Lesson 7: Learning, Remembering, and Forgetting
stimulus.
Learning is said to be relatively permanent change.
 The effect of what has been learned would then
be able to stand a good length of time, and
would be able to exemplify consistency within
that long period.
 It is this nature of the definition of learning that
enables us to differentiate what is true learning,
and what is Rote learning.
Learning is best observed through the actions of one
person
 This idea brought upon the notion of testing
students either through a written or a practical
exam
Learning resulted from conditions of practice and
experience
 The process of true learning does not occur
overnight.
MODELS OF LEARNING
1) Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov
- Classical conditioning is a conditioning in
which a neutral stimulus gradually gains the
ability to raise a response because of its
pairing with a natural stimulus
Features of Classical Conditioning:
1. Stimulus Generalization
 It is a process by which the conditioned
response transfers to other stimuli that
are similar to the original conditioned
2. Stimulus Discrimination
 Subject would only react to what was
originally conditioned to it and
differentiate those that are not.
3. Stimulus Extinction
 The process by which a conditioned
response is lost
Reconditioning
 The conditioned stimulus is once again
paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
The whole situation, wherein the conditioned response
re-appears through the help of the process of
reconditioning, is then called Spontaneous Recover
4. Higher Order Conditioning
 When a Conditioned Stimulus could
then be used to condition a second
Neutral Stimulus and produce the same
conditioned response
 Example of Higher Order Conditioning:
 The sound of the bell (Conditioned
Stimulus), would then be used to
condition a red balloon (Neutral
Stimulus), and still produce salivation
within the dog (Conditioned Response).
2) Operant Conditioning
 Learning occurs when a consequence is
presented after the manifestation of a behavior.
 This notion came from the idea posted by
Edward Lee Thorndike called the Law of Effect,
and the experiments made by B.F. Skinner
Thorndike’s Connectionism
Law of Effect – if a behavior is to be learned and
sustained, then it needs to be rewarded. On the other
hand, if a behavior is to be extinguished, then the
presentation of rewards should be withheld.
 Reinforcer – Responses from the environment
that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated.
 Positive Reinforcement - Reward – presenting
the subject with something that it likes.
  Negative Reinforcement - Reward – in the
sense of removing or avoiding some aversive
(painful) stimulus.
Two sub-types of Negative Reinforcers:
1. Escape Conditioning – the manifestation of a
behavior that would stop an aversive or
irritating situation
2. Avoidance Conditioning – entails that the
person responds to a signal that prevents even
the start of the having an aversive or irritating
situation.
Reinforcers could also be distinguished according to
degree:
1) Primary Reinforcer – necessary in meeting
biological needs such as food, water, and air
2) Secondary Reinforcer – is something that
enables subjects to acquire a primary reinforce.
Example: Money
Gradient of Reinforcement – states that the
effectiveness of a reinforcer is inversely correlated to
the time that it is given after the presentation of the
behavior.
There are two major kinds of Reinforcement Schedule:
1. Continuous Reinforcement – each response is
rewarded
2. Intermittent or Partial Schedule of
Reinforcement:
Schedules of Reinforcement
The four schedules of reinforcements are:
1. Fixed ratio – a reinforcement which depends on
a definite number of responses.
2. Variable ratio – a reinforcement in which the
number of responses needed for reinforcement
varies from one reinforcement to the next
3. Fixed interval – a kind of reinforcement in
which a response results in reinforcements after
a definite length of time.
4. Variable Interval – the time between
reinforcement varies.
Punishment – the presentation of an aversive event or
the removal of a positive event following a response
that decreases the frequency of that response.
3) Observational Learning
This view entails that the process of learning occurs as
we watch how others behave.
 The process of Observational Learning:
1. Motivation – there must be some reason for
carrying out the behavior
2. Attention – attention must be paid to the
salient features of another’s actions
3. Retention – observed behaviors must be
remembered in order to be carried out
4. Reproduction of Action – we must be able to
carry out the behavior that we observed
Vicarious reinforcement – occurs when we observe the
model receiving reinforcement and we imitate it.
Vicarious punishment – happens when we observe the
model being punished for engaging in a behavior that is
considered negative
MEMORY
Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and
retrieving information over time
Stages of the memory process:
1. Sensory Register
 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of
information but it is more than what our minds
can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the
information for an extremely brief period (1-3
seconds). Auditory Memory is more persistent
than visual.
To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary
that we give attention to it.

2. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)

 Capacity: 5 – 9 “chunks” of information.

 It is called working memory because it is where
new information is temporarily placed while it is
mentally processed.
 Duration: 18 secs or less

3. Long-Term Memory

 Capacity: Unlimited
 Duration: Indefinite