ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE OUTLINE
Objectives
 Enable the student understand the general overview and fundamental components of a
computer system.
 Equip the student with the necessary skills to operate the computer.

No. Topic Sub-topic

1. Introduction to  Computer Fundamentals
Computers  Classification of Computers
 Generation of computers
2. Software  Application software; customized, general purpose
 System software; operating systems, utilities
3. Hardware  Input devices; Output devices; Storage devices
4. Assessment 1 Revision and Continuous Assessment Test 1
5. Computer Processing  Central Processing Unit
 Components of the CPU
 Role of the CPU
6. Operating Systems  Functions of Operating Systems
 Categories of Operating Systems
7. Data Representation  Data Representation; Bits, Bytes, Character codes
 Number systems, binary, octal, decimal, etc,
8. Assessment 2 Revision and Continuous Assessment Test 2
9. Introduction to Computer  Types of networks: -Advantages/ disadvantages of
Networks networks
 Network topologies
10. Introduction to the  World Wide Web (WWW)
Internet  Web browsers
11. Application Software  Word Processing:- Ms Word
Packages  Spreadsheets:-Ms Excel
 Presentations:- Ms PowerPoint

12. Assessment 3 Assignment and Revision

Assessment:
 Continuous Assessment Tests 20%
 Assignments 10%
 End of Semester Exam 70%
Total 100%

References:
1 Norton P (2006) Introduction to Computers (5thEdition); New York, USA McGraw Technology
Education
2. Caplon H (2004) Computers: Tools for an Information Age (8th Edition); Addisson Wesley
3. Shelly Cashman Series, Discovering Computers 2010, Living in a Digital World
4. Shelly G. B., Cashman T. J. & Vermaat M. E. (2002). Microsoft Office . Shelly Cashman Series.
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Preview
Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of instructions, or
programs. The first fully electronic computers, introduced in the 1940s, were huge machines that
required teams of people to operate. Compared to those early machines, today's computers are
amazing. Not only are they thousands of times faster, they can fit on your desk, in your lap, or even in
your pocket.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the parts
of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case and everything inside it. The most
important piece of hardware is a tiny rectangular chip inside your computer called the central
processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's the "brain" of the computer—the part that translates
instructions and performs calculations. Hardware items such as your monitor, keyboard, mouse,
printer, and other items are often called hardware devices.
Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do. A word
processing program that you can use to write letters on your computer is a type of software. The
operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer and the devices connected to it. Two
well-known operating systems are Windows and Macintosh operating system. Your computer most
likely uses the Windows operating system.

Computer System

Hardware Software

Input Output Storage Application System

Processor
Devices Devices Devices Software Software

Special
General Operating
Purpose Utilities
Purpose System

Computers Fundamentals
Computer can basically be defined as an electronic device that receives (raw) data,
transforms (processes) that data and produces (meaningful) output as information with the
capability of storing the data/information for future retrieval.
Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age,
sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc.
Thus, a computer of any type irrespective of their size and make perform basically four major
operations or functions. These are
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) it stores data,
3) it processes data as required by the user, and
4) it gives results in form of output.

This can be illustrated by the figure below

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 INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUT

Main Memory
STORAGE
Secondary
Memory

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data
and performs some processing giving out processed data (information). Therefore, the input unit takes
data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to
be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed.
Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit
or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides
space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside
the computer for further processing.

5. Control: This is the procedure on how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

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2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to a number of parameters such as function, size, age or
generation, etc.
Generally, a computer with high processing speed and large internal storage is called a big
computer (Size!).
Due to rapidly improving technology, there is always confusion among the categories of
computers.

2.3 Classification of computers by age/generation

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product
development process. This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer
technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory
has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we
live, work and play.
Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation – 1950s-1960s: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied
on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Machine
languages are the only languages understood by computers even today. While easily understood by
computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely
of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or an
assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same instructions as a machine
language, but the instructions and variables have names instead of being just numbers.
Programs written in high level programming languages are retranslated into assembly language
or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated into machine language
by a program called an assembler (assembly language compiler). Input was based on punch card and
paper tapes, and output was displayed on printouts.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator/Computer): It was the first electronic
computer built in 1946. The ENIAC was 30 50 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum
tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of electricity. Today an average
personal computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.

The ENIAC soon became obsolete as the need arose for faster computing speeds.

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 Punched card system of a machine, Inside of a vacuum tube with plate cut open.

Programmers operate the ENIAC's main The ENIAC as installed in Building

control panel

Second Generation – 1960s-1970s: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second

generation computer. Transistor is a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or
closes a circuit. Transistors have become the key ingredient of
all digital circuits, including computers. Today's latest
microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic
transistors.
Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were
composed of vacuum tubes, which had many disadvantages.
They were much larger, required more energy, dissipated more

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heat, and were more prone to failures. It's safe to say that without the invention of transistors,
computing as we know it today would not be possible.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was
a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards
for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from binary
machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored
their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
It is in the second generation that the concept of
Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming
language and input and output units were developed. `
Transistors

Third Generation – 1970s-1980s: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers.
Silicon is the basic material used to
make computer chips, transistors, silicon
diodes and other electronic circuits and
switching devices because its atomic
structure makes the element an ideal
semiconductor. Silicon is commonly
mixed with other elements, such as
boron, phosphorous etc, to alter its
conductive properties.
A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material (silicon) on which an integrated circuit is
embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inch and can contain millions of electronic components
(transistors).
Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards.
There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (microprocessors) contain an entire
processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials.
Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as transistors. Not only
does miniaturization mean that the components take up less space, it also means that they are faster and
require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.
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 Fourth Generation – 1980s -Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as more millions of integrated circuits
were rebuilt onto a single silicon chip, (VLSI). In the world of personal computers, the terms
microprocessor, microchip, chip and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal
computers sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices,
today, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of
life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also
saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices

Fifth Generation Computers

Assignment
Carry out some research and come up with a clear description of the fifth generation computers

2.2 Classification of computers by Function

Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service. For example, a
computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers" manage a large
collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller
servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services for other
computers.

Workstations
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special
hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.

Embedded computers
Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded
computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to
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operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers
are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in
their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded
computers; however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one. The central
processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational
requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal
computer.

Information appliances
Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific user-friendly
function —such as playing music, photography, etc. The term is most commonly applied to mobile
devices, though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class.

2.3 Classification of computers by Size!

Depending upon their speed and memory size, computers can be classified into following five main
groups.
1. Supercomputer.
2. Mainframe computer.
3. Mini computer.
4. Microcomputer.
5. Portable computer

1. Supercomputer
Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was developed in
1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific problems. It
can perform more than one trillion calculations per second. It has large number of processors
connected parallel. So parallel processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer
thousands of users can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of each
user separately.
Supercomputers are used in large complex organizations where large and complicated
computations are done such as nuclear research laboratories, aerospace design centers, etc.

2. Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than
mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very large
clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can support a
large number of various equipments. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe systems can
handle the input and output requirements of several thousand of users. For example, IBM, S/390
mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access the mainframe with
terminals or personal computers.

3. Minicomputers
Minicomputers are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and cost than mainframe. These
computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as compared to other computers at
that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between mainframe and personal computer.
The minicomputers are used in business, education etc. where most are designed to handle
multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and
hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting as server.
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4. Microcomputer
Microcomputers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs because they are small enough
to be used by an one person, unlike the first and the second generation computers. They are also known
as desktop computers because they are small enough to fit on a desk contrasting with first and second
generation computers. The reduction in size brought about a reduction in cost, meaning many people
started to afford them..

5. Portable Computers.

Portable computers include Laptops, Hand-held computers e.g. PDAs, Mobile phones, etc

a. Laptop computer
Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is small size can fit inside a briefcase. The
laptop computer is operated on a special battery and it does not have to be plugged in like desktop
computer. The laptop computer is portable and fully functional microcomputer. It can be used on your
lap in an airplane, thus it is referred to as laptop computer.
The memory and storage capacity of laptop computer is almost equivalent to the PC or desktop
computer or even more. It also has the hard disc, CD-ROM drive, CD-writer etc. it has built-in
keyboard and built-in trackball as pointing device. Laptop computer is also available with the same
processing speed as the most powerful personal computer. It means that laptop computer has same
features as personal computer. Laptop computers are more expensive than desktop computers.
Normally these computers are frequently used by business travelers.

b. Handheld computer
In the mid 1990s, many new types of small personal computing devices have been introduced and
these are referred to as handheld computers. These computers are also referred to as Palmtop
Computers. This type of computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while
you can operate it with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is
quite small. Similarly it also has small keyboard. Some handheld computers have a specialized
keyboard. These computers are used by mobile employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery
people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place. E.g. Personal Digital Assistance, cellular
telephones (Mobile phones), Etc

3.0 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Take note that computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to do any
specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of instructions is
called a computer program. Software therefore refers to the set of computer programs (set of
instructions), procedures that describe the programs and how they are to be used so that a task can be
accomplished in the computer. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the
capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during
a particular job. The process of software development is called programming.
Note that software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both have to work together
to produce meaningful result. Also producing software is difficult and expensive.
Thus software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions,
often broken into two major categories: application software which is used by users to accomplish
specific tasks and system software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer.

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 Software

System
Application Software
Software

General purpose
Special purpose Operating
Software Utilities
software (Custom) Systems
(Packages)

Types of Software

There are two categories of computer software: application software and system software.

(a) Application software

Application software consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users. Popular
application software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software, database software, and
presentation graphics software. Application software can be packaged software (general purpose
software that meets the needs of a variety of users), custom software (tailor-made software developed
at a user’s request).
Application software can be used as a productivity/business tool; to assist with graphics and
multimedia projects; to support home, personal, and educational activities; and to facilitate
communications. Specific application software products, called software packages, are available from
software vendors.

Examples of Applications Software

People use application software to become more effective, efficient and productive while performing
daily activities.

Word processing software allows users to create and manipulate documents that contain text and
graphics. With word processing software, you can insert clip art into a document; change margins;
find and replace text; use a spelling checker to check spelling; place a header and footer at the top
and the bottom of a page; and vary font (character design), font size (character scale), and font style
(character appearance).

With spreadsheet software, data is organized in rows and columns, which collectively are called a
worksheet. The intersection of a row and column, called a cell, can contain a label (text), a value
(number), or a formula or function that performs calculations on the data and displays the result.

Database software allows you to create and manage a database. A database is a collection of data
organized to allow access, retrieval, and use of that data. A query is used to retrieve data according to
specified criteria, which are restrictions the data must meet.

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Presentation graphics software is used to create presentations that communicate ideas, messages, and
other information to a group through a slide show. You can use a clip gallery to enhance your
presentation with clip art images, pictures, video clips, and audio clips.

Computer-aided design (CAD) software assists in creating engineering, architectural, and scientific
designs.

Desktop publishing (DTP) software is used to design and produce sophisticated documents. DTP is
developed specifically to support page layout, which is the process of arranging text and graphics in a
document. Paint software is used to draw graphical images with various on-screen tools. Image
editing software provides the capability to modify existing images. Video editing software and audio
editing software can be used to modify video and audio segments.

Multimedia authoring software is used to create electronic interactive presentations that can include
text, images, video, audio, and animation. Web page authoring software is designed to create Web
pages and to organize, manage, and maintain Web sites.

One of the main reasons people use computers is to communicate and share information. E-mail
software is used to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and delete e-mail (electronic mail). A
Web browser is a software application used to access and view Web pages. A videoconference is a
meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a network or the Internet to
transmit audio and video data.

(b) System software

System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system see it as
a one functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as transferring
data from main memory to disk, or displaying text onto a monitor. Generally, system software consists
of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, etc
Thus, system software consists of the programs that control the operations of a computer and its
devices of which two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs. An
operating system (OS) coordinates all activities among hardware devices and contains instructions
that allow you to run application software. A utility program performs specific tasks, usually related
to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.
You interact with software through its user interface. System software serves as the interface
between a user, the application software, and the computer’s hardware. One type of system software is
the operating system. Before application software can be run, the operating system, which contains
instructions that coordinate the activities among computer hardware devices, must be loaded from the
hard disk into the computer’s main memory.
The user interface controls how you enter data or instructions and how information displays
on the computer screen. Many of today’s software programs have a graphical user interface. A
graphical user interface (GUI) combines text, graphics, and other visual images to make software
easier to use.

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Operating System
An operating system is the program that acts as the
interface between the user (and/or application) and the
hardware. It’s basically the program that controls the computer.
The operating system helps simplify the task of writing
applications, since the programmer does not have to be
concerned with the complexities of interfacing with the
hardware. The interface to the Operating System (O/S) is made
simpler by providing Application Programming Interfaces
(APIs) that programmers use when accessing various devices.
Once a program is written using an API, it is a simple matter to
move the program to a new hardware platform.
Without this system software (OS), it is impossible to
operate your computer as shown in the figure.
Thus the purpose of operating system is to insulate the applications programmer/ user, as much
as possible from the details of the particular computer complexity being used, especially memory and
other hardware features such as communications and devices such as printers, keyboards, etc.

Utility Software
Utility programs supplement the operating system. Most operating systems include several
utility programs for performing specific tasks relating to computer management. Utilities generally
reside in secondary storage until summoned by the user or operating system kernel. A good example
of utility is antivirus programs which prevent, detect, and remove computer viruses.
A file viewer is a utility that allows you to display and copy the contents of a file. A file
compression utility shrinks the size of a file. A diagnostic utility compiles technical information
about a computer’s hardware and certain system software programs and then prepares a report
outlining any identified problems. An uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as well as
any associated entries in the system files. A disk scanner is a utility that (1) detects and corrects both
physical and logical problems on a hard disk, and (2) searches for and removes unnecessary files.
A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes files and unused space on a computer’s hard
disk so data can be accessed more quickly and programs can run faster. A backup utility copies, or
backs up, selected files or an entire hard drive onto another disk or tape. A screen saver is a utility that
causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving image on a blank screen if no keyboard activity occurs
for a specified period.

The Startup Process for a Personal Computer (Booting)

Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer. When you turn on the computer, the power
supply sends an electrical signal to devices located in the system unit. The processor chip resets itself
and looks for the ROM chip that contains the BIOS (basic input/output system), which is firmware
that holds the startup instructions. The BIOS executes the power-on self test (POST) to make sure
hardware is connected properly and operating correctly.
The POST results are compared with data in a CMOS chip on the motherboard. If the POST
completes successfully, the BIOS searches for specific operating system files called system files. Once
located, the boot drive (the drive from which your personal computer starts), loads the system files
from storage (the hard disk – usually drive C) into memory (RAM) and executes them. Next, the
kernel of the operating system loads into memory and takes control of the computer. The operating
system loads configuration information. When complete, the operating systems (Windows) desktop
and icons display, and programs in the Startup folder are executed.
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POST (Power On Self Test)
All electronic devices that are processor based, must go through an initialization when they’re
first powered up. The processor when it first receives power might still have some of the data in it from
the last time it was used so it must be initialized to clear out its internal buffers.
When you first power-on a PC the power supply runs a self test, if good it sends a “Power
Good” signal to the processor. Once the processor receives this signal it flushes out its buffers of any
instructions or data and only knows one address to go to get instructions. This address points to a
memory location inside the System BIOS chip. (Think of an address like a phone number the
processor calls to get the first instruction) The System BIOS responds by sending instructions to the
processor telling it what to do. The instructions sent to the processor make up what is referred to as the
POST (Power On Self Test). POST verifies that the components needed to start the system are
functioning properly. It does not test every component, only the ones absolutely necessary to
successfully “Boot” the system.

4.0 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical Hardware
parts of a computer and related devices. Internal
hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives,
and RAM etc. External hardware devices include
monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, scanners, etc. Input Output Storage
The internal hardware parts may be referred Processor
Devices Devices Devices
to as components, while external hardware devices
may be called peripherals. Hardware may be
grouped into four major categories as shown here.

Computer Storage (Memory)

Computer storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and
recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data
storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is
one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing
unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer operation
There are two kinds of computer storage/memory: primary and secondary storage/memory.
Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory.
As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory
such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more
expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of
secondary memory.
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data.
When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary
memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device
like a floppy disk.
As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow
instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from airline reservation counter,
the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate
fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The program
containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.

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5.0 COMPUTER PROCESSING
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer--it is the 'compute' in computer.
Without the CPU, you have no computer. AMD, IBM, Intel, Motorola, SGI and Sun are just a few of
the companies that make most of the CPU's used for various kinds of computers including home
desktops, office computers, mainframes and supercomputers. Computers’ CPUs (processors) are
composed of thin layers of thousands/millions (and soon billions) of transistors. Transistors are tiny,
nearly microscopic bits of material that will block electricity at one voltage (they are a non-conductor
and 'resist' the flow of electricity) and permit electricity to pass through them at different voltage (the
material loses its resistance to electricity and becomes a conductor). The ability of these materials
(called semi-conductors) to transition from a non-conducting to a conducting state allows them to take
two electrical inputs and produce a different output only when one or both inputs are switched on.
Because CPU's are so small, they are often referred to as microprocessors. So, the terms processor,
microprocessor, microchip, chip, CPU, etc, are interchangeable.
Each transistor receives a set of inputs and produces output. When one or more of the inputs
receive electricity, the combined charge changes the state of the transistor internally and you get a
result out the other side. This simple effect of the transistor is what makes it possible for the computer
to count and perform logical operations, all of which we call processing.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
 Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
 Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
 Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per
second the processor can execute.
In both cases the higher the value the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Two typical components of a CPU are:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them,
calling on the ALU when necessary.
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You
may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions,
makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and
controlling the operations.

CPU subsystem
 The CPU has many components.
o control unit (CU) : carries out the instruction
o arithmetic logic unit (ALU) : does arithmetic operations
o instruction and data registers
 these units must cooperate to make things happen
 The intricate dance they perform is known as the machine cycle or instruction cycle, which
follows these major phases as illustrated by the figure below:

1. Fetch the instruction: prefetch unit requests instruction from memory. It is transferred
from memory, via the bus, into the decoding unit.

13
 2. Decode the instruction : decoding unit decodes the operation and operands and activates
the control unit
3. Execute the instruction : the control unit sends values to the ALU to be added,
subtracted, or whatever
4. Store the results : the results of the operation may be stored into memory

 The instruction cycle is repeated

millions of times per second.
 It is controlled by the computers
clock, which sends out timing pulses,
or "ticks".
 The instruction cycle requires several
clock ticks. Some instructions require
more clock ticks than others.
 CPUs are usually characterized by
their clock speed, measured by
number of clock ticks per second.
Clock speed is measured in "GHz",
(Giga Hertz). 1 GHz is 1 billion
clock ticks per second

NOTE: If you compare 2 computers with two different clock rates, the one with the higher rate may
not be "faster"!
o some instructions require more clock ticks than others
o if your software application uses lots of these complex instructions, it will run slower
even on the same computer than some other application

Control Unit up close and personal

o major subcomponents are Instruction Register and Program Counter
o a register is a very small but fast storage (32 or 64 bits) located on the CPU
o the Instruction Register holds the next instruction to be carried out
o the Program Counter contains the memory address where the next instruction is stored

Cache unit is random access memory on the CPU chip itself but separate from the CPU.
o Is quicker to access cache than RAM memory unit
o Recently and frequently used instructions and data are stored in cache
o Level 1 (L1) cache is closest to the CPU. It is fastest to access but has smallest capacity
(measured in KB)
o Level 2 (L2) cache is further away but still on the chip. It is slower to access but has
larger capacity (possibly measured in MB)
o Some chips also include Level 3 (L3) cache, measured in MB

The CPU chip may contain two or more cores.

o Each core is a processor and all can operate simultaneously
o Each core will likely have its own L1 cache, but L2, L3 may be shared.
o All cores share the same RAM memory unit

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 You can get CPU information on a Windows XP system by selecting My Computer from the
Start menu then View System Information from System Tasks.

6.0 OPERATING SYSTEMS (C’TD)

Main Objectives of Operating Systems

Modern Operating systems generally have following three major goals. Operating systems generally
accomplish these goals by running processes in low privilege and providing service calls that invoke
the operating system kernel in high-privilege state.

 To hide details of hardware by creating abstraction

An abstraction is software that hides lower level details and provides a set of higher-level
functions. An operating system transforms the physical world of devices, instructions, memory,
and time into virtual world that is the result of abstractions built by the operating system.
 To allocate resources to processes (Manage resources)
An operating system controls how processes (the active agents) may access resources (passive
entities).
 Provide a pleasant and effective user interface
The user interacts with the operating systems through the user interface and usually interested
in the “look and feel” of the operating system. The most important components of the user
interface are the command interpreter, the file system, on-line help, and application integration.
The recent trend has been toward increasingly integrated graphical user interfaces that
encompass the activities of multiple processes on networks of computers.

One can therefore view operating systems from two points of view: Resource manager and Extended
machine. From Resource manager point of view, operating systems manage the different parts of the
system efficiently and from extended machines point of view, operating systems provide a virtual
machine to users that is more convenient to use. The structurally operating systems can be designed as
a monolithic system, a hierarchy of layers, a virtual machine system, or using the client-server model.
The basic concepts of operating systems are processes, memory management, I/O management, the file
systems, and security.

Major Functions of Operating Systems

An operating system has a complex mixture of diversified functions. Operating systems is the resource manager.
At the simplest level, an operating system manages the hardware and software resources of the system and
provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without having to know all the details
of the hardware (Abstraction)

(a) User interface:-The operating system provides a convenient interface between a computer and its users. A
user interface controls how you enter data and instructions and how information displays on the
screen
(b) Processor management::-Users submit programs or program segments to the computer for processing,
requesting different processors and peripheral equipment.
(c) Memory management:-A computer generally has a mixture of memory types—e.g. main memory
(RAM, ROM), cache, hard disks, and flash disks--each with a different size and access time.

15
(d) Input/output management:-There are all kinds of I/O devices in the computer system. The management of
these devices is one of the most complex aspect of operating system design
(e) File management:-The operating system is also responsible for keeping track of the files and directories that
reside on hard or floppy disks.
(f) Management of communication:-The operating system manages communication among computers
connected on a network
(g) Security:- Administering security involves establishing user accounts on a network. Each account
typically requires a user name and a password to log on, or access, the network.

Categories of Operating Systems

Every operating system is different, and each is designed to meet a set of goals. However, operating
systems can generally be classified into the following categories.

(a) Personal Computer Operating System

A personal computer operating system is designed to provide a good environment to a single user at a
time. User interface elements (desktops, GUIs etc.) are important here. Response time and the user
experience is often more important than efficient computer utilisation. E.g. Windows XP, MacOS X.

(b) Mainframe Operating System

A mainframe operating system runs on mainframes, which provide immense I/O and
availability. They may provide a batch environment: jobs are segregated into batches with similar
requirements. Each batch is given to the computer to run. When jobs with similar system requirements
are batched together, this helps to streamline their processing.
Alternatively, the system may provide transaction processing, where hundreds or thousands
of small requests must be performed every second.
User interaction is generally lacking in these systems, as the emphasis is on the computer's
utilisation. An example mainframe system is IBM's OS/390.

(c) Server Operating System

A server operating system runs on servers. The aim here is to provide services to many users
simultaneously.
Services may include applications, file storage, print and other networking operations. The emphasis
here is on user response time as well as computer utilisation. Server systems are usually more general-
purpose than the other types of operating systems. Examples of multiprogramming systems are Linux,
UNIX and Windows 2000.

(d) Embedded Operating System

An embedded operating system usually has the operating system built into the computer (component),
and is used to control external hardware. There is little or no application software in an embedded
system. Examples here are the PDAs that everybody seems to have, and of course the computers built
into DVDs, microwaves, and into most cars. Windows CE is an example of an embedded operating
system.

Other Categorization of Operating Systems

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Within the broad family of operating systems, there are several types of operating systems, categorized
based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories
are:

(a) Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld
computers (PDA) is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.

(b) Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their
desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both
examples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the
same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word
processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.

(c) Multi-user, multi-tasking - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take
advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the
requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has
sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of
users. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user
operating systems.

(d) Real-time operating system (RTOS) - Real-time operating systems are used to control
machinery, scientific instruments and industrial systems. An RTOS typically has very little user-
interface capability, and no end-user utilities, since the system will be a "sealed box" when delivered
for use. A very important part of an RTOS is managing the resources of the computer so that a
particular operation executes in precisely the same amount of time, every time it occurs. In a complex
machine, having a part move more quickly just because system resources are available may be just as
catastrophic as having it not move at all because the system is busy.

7.0 DATA VERSUS INFORMATION

 Data refers to the lowest abstract or a raw input which when processed or arranged makes
meaningful output. Data consists of facts and figures that are relatively meaningless to the user.
It is not enough to have data (such as statistics on the economy). Data in themselves are fairly
useless. In computer parlance, a spreadsheet generally starts out by holding data.
 When data are processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make
them useful, they are called Information.
 Data is the computer's language. Information is our translation of this language.
 The transformation of data into information is performed by an information processor.
 The information processor is one of the key elements in the conceptual system.

Understanding the Difference between Data and Information

Data are raw numbers or other findings which, by themselves, are of limited value to decision
makers. Information, on the other hand, is the result of organizing, processing, and interpreting data,
thus transforming the findings into facts that are useful to decision makers. For example, the number
17
of new users your clinic serves in a month means little until you compare it with the number of new
users from previous months and years to see whether there has been an increase or decrease in the
trend over time.
Data are transformed into information by:
 Selection—choosing the data that are useful and adequate for answering the questions that have
been posed, and ignoring the data that are useless or inadequate for that purpose.
 Interpretation — analyzing the data to put them into context, uncover patterns or problem areas,
and reflect on the meaning of these patterns in relation to the questions being asked.
 The overall objective of converting data to information is to describe, explain, predict, and/or
evaluate a program and its results.

DATA REPRESENTATION
Computer data is made up of long sequences of ones and zeros, called bits, grouped by eight to
form bytes.
Actual information is represented by the bit values stored in these bytes, such as signed and
unsigned integers, real numbers (fractional numbers), characters, etc. (We’ll talk about integer values
here. We won’t talk about fractional (floating point numbers) representation.)

Inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or
screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. The binary
system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal
system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated
circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch
is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a
pattern like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in
the form 0 and 1 only.

Bits
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a single bit is capable of
representing only two different values (typically zero or one) you may get the impression that there are
a very small number of items you can represent with a single bit. Not true! There are an infinite
number of items you can represent with a single bit.
With a single bit, you can represent any two distinct items. Examples include zero or one, true
or false, on or off, male or female, and right or wrong. However, you are not limited to representing
binary data types (that is, those objects which have only two distinct values).

0 1 bit
1 1 bit
0110 4 bits
01101011 8 bits

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Bytes
Without question, the most important data
structure used by the modern microprocessor is
the byte. A byte consists of eight bits and is the
smallest addressable (data item) on the
microprocessor. Main memory and I/O
addresses on the processor are all byte
addresses. This means that the smallest item that
can be individually accessed by a program is an
eight-bit value. The bits in a byte are normally
numbered from zero to seven using the
convention shown below:

Number System

Integers

The number system that we are used to is a decimal number system because it is base 10. For
example:
54318 = 5x104 + 4x103 + 3x102 + 1x101 + 8x100
= 5x10000 + 4x1000 + 3x100 + 1x10 + 8x1
= 50000 + 4000 + 300 + 10 + 8
= 54318

The binary number system works like the decimal number system, but it is a base 2 system. To
convert binary to decimal, use the same method used above but use base 2!

Number Conversion
You need to know how to convert from a number represented in one system to another.

 Converting from base b to decimal. To convert from an integer represented in base b to

decimal, multiply the ith digit by the ith power of b, and sum up the results. For example, the
binary number 101101110 is 366 in decimal.

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 (binary)
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (powers of 2)
-------------------------------------------
256 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 (multiplied by corresponding
digit)

366

The hexadecimal number 16E is 366 in decimal.

1 6 E (hex)
256 16 1 (powers of 16)
-------------
19
 256 + 96 + 14 (multiplied by corresponding digit)

366

 Converting from decimal to base b. It is slightly more difficult to convert an integer represented
in decimal to one in base b because we are accustomed to performing arithmetic in base 10.
The easiest way to convert from decimal to base b by hand is to repeatedly divide by the base b,
and read the remainder upwards. For example, the calculations below convert from the decimal
integer 366 to binary (101101110) and to hexadecimal (16E).

 Converting between base b1 and b2. One way is to convert the base b1 integer to decimal
(using the first algorithm described above) and then to convert the resulting decimal integer to
base b2 (using the second algorithm described above).
 Converting between binary and hexadecimal. We describe a fast and elegant way to convert
directly from the binary to hexadecimal representation of an integer: First, group the digits 4 at
a time starting from the right; then convert each group to a single hexadecimal digit, padding 0s
to the very last group if necessary. For example, the hexadecimal representation of
111010111001110001 is 3AE71.

0011 1010 1110 0111 0001

3 A E 7 1

To convert from hexadecimal to binary: convert each hexadecimal digit individually into its
corresponding 4 digit binary number, removing any leading 0's.

9 F 0 3
1001 1111 0000 0011

This works because one base (16) is a power of the other (2). Likewise, it would be easy to
convert between the base 125 and base 5 representations.

The following power of 2 table maybe helpful

Power Result Power Result

0 1 9 512
1 2 10 1024
2 4 11 2048
3 8 12 4096
4 16 13 8192
5 32 14 16384
6 64 15 32768
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 7 128 16 65536
8 256

8.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

 A network is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels that

allows users to share data, information, hardware, and software with other users. Individuals and
organizations connect computers in a network for a variety of reasons, including the ability to share
hardware, data and information, and software; and to facilitate communications amongst others.
 A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

The key is that 2 or more computers are connected together by a medium and they are sharing
resources. The resources can be files, printers, hard drives or CPU number crunching power.

Types of Networks
The two basic types of networks include:
 Local Area Network (LANs)
 Wide Area networks (WANs)

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers
more than 3 km apart.
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers attached
to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The workstations can
be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On
most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as districts, countries,
continents and the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect
this type of network.
Using a WAN, universities in Kenya can communicate with other places in the world like
Tokyo in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the
Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

Other Network Categories

Network type in this context describes the manner in which attached resources can be shared.
Resources can be clients, servers, or any devices, files, and so on that reside on client or server. These
21
resources can be accessed in either of the following ways: via peer-to-peer networks or server based
networks.

Peer-to-Peer networks
Peer-to-peer network allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a centralized
management source In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the
same abilities to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed
primarily for small to medium local area networks.

Client/Server
Client/server network allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated file servers(see the figure below). The file servers become the heart of the system, providing
access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients) have access to the
resources available on the file servers. The network operating system provides the mechanism to
integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same
resources irrespective of physical location.

Advantages of Installing a Network

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks
from one computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is
very time-consuming.
 Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable
savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings,
sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have
to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
 Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do
not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
 Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a
school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This
eliminates the need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.
 Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone
computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines modems, scanners,
and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to
a network, they can be shared by many users.

Disadvantages of Installing a Network

 Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs
of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the
installation may require the services of a technician.
 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for
the necessary administrative support.
 File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other
computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this
happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.

22
  Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. A topology, which is a pattern
of interconnections among nodes, influences a network's cost and performance. There are three
primary types of network topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network
cabling. They are:

Star Topology
All devices connected with a Star setup communicate
through a central Hub by cable segments. Signals are
transmitted and received through the Hub. It is the simplest
and the oldest and all the telephone switches are based on
this. In a star topology, each network device has a home
run of cabling back to a network hub, giving each device a
separate connection to the network. So, there can be
multiple connections in parallel.

Bus Topology
The simplest and one of the most common of all
topologies. Bus topology consists of a single cable, called a
Backbone, that connects all workstations on the network
using a single line. All transmissions must pass through
each of the connected devices to complete the desired
request. Each workstation has its own individual signal that
identifies it and allows for the requested data to be returned
to the correct originator. In the Bus Network, messages are
sent in both directions from a single point and are read by
the node (computer or peripheral on the network) identified
by the code with the message. Most Local Area Networks
(LANs) are Bus Networks because the network will
continue to function even if one computer is down. This
topology works equally well for either peer to peer or client
server. The purpose of the terminators at either end of the
network is to stop the signal being reflected back.

Ring Topology
All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed
circle of cable. Messages that are transmitted travel around
the ring until they reach the computer that they are addressed
to, the signal being refreshed by each node. In a ring
topology, the network signal is passed through each network
card of each device and passed on to the next device. Each
device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable
of supporting many devices in a somewhat slow but very
orderly fashion. There is a very nice feature that everybody
23
gets a chance to send a packet and it is guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite
amount of time.

9.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

History
The Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and
sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). The U.S. Department of Defense laid the
foundation of the Internet in 1969 with a network called ARPANET. But the general public didn't use
the Internet much until after the development of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.
The U.S. government formed the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a segment of
the Department of Defense charged with ensuring U.S. leadership in science and technology with
military applications. In 1969, ARPA established ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet.
ARPANET was a network that connected computers at four main universities in the US.
Within a couple of years, several other educational and research institutions joined the network.
In response to the threat of nuclear attack, ARPANET was designed to allow continued
communication if one or more sites were destroyed in the cold war. Unlike today, when millions of
people have access to the Internet from home, work, or their public library, in the early days,
ARPANET served only computer professionals, engineers, and scientists who knew their way around
its complex workings.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web came into being in 1991, thanks to developer Tim Berners-Lee and
others at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics. , -( Conseil European pour la Recherche
Nucleure (CERN). The CERN team created the protocol based on hypertext that makes it possible to
connect content on the Web with hyperlinks. Berners-Lee now directs the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), a group of industry and university representatives that oversees the standards of
Web technology.
Early on, the Internet was limited to noncommercial uses because its backbone was provided
largely by the National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and
the U.S. Department of Energy, and funding came from the government. But as independent networks
began to spring up, users could access commercial Web sites without using the government-funded
network. By the end of 1992, the first commercial online service provider, Delphi, offered full Internet
access to its subscribers, and several other providers followed.
In June 1993, the Web boasted just 130 sites. By a year later, the number had risen to nearly
3,000. By April 1998, there were more than 2.2 million sites on the Web.
Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative, and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds
of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the
currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is
its use of a set of protocols called TCP/IP (for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Two
recent adaptations of Internet technology, the intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP
protocol.
For many Internet users, electronic mail (e-mail) has practically replaced the Postal Service for
short written transactions. Electronic mail is the most widely used application on the Net. You can also

24
carry on live "conversations" with other computer users, using Internet Relay Chat (IRC). More
recently, Internet telephony hardware and software allows real-time voice conversations.
The most widely used part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (often abbreviated "WWW"
or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-referencing. In
most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest; often this text
is also underlined. When you select one of these words or phrases, you will be transferred to the site or
page that is relevant to this word or phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or portions of images
that are "clickable." If you move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and the pointer changes into a
hand, this indicates that you can click and be transferred to another site.

Browsers
To view files on the Web, you need Web browsing software. A browser is the software application run
on an internet client that provides a GUI interface for accessing files on the WWW.
You use this software to view different locations on the Web, which are known as Web pages. A group
of Web pages is a Web site. The first page of a Web site is often called the home page.
A Web browser contains the basic software you need in order to find, retrieve, view, and send
information over the Internet. This includes software that lets you:
▪ Send and receive electronic-mail (or e-mail) messages worldwide nearly instantaneously.
▪ Read messages from newsgroups (or forums) where users share information and opinions.
▪ Browse the World Wide Web (or Web) where you can find a rich variety of text, graphics, and
interactive information.

Searching the World Wide Web

When you do what is called "searching the Web," you are NOT searching it directly. It is not
possible to search the WWW directly. The Web is the totality of the many web pages which reside on
computers (called "servers") all over the world. Your computer cannot find or go to them all directly.
What you are able to do through your computer is access one or more of many intermediate search
tools available now. You search a search tool's database or collection of sites -- a relatively small
subset of the entire World Wide Web. The search tool provides you with hypertext links with URLs
to other pages. You click on these links, and retrieve documents, images, sound, and more from
individual servers around the world.
There is no way for anyone to search the entire Web, and any search tool that claims that it
offers it all to you is distorting the truth.

Things to be Cautious About on the Internet

Accuracy: Be cautious not to believe everything on the Internet. Almost anyone can publish
information on the Internet, and some of it may be false. Check all information for accuracy through
additional reputable sources.
Security: When sending information over the Internet, be prepared to let the world have access to it.
There are ways to gain access to anything that you send to anyone over the Internet, including e-mail.
Be extremely cautious when sending confidential information to anyone.
Copyright: Always give credit to the author of any information (including graphics) found on the
Internet. Often permission can be granted from an author to use their material for educational
purposes.
Viruses/Worms: These usually destructive computer programs hide inside innocent looking
programs, web pages and e-mail attachments. When triggered, often by the date or time on the
25
computer's internal clock or calendar, it executes a nuisance or damaging function such as displaying a
message on your screen, corrupting your files, or reformatting your hard disk. Today, worms access
your e-mail address book and send themselves automatically. Make sure you've got virus protection
software installed and that you update their "virus definition" files at least monthly.

10.0 COMPUTER PROTECTION

Even if you do not have access to a departmental file server, you will probably have occasions
to share files with colleagues. You can send files as e-mail attachments or place them on removable
media such as flash or floppy disks, etc. When you receive files from colleagues either inside or
outside of the University, it is very important to be sure the files are virus-free. Since new viruses are
being created all the time, anti-virus software is useless unless you keep the anti-virus definitions up to
date.

What is a computer virus?

The term computer virus is often used interchangeably with malware, though the two don't
actually have the same meaning. In the strictest sense, a virus is a program that copies itself and infects
a PC, spreading from one file to another, and then from one PC to another when the files are copied or
shared. Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer
to another and to interfere with computer operation.
Most viruses attach themselves to executable files or any arbitrary files. A virus might corrupt
or delete data on your computer, use your email program to spread itself to other computers, or even
erase everything on your hard disk.
Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in email messages or instant messaging
messages. That is why it is essential that you never open email attachments unless you know who it's
from and you are expecting it. Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting
cards, audio, video files etc.
To help avoid computer viruses, it's essential that you keep your computer current with the
latest updates and antivirus tools, stay informed about recent threats, run your computer as a standard
user (not as administrator), and that you follow a few basic rules when you surf the Internet, download
files, and open attachments.
Once a virus is on your computer, its type or the method it used to get there is not as important
as removing it and preventing further infection.

Worm
An unwanted computer program that duplicates itself across a computer network. It uses up the
network’s storage space and resources and can interfere with the ability of network to function at all.
Most worms begin as e mail attachments that infect a computer when they’re opened.

Trojan horse
A Trojan horse is a malicious software program that hides inside other programs. It enters a
computer hidden inside a legitimate program, such as a screen saver. It then puts code into the
operating system, which enables a hacker to access the infected computer. Trojan horses do not usually
spread by themselves; they are spread by viruses, worms, or downloaded software.

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Computer Virus Protection

Nowadays, nearly every individual who uses a computer is interconnected with everyone who
also is, through the biggest network of them all: the Internet. The mere thought of being able to infect
millions of workstations is enough motivation for wicked individuals to write viruses. But why is the
Internet the perfect place for viruses to spread?
Viruses are the only malware that replicate themselves (Malware is short for malicious
software, and is a general term used to describe all of the viruses, worms, spyware, and anything that is
specifically designed to cause harm to your PC or steal your information. It is a term used to refer to
any malicious or unwanted program that gets inadvertently downloaded by a computer). Once they get
inadvertently copied to a computer, they can execute, spread and attach themselves to folders and files
located in that computer. Then when files from the infected computer are copied to other computers –
for instance, through USB flash drives, memory cards, wired/wireless networks, emails, file sharing
over the Internet, etc. –, those computers then get infected as well.
The best computer virus protection strategy should allow you to carry out your usual tasks. The
best Computer Virus Protection programs will allow you to determine whether your computer is
infected when you run a scan through them. Some programs that provide virus protection for computer
systems have a special feature that will allow them to run in the background while you perform your
usual tasks. That way, when you encounter a virus, the antivirus program can instantly act on the threat
and prevent it from entering.
Since crooks developing viruses always try to be one step ahead of antivirus developers,
programs for computer protection from viruses have to be enabled with daily update features that will
provide the latest protection against the latest threats.

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