linking and gives very poor security, as it is easy to ‘tap’ a
telephone conversation.
4. A large amount of information cannot be carried as the bandwidth of a pair of wires is only
about 500 kHz.
5. In modern communications, wire-pairs are used mainly for very short distances with low
frequencies.

• Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies that a communication channel can

accommodate. It is a measure of the rate at which information can be transmitted through
the channel. The wider the bandwidth the more quickly information can be sent through the
channel.)

(b) Coaxial cable

1. The signal is transmitted down the inner conductor. The outer conductor acts as the return
wire and also shields the inner one from external interference. The outer conductor is usually
connected to earth.
2. Coaxial cable causes less attenuation of the signal, so for long distance communication,
repeater amplifiers can be arranged further apart.
3. Coaxial cables are less prone to external interference, so they offer slightly greater security.
4. The bandwidth of coaxial cable is about
50 MHz, so it is capable of carrying more information than a wire-pair.

(c) Radio and microwave links

1. Alternating current in a wire acts as an aerial. Energy is radiated from the aerial in the form of
electromagnetic waves, which travel outwards from the aerial with the speed of light.
2. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves in the frequency range 30 kHz to 3 GHz.
3. Radio waves can travel by different paths as shown below.
 Communication 2
Radio Waves

satellite
1
ionosphere
3

transmitter 2

1. Space wave
2. Surface wave
3. Sky wave

4. Surface or ground waves diffract around the Earth’s surface because of their long
wavelengths, giving them a long range. AM broadcasts in the MW and LW bands travel as
surface waves.
5. Sky waves can travel large distances around the Earth through multiple reflections by the
ionosphere and the ground. SW radio uses frequencies in the HF band that reflect from the
ionosphere.
6. Space waves pass through the ionosphere and the transmission is by line of sight.
Microwaves pass through the ionosphere to reach satellites. Bluetooth technology and Wi-Fi use
microwaves.

Type of Frequency Communication Range (G = giga = 109 M = mega =106)

wave method and
waveband
Surface or Below 3 LW and MW Up to 1000km The part of the electromagnetic spectrum used
ground MHz radio in the LF
band for radio communication is shown below.
Sky wave 3 MHz to 30 SW radio in the Worldwide by
MHz HF band reflection from Commu- Fre- Wave- Fre- Uses
ionosphere and nication quency length in quency
ground Type air band
Space Greater FM radio in the Line of sight LW radio 30 kHz 10 km to LF low Submarine
wave than 30 VHF band, TV between transmitter to 300 1 km frequency radio, AM
MHz and mobile and receiver, plus kHz broadcast
phones in the satellite MW radio 300 kHz 1 km to MF AM
UHF band communication to 3 100 m medium broadcasting
Microwave 1 to 300 microwave, Line of sight except MHz frequency
GHz satellite links when retransmitted SW radio 3 MHz 100 m to HF high Ship
and Wi-Fi in by satellite to 30 10 m frequency communication
the super high MHz
frequency SHF FM radio 30 MHz 10 m to 1 VHF very Aircraft
and extra high to 300 m high communication
frequency EHF MHz frequency ,
bands
TV 300 1 m to 10 UHF Microwave
broadcastin MHz to cm ultra-high links, radar
g and 3 GHz frequency
mobile
phones
Microwave 3 GHz 10 cm to SHF Satellite
links to 30 1 cm super communication
GHz high
frequency
Satellite 30 GHz 1 cm to 1 EHF extra Radio
links to 300 mm high astronomy
GHz frequency

7. Microwaves are radio waves in the SHF waveband from 3 GHz to 30 GHz with wavelengths of
only a few centimetres. They are generally used for point-to-point communication, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.13.
 Communication 3

The transmitting element is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror. This causes the wave power
to be radiated in a parallel beam. A parabolic reflector, placed in the path of this beam, reflects
and focuses the wave power on to a receiving element.
The bandwidth of a microwave link is of the order of GHz. Consequently, microwave links have a
very large capacity for carrying information.

8. Knowing the frequency, the wavelength can be found using

=
9. The distance travelled by a radio wave varies with its frequency.
10. The wavelength of the radio waves determine the length of the aerial. For mobile phones the
aerial must be short and the wavelength is relatively short.
11. As the frequency of the carriers wave increases, the bandwidth also increases.

(d) Satellites and Optic fibres

(i) Satellite communication

1. A carrier wave of frequency fup is sent from a transmitter on Earth to a satellite. The satellite
receives the greatly attenuated signal. The signal is amplified and the carrier frequency is
changed to a lower value fdown, and transmitted back to a receiver on Earth.
2. Different carrier frequencies are used so that the very low power signal received by the satellite
is not swamped by (or can be distinguished from) the high power signal that is transmitted back to
Earth. Values of the uplink frequency and the down link frequency could be 6 GHz and 4 GHz
respectively, (the 6/4 GHz band, or 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz).
3. Advantages of communication by satellite:
• Long distance communication on the SW or MW wavebands are unreliable. Sky waves rely
on the ionosphere for reflection but the ionosphere layer varies in height and density
according to the time of day.
• The satellite boosts the signal for its return to Earth and provides a stronger signal than is
obtained by reflection from the ionosphere.
• Higher frequencies are used by, which have a higher bandwidth and can carry more
information per second.
• More frequencies are available for communicating if a satellite uses higher frequencies.
4. The communication satellite may be in a geostationary orbit.
 Communication 4

A geostationary satellite orbits the Earth with a period of 24 hours at a height of

3.6 x 104 km above the Earth’s surface. The satellite orbits in the same direction as the rotation of
the Earth (from west to east) and the orbit is above the equator.
5. Polar satellites have low orbits and pass over the poles with a period of rotation of about 90
minutes.

Geostationary satellites
1. The transmitting and receiving aerials can be
fixed in position since the satellite does not have to
be tracked.
2. Can have a permanent link with a transmitting
ground station.
3. Allow for continuous communication between a
ground station and anywhere on Earth that can
receive the signal from the satellite. International
TV broadcasts are possible.
4. Communication in polar regions may not be
possible because a satellite will not be in line-of-
sight.
5. The height above the Earth’s surface of the
satellite causes a delay in telephone conversation.

Polar satellites
1. Are in low orbits resulting in short time delays
between transmission and receipt of a signal.
2. As a result of the Earth’s rotation, satellites will
orbit above every point on the Earth’s surface.
Used for remote sensing, weather forecasting,
spying.
3. Continuous communication with a single polar
satellite is not possible.
4. To maintain continuous links, a network of polar
satellites is required. The satellites must be tracked
and the link switched from one satellite to another.

(ii) Optic fibres

Optic fibres carry digital information in the form of pulses of light or infra-red radiation. These
8
pulses are provided by lasers and the light produced has very high frequencies of the order of 10
MHz.
 Communication 5
The advantages of transmission using optic fibres are indicated below.
• Optic fibres have a wide bandwidth and can carry more information per second.
• Less signal attenuation, so repeater and regeneration amplifiers can be further apart.
• The cost of optic fibre is much less than that of metal wire.
• weigh less and so large lengths can be handled more easily.
• More difficult to tap, more secure data can be carried.
• Optic fibres do not pick up electromagnetic interference.
• Optic fibre is ideal for digital transmissions since the light is obtained from lasers that can
be switched on and off very rapidly.

Communication channels Advantages, disadvantages.

Wire pairs 1. Used for short distance communicating at low frequencies.
2. High attenuation.
3. Suffer from cross-talk and are of low security.
4. Have limited bandwidth, about
500 kHz.
Coaxial cable 1. More costly than a wire-pair.
2. Less attenuation.
3. Less noisy, more secure.
4.Higher bandwidth about 50 MHz.
Radio 1. Frequency range 30 kHz to 3 GHz.
2. The distance propagated depends on the frequency.
3.VHF and UHF wavebands are used for mobile phones because the wavelength is small and the
aerial can be short.
Microwave 1. Frequency range 3 GHz to 30 GHz.
2. Link is by line of sight.
3. Large bandwidth, large capacity for carrying information.
Optic fibres 1. large bandwidth, large transmission capacity.
2. Lower cost than metal wires.
3. Easier to handle and store because thinner and lighter than metal cables.
4. Low signal power loss.
5. Do not pick up electromagnetic interference, so very high security and negligible cross-talk.

• Noise is unwanted random, energy or power which is added to the information signal.
• Attenuation is the gradual loss of energy or power of a signal as it passes through a
transmission medium.
• Cross talk or cross-linking is the picking up of a signal in one cable from an adjacent cable.

2. Modulation
(i) AM and FM
1. Modulation is the process of adding information to a carrier wave by which some property of
the carrier wave is modified by the information, e.g. its amplitude, frequency or phase.
2. In amplitude modulation (AM), the carrier wave has a constant frequency but the amplitude of
the carrier wave varies in synchrony with the displacement of the information signal. The rate at
which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies equals the frequency of the information signal.
For example,
Suppose the frequency of the carrier wave is 1 MHz, the time period is 1 µs,
f = = = 1 MHz
if the frequency of the of information signal is 1 kHz, the time period is 1 ms,
f = = = 1 kHz
Then the amplitude modulated wave has a frequency of 1 MHz with a time period of
1 µs, like that of the first graph, but the amplitude varies like that of the second graph, with a
frequency of 1 kHz and time period of 1 ms.
 Communication 6

3. In frequency modulation (FM), the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant. The
frequency of the carrier wave varies in synchrony with the displacement of the information signal.
The change in the frequency of the carrier wave is a measure of the displacement of the
information signal.

Example 1
A sinusoidal carrier wave has a frequency of 800 kHz and an amplitude of 5.0V. The frequency
deviation of the carrier wave is
30 kHz V-1. That is, for every 10V change in displacement of the signal, the frequency of the
carrier wave changes by 30 kHz. The carrier wave is frequency-modulated by a sinusoidal signal
of frequency 10 kHz and amplitude 2.0V. Describe the modulated carrier wave.

Answer
Amplitude of the information signal = 2.0V giving variation of 2 x 30 = 60 kHz.
The carrier wave has a constant amplitude of 5.0V. Its frequency changes from 740 kHz to 860
kHz and back to 740 kHz. This change of frequency occurs 10 000 per second.

Example 2:
A 500 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 10V is frequency modulated by a 2 kHz sinusoidal
information signal of amplitude 2V.
The frequency deviation of the carrier is
20 kHz V-1. Describe how the resulting FM signal changes with time.
 Communication 7
If the information signal amplitude becomes 3V, describe how the resulting FM signal will change.

Answer:
The amplitude of the information signal = 2V, frequency deviation = (2 x 20) = 40 kHz.
The resulting FM carrier changes in frequency from 460 kHz to 540 kHz and back to 460 kHz.
The change in frequency occurs 2000 times per second. The amplitude remains constant at 10V.

If the information signal becomes 3V, the frequency deviation = (3 x 20) = 60 kHz.
The carrier frequency changes from 440 kHz to 560 kHz and back to 440 kHz, again at 2000 times
per second, and the amplitude remains constant at 10V.

(ii) Bandwidth
1. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by a signal. For the AM waveform, bandwidth
is equal to 2fa.

2. When the AM waveform is analysed, it is seen to be composed of the sum of three waves of
three separate frequencies: the central frequency fc which is the carrier frequency and two side
frequencies (fc - fa) and (fc + fa) known as sideband frequencies, where fa is the frequency of the
information signal. The carrier amplitude is greater than the information amplitude.

amplitude

(fc – fa) fc (fc + fa) frequency

bandwidth =2fa

amplitude

0.995 1MHz 1.005

frequency/
MHz
bandwidth = 2 x 0.005 MHz = 10 kHz

3. When the carrier is modulated by a range of frequencies, the result is a band of frequencies
called the lower and upper sidebands.
4. The frequency spectrum of a FM waveform has a large number of sidebands.

Example:
A carrier of frequency 800 kHz is amplitude modulated by a wave of frequency 5.0 kHz. Sketch a
frequency spectrum graph for the AM wave and find the bandwidth.
 Communication 8
Answer

amplitude

795 800 805 frequency/kHz

Bandwidth = 10 kHz

(iii) Relative advantages of AM and FM.

FM
1. Quality of reception is
better than AM, there is
less electrical interference
and noise. AM signals
pick up interfering
radiation and noise which
affect the amplitude of the
carrier.
2. Greater bandwidth
produces a better quality
of sound.
AM
1. AM can cover a larger
area than FM. AM uses
longer wavelengths than
FM, so can diffract around
the Earth. FM is by line of
sight.
2. The bandwidth needed
for each AM transmission
is less than for FM
transmission. More AM
radio stations than FM
stations can share a
waveband.
3. AM receivers and
transmitters are less
complicated and cheaper
than for FM.

3. Digital communication
(i) Analogue and digital signals
A digital signal consists of a series of ‘highs’ and ‘lows’ or 1’s and 0’s, with no intermediate values.
An analogue signal can have any value between two limits; it varies in time in an analogous
manner to the physical property which produces it. The voltage generated by a microphone is an
example.

(ii) Advantages of digital signals

1. Analogue and digital signals suffer from noise and attenuation. For long distance transmission,
signals have to be amplified at regular intervals. The problem with an analogue signal is that on
amplification, the noise is amplified as well. After several repeater amplifications, the signal
becomes distorted and noisy. With digital signals, the series of highs and lows can be
regenerated and returned to its original form by regenerator amplifiers which filter out any noise.
2. Data circuits are generally more reliable and cheaper to produce than analogue circuits.
3. Data handling. Extra bits of data can be added to a digital signal to check for errors in
transmission. Digital signals are easily stored in computer memories.
 Communication 9
(iii) Binary numbers
1. A binary number is a number that has the base 2. A decimal number has the base 10. A
binary digit is called a bit.
2. The table shows how a decimal number can be changed to a binary number.
25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1

Example
49 = 32 + 16 + 1
= (1x 25) + (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 22)
+ (0 x 21) + (1 x 20)
= 110001

16 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (0 x 20)

= 10000

9 = (1 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20)

= 1001

Question
1. Convert the following decimal numbers into five bit digital numbers
(i) 15, (ii) 23, (iii) 10, (iv) 5.

2. Convert the following into decimal numbers: (i) 10011, (ii) 1100, (iii) 0100,
(iv) 1101.

Answer
1. (i) 01111, (ii) 10111, (iii) 01010, (iv) 00101.

2. (i) 19, (ii) 12, (iii) 4, (iv) 13.

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10
(iv) Analogue-to-digital conversion

signal voltage

10

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

time/µs

recovered analogue signal/V

10

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

time/µs

sampling rate or frequency = = 10 kHz

1. The analogue voltage is sampled at regular intervals of time, at the sampling frequency in an
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
2. The value of the sample voltage at each sampling time is converted into a binary number that
represents the voltage value.

time/µs 0 100 200 300 400 500

Voltage 6 8 10 10 3. When sampling, the number representing the
8 6
level sample is the whole number below the actual value
Digital 0110 1000 1010 1010 1000 0110 of the sampled voltage.
signal
4. A four-bit system is used in the diagram above
for the digital numbers generated, binary numbers 0000 to 1111, which represents numbers 0 to
15. A four-bit code can represent 24 = 16 voltage levels.

5. The sample voltages are converted into a digital signal by the ADC, as shown in the table, and
then transmitted. After the digital signal has been transmitted, it is changed back into an analogue
signal using a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC).
6. The output is a staircase copy of the original analogue signal. To get a more accurate
representation of the analogue signal, you can:
• increase the sampling frequency,
• increase the voltage levels.
 Communication
11
7. With a three-bit code, the recovered signal consists of large steps and is very ‘grainy’.
A three-bit code represents 23 = 8 levels, binary numbers 000 to 111 and decimal numbers 0 to7.
In practice eight or more bits are used for sampling. An eight-bit number gives
28 = 256 levels.
8. Nyquist showed that in order to recover an analogue signal of frequency f, the signal must be
sampled at a frequency greater than 2f.
In a telephone system, the highest frequency to be transmitted is 3.4 kHz and the sampling
frequency is 8 kHz.
For CDs the highest frequency is 20 kHz and the sampling frequency is 44.1 kHz.

4. Signal attenuation
1. Attenuation is the gradual decrease in the power of a signal the further it travels. The decrease
in signal power from the transmitted value P1 to that received P2 can be very high.
The ratio P2 to P1 is measured using a logarithmic scale to make the numbers more manageable
or smaller. The unit of this ratio is the bel.
= !
$
" #
2. The bel is a large unit, the power ratio is usually expressed as the decibel, where 1 =
10 % & = 10 %'
% & = 10 !
$
" #
3. If P2 is greater than P1, the dB number is positive and there has been amplification.
If P2 is less than P2, there is attenuation and the dB number will be negative.
Furthermore, dB changes can be added algebraically.

For example,
Suppose P2 is 1000 time P1,
1000
% & = 10 lg * + = 30
1
The positive number is because there is an increase in power, the signal is amplified.

Example 1- Attenuation in a cable.

A signal of 450mW is input to a cable of attenuation 6 dBkm-1.
Calculate the power Pout of the signal that emerges after travelling through 4km of this cable.

Answer
The total attenuation=6 x (-4)
= -24dB
−24 = 10 012
$ = 1.8 8
34 5

Example 2- Signal-to-noise ratio

A signal of power 2.8W is applied to a cable of attenuation 6.8 dB km-1. The constant noise power
in the cable is 8.0 µW and the signal-to-noise ratio must not fall below 35dB. Calculate the
maximum length of uninterrupted cable that may be used to transmit the signal.

Answer
9
(dB) = 10 lg 9:;<=>?
=@;:A

Signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver

9:;<=>?
35 = 10 lg B
 Communication
12
10C.4 = B5
DEFGHI

Psignal = 25.3 mW

Maximum allowable attenuation of cable

J4.C
= 10 lg $
J.B
= - 20.4 dB,
J .3
6.8 =
K
J .3
length required L = = 3 km
L.B

Example3- Amplifier gain

A signal of power 64 mW enters a cable of length 15 km. At the end of the cable is an amplifier
with a power gain of 60 dB. If the cable has an attenuation of 4.2 dB km-1 calculate the signal
power that emerges from the amplifier.

Answer
9
Power gain (dB) =10 lg 9@MN ,
;=
when there are several repeater amplifiers along a transmission line, the total gain equals the sum
of the gains of each amplifier.

total attenuation of cable = 4.2 x 15 = 63 dB

−63 = 10 lg L3 5012 $
10PL.C = L3 5012
Pout = 3.2 x 10-8 W

Pout from amplifier

60 = 10 012
Q $
C.J 5
9
106 = C.J @MN Q
Pout from amplifier = 32 mW

Example 4:
A 200 mW signal enters a cable system of length 100 km. The cable has an attenuation of 8 dB
km-1. Amplifiers of gain 41 dB are located at 5km intervals. Calculate:
(a) the total power loss of the signal as a result of travelling through the 100 km cable;

(b) the total signal gain as a result of passing through the 20 amplifiers in the system;

(c) the signal power emerging from the twentieth amplifier, at the end of the system.

Answer
(a) total power loss = 8 x 100 = 800 dB

(b) Total signal gain = 20 x 41 = 820 dB

(c) Net change = gain – attenuation

= 820 – 800 = 20 dB
20dB = 10 lg J 5012 $
Pout = 20 W
 Communication
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