EC3352 Digital Systems Design unit1CS8351-DIGITAL PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEM DESIGN IL_YEAR — Il SEMESTER — R2017 UNIT- 1 INTRODUCTIO! In 1854, George Boole, an English mathematician, proposed algebra for symbolically representing problems in logie so that they may be analyzed mathematically. The mathematical systems founded upon the work of Boole are called Boolean algebra in his honor. ‘The application of a Boolean algebra to certain engineering problems was introduced in 1938 by C.E. Shannon. For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates formulated by E.V. Huntington in 1904. Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebra: ‘The postulates of a mathematical system forms the basic assumption from which iis possible to deduce the theorems, laws and properties of the system, ‘The most common postulates used to formulate various structures are— i) Closure: Asset Sis closed w.r.t. a binary operator, if for every pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S. ‘The result of each operation with operator (+) or (.) is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 €B. ii) Identity element: ‘A set $ is said to have an identity element w.r.ta binary operation * on S, if there exists an element e € $ with the property efxexte Eg: 0+0=0 al iti) Commutative la Abinary operator * on a set $ is said to be commutative if, forallx,y@SEg: 14021 0.1=21.0=0 Jaw: iv) Distribu 2 If* and « are two binary operation on a set S, « is said to be distributive over + whenever, Xo (Yt 2) = (XY) + (XZ) Similarly, + is said to be distributive over + whenever, X + (ye 2) = (Xt y). (ME Z) v) Inverse: inve! ‘Aset S having the identity element e, w.r.t. binary operator * is said to have an se, whenever for every x € §, there exists an element x’ € § such that, ince 0 + 0' = 0+ Land 1+ 1’ = 1+ 4 b) x. x’ =1, since 0. 0’ = 0. 1and 1.1" =1.0=0 Summary: Postulates of Boolean algebra: POSTULATES (a) () Postulate 2 (Identity) X+0=x xX. 15x Postulate 3 (Commutative) Mt Y=ytX Xey Postulate 4 (Distributive) x (y+ 2) M+ ya = (xt y). (+2) Postulate 5 (Inverse) xHv ed ) Basic theorem and properties of Boolean algebra: Basic Theorems:The theorems, like the postulates are listed in pairs; each relation is the dual of the one paired with it. The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no proof, The theorems must be proven from the postulates. The proofs of the theorems with one variable are presented below. At the right is listed the number of the postulate that justifies each step of the proof. a) a)x#x=x X#X=(X#X).1 xt x). (x4 x”) by postulate 2(b)[ x. 1= x ] 5(a) [ xt x’ ab) [xtyz. x=o] 2(a)[x+0 =x] +y)(x+2)] by postulate 2(a) [x 0 =x] 5(b)[x.x'= 0] ala) [x (y+7) = Gy)+ (x2) p(a) [xt x’ =1] 2(b) [x1 =x] 2)a)xe1=1 X+ 151. (x+1) by postulate 2(b)[ x. 1=x | (a) [x x" ab) [xtyz. 2(b) [ ayy =x From postulate 5, we have x+ x’ = 1 and x. of x. The complement of x’ is x and is also (x’)’. ‘Therefore, since the complement is unique, (wy =x. . which defines the complement 4) Absorption Theorem: a) xt xyby postulate 2(b) [x.1=x] Ala) [x (v4) = (xy)+ (2)] by theorem 2(a) Ix+ 1 =x] by postulate 2a) Ix. =x] b) x. (Xb) =X x. (HYD EN NERY ala) [x (v4) = (xy)+ (7) xtxy by theorem 1(b) Ix. =x. by theorem 4(a) [xt xy xt X4 N'Y = K+ Nyt XY by theorem 4(a) [xt xy =x] xty (xt x) ~- by postulate 4(a) [x (y+2) = (xy)+ (xz)] 5(a) [x+ x’ = 1] tb) Ix. -- by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+2) = (xy)+ (xz) | 5(b) [x.x' = 0] ata) [x+ 0= x] Properties of Boolean algebra: 1. Commutative property: Boolean addition is commutative, given by According to this property, the order of the OR operation conducted on the variables makes no difference. Boolean algebra is also commutative over multiplication given by, XYSYX ‘This means that the order of the AND operation conducted on the variables makes no difference. 2. Associative property:The associative property of addition is given by, A+ (Bt C) = (A+B) + C ‘The OR operation of several variables results in the same, regardless of the grouping of the variables. ‘The associative law of multiplication is given by, A. (B.C) =(A.B).C It makes no difference in what order the variables are grouped during the AND operation of several variables. 3. Distributive property ‘The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean multiplication, given by At BC = (A+B) (A+) ‘The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean addition, given by A. (BHC) = (A.B)+ (A.C) 4. Duality: Itstates that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged. Ifthe dual of an algebraic expression is desired, we simply interchange OR and AND operators and replace 1's by o's and o's by 1's. XtX = Lisx.x" Duality is a very important property of Boolean algebra.mary: eorems of Boolean algebra: THEOREMS (a) (b) X.NEN 1 | Idempotent 2 _| Involution ae xEX x (ty sorption ae Seas 4 _| Associative XH y+ Z)= (X+ y)+ Z X (yz) = (xy) z DeMorgan’s Theorem Gtyex.y’ wy =xty DeMorgan’s Theo : ‘Two theorems that are an important part of Boolean algebra were proposed by DeMorgan. The first theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements. (ABY = A+B" ‘The second theorem states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements. (A+ BY In simplification of Boolean expression, an expression of the form AB+ A’C+ BC, the term BC is redundant and can be eliminated to form the equivalent expression AB+ A‘C. The theorem used for this simplifieation is known as consensus theorem and is stated as, AB+ A’C+ BC = AB+ 'C ‘The dual form of consensus theorem is stated as, (AB) (A°+C) (BHC) = (AFB) (A'+C)BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS: Min ration of Boolean Expressions: The Boolean expressions ean be simplified by applying properties, laws and theorems of Boolean algebra. Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals: Lx (ty) = XX"+ xy 2 xte’y BN txyty'y xty (sty) +y (1) +y. 3.(ty)Qty") act xy" xy yy xt xy" xyt 0. dty'ty) @ 4oxytxetys aay tN'z + y2( xt x) 4x + yet Nye Re-arranging, yt xyz + x2 ty'ye = xy (14-2) +x°2 (I4y) yew. 5. xyt yet ye Saxytz(yty’) yez(1) Sxytz [x+0=x] [xt xy= x] [xt [xt x= 1] [4y= 1]6. (xt y) ("+ 2) (yt 2) = (xt y) (X74 2) 7 xtytaytx'y? (vtxery’ =y(1)+xy" 8 xtaytyy xty)txy x (ID) +x°y xt xy +y. 9. AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB +C) = AB +(AC)' + AAB'BC + AB'CC AB +(AC)' + 04 AB'CC = AB+(AC)' + ABIC B+ A'+ C'+ABIC B+A'+C'+ AB! =A'+ B+ C+ AB’ nging, =A'+ AB B+ C = A'+ BY BEC eC? 10. (x+y) (xt y) txt x’yt yxt yoy xyty y(xtat) (1) IL xy+ xyz+ xy (w+ 2) cy (Lt ot wt 2) [dual form of consensus theorem, (A+ B) (A’+ © (Bt © = (A+ B) (AO) [xQ+2) [te [stxey=xty' [14x21] [xtwy=xty] [B.B’ = 0] [e.c=1] [acy =A'+C] [C+ ABC= C+ AB] [A+ AB= A" +B] [A+ AB= A" +B] [B+ B= 1) [A+ I= 1]12. xyt xyzt xye"t xyz y (Pt 2t 2) xyz (1) +3'yz ytx’yz (xtx'z) (x+z). 13, xyz xy'zt xyz" Yt 2) + xy"z yt xyz, (yt Y"2) (y+ 2) I xy" wyz+ xy'2?+ xyz? EXE (V4 yh XZ (Ve 15, w'xyz"+ xyz" xy’z"+ xyz yz? (WH 1) + xyZ" xy’z yet xy'e'+ xy" ex (yty) +xy"2 xz" xy"z (a+ y"2) =x@ty). 16, w'sy"z+ W'xyzt wx own (y+ yt wx (+ waz = wixzt wre z (wt W) a I. SY t y'ct yet yet xy = xy! (242) # xy (24a) xy"? XY ()tx'y (Dt xy’? Sexy tay? “(y'ty) + xy"2" [l+x=1] [itx= [xt wy =xty] [xt [xt wy =xty] [1+x [xtay ext y’] [xt w=1] [xtyv(Dtxyr evtay7 wtyd! (w'xz)' + Way's) + wax'y Why (WUE XE 2) + w'xy'z? + wx'y Wy WENTEZ!) EW'xy'z? + WH’ fwryt wy 2 twxy's’ + wx'y Re-arranging, = wy'yt wx'y + why 2) + wey? X'y (w'+ w) + w'2! (YF XY") “y (I) + w'2? (yt xy") =xyt wr’ (ytx) 19. xy+x (y+ 2) +9 (+2) V+ Xt NEE YY4 YE (Vt Nz V+ YE = xy+ xz y + xz 20. [ xy’ (z+ wy) + x°y']z ay'zt xy wyt wy] z = [xy'zt Oxy] 2 VLE NY's yet xy" “2 (xt x’) "2 (1) 2 2. wyet xy'e+ y+ xy'et xyE = yz (X'tx) + xy'2t SY'Z"t xyz a (1) + YZ" (xX) + xy" zt y'a" (I)+ xy"z hye xy'r ay" (+x2) systy @+%) yet y+ xy" 22. [(sy)"+X'+ xy]" [vty txt yyy = [x4 yt xy] [xt x= x]23. [ayt xz]"+ 3°" (sy). 2)" Sy" (ty). HZ) X YZ axvteetvyty7txy'r EXTEN Y EYEE NYE [xt xe x] WENCH eyty [etx'z] VENLE YY [245] [tay =x y1 Wexyty [+x] Ix¢ xy =x] aN’ ety’ [xt xy = x] axtya. [xt xy = x] Dexyt aye) xyt xy’ (xt 2") yt xy? (x+ 2) [x7 =a] yt xy'xt xy’ Ix. x= x] [l+x=1] =xytxy? x(yty’) =xfll [xtx'= 1] 28. [(ay"+ ay2)"+ x(t WT? [xy"tyz)"+ x (vt ay xCy"42)'+ x (y+ x)” [xt xy =x'+ y]s [xt xy = xt y] = [ x(y742)"+ xy xy]? [ (xy"+xz)"+ xy+ x)" [x. x= x] [(xy"4x2)"# x)" [xt xy = x] =[@y’)’. (2) x] (xtty"). (x42 x] [@ty). @4Z")+ x” [x7 =x] (wtyz)t x7? [xt y) (x4 2)= x4 yz] [x4 yeh ap [xtx'= 1] [1+x=1]26. | (xy+ 2") (at y)42) |? (yt7) y+2) |" ee xytey = [04 xyzt x'y'z"+ OP (xt y+ 2") (xt yt. 27. (xt y) (wz 2) (y+ x2)" xt ¥) (z+ 2) (9. (32)") xt) O°* 2) (y. (80) it Y) (FZ) (HZ) = Cart et yt yy yt 7) O+ xzt xy+ yz) (yt yZ’) wyz'+ x'yz+ 0. + XYZ YE (2+ 2) w y= Ym (1, 3,5, 7) Yiak Wyzt xy" xye "2 y"ty) + xz y"+y) "2 (At xz (1) Nba YE* NY. YF NY. YEE VE NYE VE YEE [x.x°=0] Iv’ =x] =xty}s [x7 =A] [x.x°= 0]: [x x= 8] [l+x=1] [xt x"= 1] [xtx’= 1]COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTIO’ ‘The complement of a function F is F’ and is obtained from an interchange of o's, for 1's and 1's for o's in the value of F. The complement of a function may be derived algebraically through DeMorgan’s theorem. DeMorgan’'s theorems for any number of variables resemble in form the two- variable case and can be derived by successive substitutions similar to the method used in the preceding derivation. These theorems can be generalized as — (At BY C+ D+... BY = ABCD. (ABCD... Fy = A+B C+ D Find the complement of the following functions, 1. Fex'yz'+x'y'z F'= (wyzs x'y'" Xt yt 2") (X74 y"47) =(xty't2). (xt y+ 2). 2. Fe (ay +y'ztxa)x. F' = [(xy + y'z+ xz) x} (xy + y'z + xz)" +x" Gy)’ (v2). (2)'] +" [ov ty’). (y42'). (42) +x (xy+ xz'+ OF y'2!) (S42) ] +8 ly+ xx'e+ Xy'Z't Nyut 02's YeE+ NS yt xi x'y'z'4 lyst x24 y'a’t x? VIN TEN Yt yee yt x24 x2 (1) + yt) ‘y+ x'z’+ y'z'+ x" xy+ x4 xz'+ y'z? (yet) x24 ye (142) +"? ey [x+x =x], [x.x=x] [x+ x"= 1] lyti=1] fyta=1]3. F=x(y'z'+ yz) x (y'a'+ye)y + (y'z'+ ya)’ + (y'2'Y. (yz) (yz) (+2) =x'+ (y+ z).(y'+z). Feay'tx’y sy't xy)" ay). = ty) (sty) Nxt X'V+ yxt yy’ = (w'tX+ y') (x+y) (W's x4 7!) wx wy xx'+ xy x'y"+ yy’) (w+ x4 Z!) wx'+ Wy+ xy+ x'y’) (W'+ x'+ 2’) = WX. W's WY. W's xy. Wt Sy’ WE WX? NEW. x4 NY. XE XY NE W's 24 WY. 2+ Xy. 2b NV =wx't wyt wixyt Wx'y't wx't Wx'y+ 0+ x'y'+ wix'z'+ wyz't xyz't x'y'2) W'x' + Wiy+ Wikyt Wix'y'+ Wx'y+ x'y"+ w'x'z'+ wyz"t xyzt x'y'2? = w(t y't yt 24 wy( 14 x+ 2')+ x’y'(14 2')+ xyz? "(+ wy(1)+ x'y')+ xyz" = wx'+ w+ x'y"+ xyz?CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORM! Minterms and Maxterms: A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x) or in its complement form (x). Now either two binary variables x and y combined with an AND operation. Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four possible combinations: xy xy, xy’ and xy ach of these four AND terms is called a ‘minterm’. In a similar fashion, when two binary variables x and y combined with an OR operation, there are four possible combinations: x+y, x+y, x+y’ and x+y Each of these four OR terms is called a‘maxterm’. ‘The minterms and maxterms of a 3- variable funetion can be represented as in table below. Variables Minterms Maxterms x y z M ° ° 0 xt y+ 2= Mo 0 o a ° 1 o | ° 1 1 | 1 ° ° 1 ° 1 | 1 1 0 1 1 1 Sum of Minterm: (Sum of Products) ‘The logical sum of two or more logical product terms is called sum of produets expression. It is logically an OR operation of AND operated variables such as: 1. Y= AB+ BC+ AC Sum Reserved 2. Y= ABs BC+ AC Eee Product termsm_of Maxterm: (Product of Sums) A product of sums expression is a logical produet of two or more logical sum terms. It is basically an AND operation of OR operated variables such as, 1. Y= (A+B). (B+C). (A+C) Product viata ears 2. Y= (A+B). (B+O). (A-O) (Eee ‘Sum fens Canonical Sum of product expression: If each term in SOP form contains all the literals then the SOP is known as: standard (or) canonical SOP form. Each individual term in standard SOP form is called minterm canonical form, F(A, B,C) = AB’C+ ABC+ ABC” Steps to convert general SOP to standard SOP form: 1. Find the missing literals in each product term if any. 2. AND each produet term having missing literals by ORing the literal and its complement. 3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in the produet term. 4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated product terms if any Obtain the canonical SOP form of the function: 4. Y(A,B)=A+B A. (B+ B+ B (A+ A) AB+ AB'+ AB+ A’B AB+ AB’+ A'B. 2. Y(A,B,C)=A+ ABC A. (B+ B’). (C+ C)+ ABC (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’}+ ABC ABC+ ABC’+ AB'C+ AB'C’+ ABC ABC+ ABC’+ AB'C+ ABC’ = my+ mo+ ms+ My= Ym (4, 5,67). 3. Y(A, B,C) = A+ BC =A. (B+ BY). (C+ C)+(A+ A). BC (AB+ AB’). (C+ C))+ ABC+ A’BC = ABC+ ABC’+ AB'C+ AB'C’+ ABC+ A’BC ABC+ ABC’+ AB'C+ AB'C'+ A'BC mmy+ mot mst my+ m3 Ym (3, 4, 5; 6, 7). 4. Y(A,B, ©) = AC+ AB+ BC AC (B+ B’)+ AB (C+ C’)+ BC (A+ A’) ABC+ AB'C+ ABC+ ABC’+ ABC+ A’BC ABC+ AB'C+ ABC’+ ABC =m (3,5, 6,7). 5. Y(A,B, C, D) = AB+ ACD B (C+ C) (D+ D’) + ACD (B+ B’) (ABC+ ABC’) (D+ D') + ABCD+ AB'CD ABCD+ ABCD'+ ABC’D+ ABC’D'+ ABCD+ AB'CD = ABCD+ ABCD'+ ABC’D+ ABC’D'+ AB'CD. Canonical Product of sum expression: If each term in POS form contains all literals then the POS is known as standard. (or) Canonical POS form. Each individual term in standard POS form is called Maxterm canonical form, © F(A, B,C) = (A+ B+ C). (A+ B’+ C), (A+ B+ C) © FG,y,2) = (xt y't 2). ('+ yt 2). (Xt yt 2) Steps to convert general POS to standard POS form: 1. Find the missing literals in each sum term if any. 2. OR each sum term having missing literals by ANDing the literal and its complement. 3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in the sum term. 4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated sum terms if any.Obtain the canonical POS expression of the functions: 1. Y= A+ BC = (A+ B) (A+ C) (A+ B’+ C.C’) (A+ C+ B.B') = (A+ B'+C) (A+ B'+C’) (A+ B+ C) (A+ B+ © (At B'+C). (At B'+C). (At Bs C) = Mz. My. Mo TIM (0, 2, 3) [A+ BC A+B) (A4C)] 2. Y= (A+B) (B+C) (A+C) (A+B+ C.C’) (Bt C+ A.A’) (A+C+B.B') (A+BsC) (A+B+C’) (A+B4C) (A'+B+C) (A+B+C) (A¥B'+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A’+B+C) (A¥B'+C) Mo. Mi. My. Ma TIM (0, 1, 2, 4) 3. Y= A. (B+ C+ A) = (A+ B.B’+ C.C’), (A+ B+ C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B'+C) (A+ BC’) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B'+C) (At B'+C’) Mo. Mi. Mz. Mg TIM (, 1, 2, 3) 4. Y= (A+B’) (B+C) (A+C’) (A+B'+C.C) (B+C+ A.A’) (A+C'+ B.B’) (A+B'+C) (A¥B'+C) (A+B+C) (A+B +C) (A+B +C’) (ALB'+C’) (A+B'+C) (A#B'+C’) (A+B=C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C) o. My. Mo. My. Mi TIM (0, 1, 2, 3, 4) 5 Y=exytx' =(xy+x’) (xy+z) Using distributive law, convert the function into OR terms. +N’) (y+x’) (x42) (ya) [xt x1] = (x+y) (x+2) (y+) yt aut) (KHz (yee = (4 ve 2) (w+ y+ 21) (yt VED) (Xt Yt 2) (ot ve D) (Wt V4) + y+ 2) (w+ y+ 2) (xt #2) (x4 +2)= My. Ms. Mo.Mz =TIM(0,2,4,5). KARNAUGH MAP MINIMIZATIO! ‘The simplification of the functions using Boolean laws and theorems becomes complex with the increase in the number of variables and terms. The map method, first proposed by Veitch and slightly improvised by Karnaugh, provides a simple, straightforward procedure for the simplification of Boolean functions. ‘The method is called Veitch diagram or Karnaugh map, which may be regarded as a pictorial representation of a truth table. ‘The Karnaugh map technique provides a systematic method for simplifying and manipulation of Boolean expressions. A K-map is a diagram made up of squares, with each square representing one minterm of the function that is to be minimized. For n variables on a Karnaugh map there are 2° numbers of squares. Each square or cell represents one of the minterms. It can be drawn directly from either minterm (sum-ol- products) or maxterm (product-of-sums) Boolean expressions ‘Two- Variable, Three Variable and Four Variable Maps Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four and five variables. ‘The number of cells in a Karmaugh map is equal to the total number of possible input variable combinations as is the number of rows ina truth table, For three variables, the number of cells is 2° = 8. For four variables, the number of cells is 2 s Bc 4\ Fe Be ee Be al 3 Age | Asc | Aee al a a] az | as ABe | apc | ane 1-Variable map 2-Variable map 3-Variable map ep ea ASIN Gide DaaHe Due CD HiicD) RB|ABCD Bep|ABcD Agpcp/ABcD > @ Pr fel oI > a fal 3 AB|ABCD|ABCD|ABCD|ABCD AE|ABCD/AECD/ABCD/ABCD 4-Variable mapProduct terms are assigned to the cells of a K-map by labeling each row and each column of a map with a variable, with its complement or with a combination of variables & complements. ‘The below figure shows the way to label the rows & columns of a1, 2, 3 and 4- variable maps and the product terms corresponding to each cell. It is important to note that when we move from one cell to the next along any row or from one cell to the next along any column, one and only one variable in the product term changes (to a complement or to an uncomplemented form). Irrespective of number of variables the labels along cach row and column must conform to a single change. Hence gray code is used to label the rows and columns of K-map as shown ow. > Gray code Sequence ° wo 1 aio oo 10 o} me co} mo | ms of mo | am | as | me 4 1] mu 1] me | me a mu | ms | aw | ms 1 Variable map 2-Variable map 3-Variable map. cp ——> Gnycode Sequence ool m0 Sequence Gmycode | 00] mo | ma | ams | ame o1} am | ms | my | ins ui} ame | ams | ms | mu xo} me | me | mu | neo 4 Variable map Grouping cells for Simplification: ‘The grouping is nothing but combining terms in adjacent cells. The simplification is achieved by grouping adjacent 1's or o's in groups of 2i, where i = 1, 2, ..., n and nis the number of variables. When adjacent 1's are grouped then we get result in the sum of produet form; otherwise we get result in the produet of sum form.Grouping Two Adjacent 1s: (Pair) Ina Karnaugh map we ean group two adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called Pair. cD cp cp AB\ 00 01110 ABN o_o ts ABN ot 00 00 0. al [at a A) aly nt 1 Ly 1 10 20 10 [ ‘ABD BCD 7b AB o 00 Se oo ol 1110 ~AB ce oo ot i110 w aw a a a a ep Bed AnD Bep Examples of Pairs Grouping Four Adjacent 1’s: (Quad) Ina Karnaugh map we can group four adjacent 1's. The resultant group is called Quad. Fig (a) shows the four 1's are horizontally adjacent and Fig (b) shows they are vertically adjacent. Fig (c) contains four 1's in a square, and they are considered adjacent, to each other, cD cp cD AB\ 09 or 1110 ABN 00. ABN oo on 1_10 ee ee AB\ 0001 a1 30 ABN 00 wo ABN 00 ont. 00 00 on ot o nf T| 2 n vlaJ 1 10 eh ~fy © NV o i ey 3 elExamples of Quads ‘The four 1's in fig (d) and fig (e) are also adjacent, as are those in fig (1) because, the top and bottom rows are considered to be adjacent to each other and the leftmost and rightmost columns are also adjacent to each other. uping Eight Adjacent 1 : (Octet) Ina Karnaugh map we can group eight adjacent 1's. The resultant group is ealled Octet. cD cD > ap a on w ao oo nm 0 ABO wo G2 00 1| olff oo [igh o1 Hi on tft ola 1 ala eect al, 1» 1» 10 S La] 24] @ B o ea ep ep ap? ooo 0 ABN op or 0 AB wt olf? ]ata, 2) olf {a olla [a [a [a | | “ o1 la He 1 iJ oly} 1 es o1 n alfa [a 4 ‘The generalized procedure to simplify Boolean expressions as follows: 1. Plot the K-map and place 1's in those cells corresponding to the 1's in the sum of product expression. Place 0's in the other cells. 2. Check the K-map for adjacent 1's and encircle those 1's which are not adjacent to any other 1's. These are called isolated 1's. 3. Check for those 1's which are adjacent to only one other 1 and encircle such pairs.4. Check for quads and octets of adjacent 1's even if it contains some 1’s that have already been encircled. While doing this make sure that there are minimum number of groups. Combine any pairs necessary to include any 1's that have not yet been grouped. 6. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all the groups. a ‘Three- Variable Map: 1 Simplify the Boolean expression, F(x, y, 2) = )m (3, 4, 6, 7). we” YE ye ye ye ee” YE yn yn ye oo ol 11 10 oo 1 11 10 xolofofi]o Foleo |ft - bebe iea| Ose ae ee x1] ipo fu « Beyetxr oe je yz ys ye he jz ye ys ye a ooo 1 10 (OO Oied laeaN racer xofijof}ojt ; 4 F Ue Tea dee Ole ileal sealer Fartxy 3. F2A°C+A,B+AB'C+BC 'C (B+ B') + A'B (C+ C) + AB'C + BC (A+ A) BC+ A’B'C + A’BC + A’BC’ + AB'C + ABC + A’BC "BC+ A'B'C + A’BC’ + AB'C + ABC = mg+ mt Met ms+ My=YmG,2,3,5,7) BC BC BC BC BC BC BC BC BC BO “ a BB oo o1 11 10 oo or Mit Ao} oj} 1 1 1 ditty ty : al] 0 1 al 0 feuds] uealiaued © F=C+AB 4. ABC + A’B'C + A’BC + ABC? + ABC” = mg +mi+mg+m4+mo Ym (0, 1, 3,45) Abe BC Bo Bc BC Abe BC Bo Bc BC oo or it 10 oo o1 11 10 zolijijiso o | ac atjijijo}o Foui 1, Simplify the Boolean expression, Y= ABCD’ + BCD + ABCD? + ABC’D + ABYC’ + A°B°CD? Sol cp ABCD ‘Therefore, Y= A'B'CD'+ AC'D+ BC”2. F (08, %5 ¥, 2) = MO, 1,2, 4,8, 6, 8 9, 12, 13, 14) ln: we ye wxX\ 00 or 0 oli }a 1 qty d “tists olty eee Hi fayosa of? Oa | dee 0] 0) at sl Yul xz F ‘Therefore, Feytw7'tx2" 3. FS A°B'C’+ B'CD"+ A’BCD"+ ABC” = ABC (D+ D’) + BCD’ (A+ A’) + A’BCD'+ AB'C’ (D+ D?) 'BCD+ A'BCD'+ AB'CD'+ A’B'CD'+ A’BCD'+ AB'C’D+ AB'C’D" nit Mo+ Mio+ Ma+ Mo+ Mo+ Ms. = Ym (0, 1,2, 6,8, 9, 10) Therefore, F-BD+ BC+ ACD.4. ABCD+ AB’C’D'+ AB'C+ AB = ABCD+ AB'C’D'+ AB'C (D+D")+ AB (C+C’) (D+D') co CDi _ aX’ oo 011110 as\ cp Ep cp of o}alolo RB) 0 | o}o]o dy | or] 0 QO 0 9 AB] 0 oO 0 o fet" 1? d eee 1 a 1 ge ae(@H ith 10 ofi}i ae fe | ui 10} AB Lu 2 —e ‘Therefore, : Y= ABt AC+ AD’. 5. ¥ (A,B,C, D)= ¥ am (7,9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14,18) ‘Therefore, Y= AB+ AC+ AD+BCD.'C’D+ ABC’D+ A’BCD+ A’BCD'+ ABC’D+ ABCD+ ABCD. = Met M5+ My+ Mot Mgt Mast Ma m (1,5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 15) ofo}fijfolo of 3] J» ABC afofifa]a dace eee lee | + ABD a eal aed EO. val ad bd oj}1 jo s| ul ACD In the above K-map, the cells 5, 7, 13 and 15 can be grouped to form a quad as indicated by the dotted lines. In order to group the remaining 1’s, four pairs have to be formed. However, all the four 1's covered by the quad are also covered by the pairs. So, the quad in the above k-map is redundant. ‘Therefore, the simplified expression will be, Y= A°C’D+ A’BC+ ABD+ ACD. 7. Y=) m(A, 5,10, 11, 12, 13, 15) eee tp ep cp a ab’ oor 10 ab’ cp co/ep cb oof o}1]o]o az] ° |(7]| 9 | ° dij afo]1]o]o asl 0 ig o | o eh nia jala lo C T)| (YF 0 13) as] a a ABC 1} o 0 7 1 ABC Therefore, Y= A°C'D+ ABC"+ ACD+ AB*C,8. Y= A’B°CD'+ ABCD"+ AB’CD"+ AB*CD+ AB’C’D'+ ABC’D'+ A°B°CD+ ABCD BD cp 4B TS aE ‘Therefore, Y= AD'+ BC+ BD 9. F (A, B,C, D) = ¥ m0, 1, 4, 8,9, 10) cp CD Eeeaeaet a AB\ oo 011110 ab\ eb Ep ep cb of1fijofo aall(1\{| a] 0 | 0 osu) Eafe i alifololo F aelU)| 9 Mo ulofofofo “aslo fof oye] es wfifafolti aa 0G Pier. . Oh gs 1. Y= (At Bt C’) (At B+ C°) (A+ B+ C) (A+ B+ ©) (A+ BEC) Mi. Ma. M>. My. Mo M (0, 1,3,4,7) Ym(2,5,6) BC BC Bc Bc BO oo o1 11 10 ao og oy oy TY rjo}d jos od tdY'=B'C'+ A'CHBC. Y= Y" = (BC's A’'C+ BC) (Brey. (A'Cy’. (BC) B'+C’). (A’+C). (B+ C) Y= (Bt ©). (A+C’). (B+ C’) 2. Y= (A'+ B*+ C+ D) (A‘+ B+ C'+ D) (A+ B'+ C*+ D’) (A‘+ B+ C+ D) (A+ BY+ C*+ DY (At B*+ C+ D’) (A+ B+ C+ D) (A+ BY C+D’) Miz. May. Mis. Ms. Mo. My. Mo. Mas IM (0, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15) go> SB cp cp cb A oo ol 1 10 aoolofijis. ABn}ifajolo! face BC sega |e teers eal AB 10 rjada AB J tal Ta Y' = BYC’D"+ AB+ BC Y= Y" = (B'C’D'+ AB+ BC) = (BCD. (AB). (BC! B's C+D"). (A’4B)). (B+ C’) B+ C+ D). (A’+ B’). (B+ C) Therefore, Y= (B+ C+ D). (A°+ B’). (B+ C’) 3. F(A, B, C, D)= [TM (0, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15) cD obs DB apeD CD CD cD cD oo ol 119 ABO] O} 1) 0) 0 ABol}a}a}ada AB} of of oj a abo] ofo ja} BD A’B'C+ ABD+ AC?y=Y" A’BD'+ A'B'C+ ABD+ ACY =(AB'DY. (A’B'C). (ABD). (ACY (A"+ B"+ D”). (A"+ B"+C’). (A’+ B'+ D’). (A+ C") A+ B+ D). (A+ B+ C’), (A°+ B'+ D’). (A°+ C) ‘Therefore, Y= (A+ B+ D). (A+ Bt C’). (A+ B+ D’). (A+ ©) 4. F(A, B, C, D)= Ym (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10) = [IM G, 4, 6,7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) aBLD po eee ee ete as Hien ee iat 7 oo ol 11 #10 cD CD cD CD molififoji] ae) 1] [@+T Low aoafoli foo] aslOy[ 1 [lof i(ot] weufofofefe) —~ «(hetenbo” aiofifijolil abl i | 1 [lo}] 1 = BD’+ CD+ AB (BD'+ CD+ AB)’ = (BD'Y. (CD)’. (AB) B’+ D"). (C'+ D’). (A’+ BY) (B’+ D). (C+ D’). (A'+ BY) ‘Therefore, Y= (B°+ D). (C+ D’). (A+ B’) Don’t care Conditions: Adon't care minterm is a combination of variables whose logical value is not specified. When choosing adjacent squares to simplify the function in a map, the don't care minterms may be assumed to be either 0 or 1. When simplifying the function, we can choose to include each don’t care minterm with either the 1’s or the 0’s, depending on which combination gives the simplest expression. 1. F(x, y, 2) = Ym (0, 1, 2, 4, 5)+ Yd (3, 6,7) ” ei Neer OO HAO Decal 1ee31 0 xX. yz Fe yz ofifisxti . sl Py 1 x) x : 1 ieee sf eee caec «fai fe |2.F (wx y¥,2)= (4, 3,7, 11, 15)+ Xd (0, 2, 5) wx\ 00 o_o wx\ ye ye yz yz ofxfitailx wa [@ alo }xiiso | wx] o | x nyo |o}ijo wxlo | o |]i]]o vf “wl Sa © a lo foli yo wel o | 0 |[1J] 0 gf of ul © io ws) F (9, x,y, 2) = WN" yz +9, 10, 12)+ Yd (2, 5, 13) 3. FOw, xy 2) = fa bd reer eben a esi meeestel ia cee ofi jo fo}x we x cd A 1" 4 ol} oO x HH o wx a*s id’ g We nti |x joo we 0 ul “al Sad Ol eri fa joj we T at dal? = xt wy't x2". Em (0, 1, 4,8, 9, 10)+ Ed (2, 11) 2=wet ey wy'7’5. F(A, B, C, D) = Ym (0, 6, 8, 13, 14)+ Yd (2, 4, 10) Soin: cD AB . oo 01 11 10 fos] 1}o]o aB| 1)) 0 | o Ix) oftfofel x, B ix a}x}of}o)fi aB| x] o | o | |rqpe® ¢ Eur nia ur At | ee eee ore) te AB] 0 o|ft vf “ol Pad * ad wofifofolx m aly lle fed dd Ol *w 2 ot F(A, B,C, D) = CD"t BD'+ ABC Variable Map: A 5 variable K- map requires 25= 32 cells, but adjacent cells are difficult to identify on a single 32-cell map. Therefore, two 16 cell K-maps are used. If the variables are A, B, C, D and E, two identical 16- cell maps containing B, C, D and E can be constructed. One map is used for A and other for A’ In order to identify the adjacent grouping in the 5- variable map, we must imagine the two maps superimposed on one another ie., every cell in one map is adjacent to the corresponding cell in the other map, because only one variable changes between such corresponding cells. DE ooo oo fo} 1] 3 ofa|s |7 BC 1 }az | as | a5 tole |s ja ze | ads[a1 | 30 24 | 25 | 27 See Jariable Karnaugh map. structure),‘Thus, every row on one map is adjacent to the corresponding row (the one occupying the same position) on the other map, as are corresponding columns. Also, the rightmost and leftmost columns within each 16- cell map are adjacent, just as they are in any 16- cell map, as are the top and bottom row: Aro e BCE However, the rightmost column of the map is not adjacent to the leftmost, column of the other map. 1. Simplify the Boolean function F(A, B, C, D, E) = Ym (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 21, 25, 27, 29, 30) Soln: ADE Act DE\DE DE DE o WA] oJ o wll "bo} 9 asl © ad 0 ° 5] 0 x F (A,B,C, D, E) = A’B’E*+ BE+ ADE,2. F(A, B,C, D, E) = Ym (0, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 20, 31) Soln: aed DE DB DE DE ABCDE | ABE F(A, B, C, D, E) = C°D°E*+ A°B°CD’E+ A’B’CDE"+ AB*D'E*+ ABE+ BC” 3. F (A,B, C, D, B) = Ym (1, 4,8, 10, 11, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26)+¥d (0, 12, 16, 17) Sol ae ——— DE ae Bex | zt BE] De ps bE ze(GHD jo} oJ | alice fepinaal ae Bef °° | oY a BC x | Oo var lan ABCD Bef}! o |G ip F (A,B, C, D, E) = B’C’D"+ A'D’E’+ BC’E*+ ABCD+ AC’D'+ AB’CE?4. F(A, B,C, D, BE) = Ym (0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 28, 29, 31) Soln DE Eel DE Aq1 DE DE DE DE BC ou oA ° od BCDE F (A,B, C, D, E) = BCDE"+ ABCE+ 4 yCn+ ACD ABCD 5. F (x1, X2, X35 X4, Xs) = Ym (2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31) Soin: ee xi=0 Reka Xs ae 20K aR RUNS NANI ae ty ‘ks Oo WTA) xaxixs R581 | Oy) Oy mxs] 0 | 0 J L xs] Of Obl a vos |G TTT ( Ta | o 3 OL OA 8 WL Oad ad Pal Og RR axas | XIND (x1, X24 X35 X45 N5) = NONI NOUNS NUND" Ns NUINGTMANS6. F (Xt, Nay Nay N4 Xs) = Ym (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31 4 Yd (4, 5) Soln: XaXs cae }- KRSRSXs KaXaxs IF (1, ¥2, X35 X4, Xs) = N2NS"NA NONGNINS™+ No"N4ONG+ NINO NUN2"NSNST KUND'NGG Locic GATES BASIC LOGIC GATE! Logie gates are electronic cireuits that can be used to implement the most elementary logic expressions, also known as Boolean expressions. The logic gate is the most basic building block of combinational logic. ‘There are three basic logic gates, namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate. Other logie gates that are derived from these basic gates are the NAND gate, the NOR gate, the EXCLUSIVE: OR gate and the EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate. TE SYMBOL OPERATION TRUTH TABLE NOT NOT gate (Invertion), produces A 404) | SLE | an inverted output pulse for a ofa 7404) given input pulse. ay AND gate performs logical A] Blyas AY multiplication, The output is AND | 5 [ HIGH only when all the inputs ojo o (7408) | “1 are HIGH. When any of the o}i} o y=a.B | inputs are low, the output is ajo] o Low, viitiaOR A x >> (7432) OR gate performs logical addition. It produces a HIGH on the output when any of the inputs are HIGH. The output is y-a+B | LOWonly when all inputs are LOW. tis a universal gate. When any A of the inputs are LOW, the NAND | — 4 = 0 0 i B ¥ | output will be HIGH. LOW cy (7400) —/ | output occurs only when all YB | inputs are HIGH. eee Ee a 1 1 oO i It is a universal gate. LOW A | B ly ara a ¥_ | output occurs when any of its enor aes ; 2) > input is HIGH. When all its pert cern (7402) eared inputs are LOW, the output is Beige aay HIGH. 1 1 0 A | B lyase A EX-OR | 5 )> The output is HIGH only when o}o} o (7486) odd number of inputs is HIGH ofa] a Yael rfof 4 rfilio A B /Y=A®2B non The output is HIGH only when oe feoeat even number of inputs is HIGH baal i Or when all inputs are zeros. aeigeae 1 Ee Hi a) The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates, since any logic function can be implemented using NAND or NOR gates. This is illustrated in the following seetions. NAND Gate: ‘The NAND gate can be used to generate the NOT function, the AND function,the OR function and the NOR function. i) NOT function: By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input. - A | B | y=-AB x | woof o fo} a fer ofa] a ato} a4 = wifi ]1| 0 |yeo ii) AND functio AB- AB A aB AB =AB 7 Y=AB=AB a] Bl yas a] 5] a5 | ap oO o oO oO oO Oo 1 Oo He a Qo 8 oO 1 1 oO 0 1 oO oO 1 i He Hi 1 + He 0 Department of Information TechnologyBubble at the input of NAND gate indicates inverted input. A | Bl y-a+Bl A| BAB o}o ° o}oj] a o}4 1 iat (aC iea lt teal (et) r]o 1 1}o] o at Hl pied lets iv) NOR functior By inverting inputs and outputs of the NAND gate. A | B | y= ayBI A | B | AB ofof a ioe ee ates ae: 1 Oe (erat ofafo |a | o r}fo] o rfo]of1 fo irfilio gla bere us cal ar a bd) NORGa Similar to NAND gate, the NOR gate is also a universal gate, since it can be used. to generate the NOT, AND, OR and NAND functions. i) NOT function: By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input 2 — a] B fn) arc oo xo ia coumentia saat as of sergn ct studocu Department, of. Information Mechnology..,.ii) OR function: By simply inverting output of the NOR gate. Le., Y= A+B =AtB OR function using NOR gates A | Bl y=a+B] A |B] A+B o}o0 0 o}o 1 0 o}4 1 o}4 0 1 ro 1 1]o 0 1 Hea 1 1[1 9 1 AND funetion using NOR gates Y=AtB 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 ABiv) NAND Function: By inverting inputs and outputs of the NOR gate. A | Bl Y-A.B A | Bl] A+B | ave | A+B o}o 1 o}o 1 0 1 o}4a 1 = folai 1 0 1 1jo 1 1]o 1 0 1 1 {1 0 1 {1 0 1 0 Conversion of AND/OR/NOT to NANI DR: gee Draw AND/OR log IfNAND hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each AND gate and bubbles on input side to all OR gates. If NOR hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each OR gate and bubbles on input side to all AND gates. Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a bubble in step 2 Replace bubbled OR by NAND and bubbled AND by NOR. Eliminate double inversions. Implement Boolean expression using NAND gates: @BHOD Original Circuit: (ar Ec * ae wo B y= (ar HOD oc! of =e as nnn EE: JED ADHD IImplement Boolean expression for EX-OR gate using NAND gates. Ds gate. ) y= B+ AB A Adding bubbles on the output of each AND gates and on the inputs of each OR ap Bo Do Adding an inverter on each line that received bubble, SFO > Eliminating double inversion, —— DHReplacing inverter and bubbled OR with NAND, we have 7 A SDs Oe “ie AB