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"Simualtion Analysis of Semi-Active Suspension System Using PID Controller For Quarter Car Model
"Simualtion Analysis of Semi-Active Suspension System Using PID Controller For Quarter Car Model
"Simualtion Analysis of Semi-Active Suspension System Using PID Controller For Quarter Car Model
Title : Simulation Analysis of Semi-Active Suspension System Using PID Controller for
Quarter Car Model
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Mr. Aidil Azlan Ahmad Zamri
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DECLARATION
Signature : ………………………….........
Name of Supervisor : Mr. Aidil Azlan Ahmad Zamri
Date : ………………………………..
SIMULATION ANALYSIS OF SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM USING
PID CONTROLLER FOR QUARTER CAR MODEL
FEBRUARY 2023
I declare that this thesis entitled “Simulation Analysis of Semi-Active Suspension
System Using PID Controller for Quarter Car Model” is the result of my own
research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any
degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.
Signature : ....................................................
Name : Ahmed Nemiri Bashir Elkhalifa
Date : February 2023
Specially dedicated to my Mother and Father
Thank you for your continued support, I really miss both of you.
Al-Fatihah
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
LIST OF SYMBOLS xi
Chapter 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 4
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Research Objectives 6
1.4 Scope of Works 6
1.5 Research Methodology 7
LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Types of Suspension 10
2.2.1 Passive Suspension System 11
2.2.2 Adjustable Suspension System 12
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Flowchart 35
Chapter 4 40
4.5 Conclusion 45
Chapter 5 47
MR ˗ Magneto-rheological
SA - Sensitivity Analysis
LIST OF SYMBOLS
ζ - Damping Coefficient
Kp ˗ Proportional Gain
dt - Change in Time
mb - Sprung mass
ma - Unsprung mass
k - Spring constant
ks - Suspension spring
cs - Suspension damper
kt - Tire stiffness
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In an active suspension, the passive damper, or both the passive damper and
spring, are replaced with a force actuator. In contrast to a passive damper, which can
only dissipate energy, a force actuator could add and remove energy from the
system. An active suspension allows the force actuator to exert force regardless of
the relative displacement or suspension velocity. In comparison to a passive system,
this achieves a better balance between ride comfort and vehicle stability given the
right control strategy. However, the active suspension system also has some
limitations, such as the higher cost and complexity compared to passive suspension
systems, and the requirement for reliable and robust control mechanisms.
The limitations of passive suspensions to improve the ride comfort and road
holding together have motivated the investigation of controlled suspension systems,
both active and semi-active. The introduction of hydro-pneumatic active suspension
by Citroen in its luxury cars in the early 1960s, when electronics had not yet been
created, paved the way for controlled suspensions for mass-market automobiles.
Given this tribute to Citroen, it is safe to conclude that the 1980s marked the real
beginning of electronic suspension. Analog electronics had already been developed,
and the fully active suspensions appeal both to Formula 1 competitors and vehicle
manufacturers. During this decade, the exceptional potential of replacing the
conventional spring-damper system with a fully electronically controllable fast-
reacting hydraulic actuator was demonstrated. Since then, during the 1990’s, it
became increasingly apparent that the most ideal compromise of cost (component
cost, electronics, etc.) and performance (safety, comfort, and handling) was to be
found in another type of electronically controllable suspensions: the
adaptive/variable damping suspension or, as it is commonly referred to: semi-active
suspension systems [1].
The main components of the semi-active suspension system are the semi-
active damper, acceleration sensors, ride height sensors, and PID controller. In this
type of system, the conventional spring element is retained, but the damper is
replaced with a controllable damper. The main advantage of a semi-active
suspension system is the improved ride comfort and handling compared to passive
suspension systems, with lower costs and complexity compared to active suspension
systems. The semi-active suspension system can adjust the suspension parameters in
real-time based on the road inputs and can provide a wider range of ride comfort and
handling compared to passive suspension systems. The semi-active suspension
system can also provide improved handling stability and reduced body roll compared
to passive suspension systems and can improve vehicle safety and driving
performance. Nowadays, the semi-active suspension system is used to offer solutions
for overcoming the ride performance limitations of passive suspension systems on
the one hand and on the other hand for reducing the high system and component cost
and energy consumption of fully active suspension systems [2]. The semi-active
systems can clearly offer cheaper suspension control solutions compared to the
active systems.
Typically, there are four types of suspension systems that are available in the
markets. Namely, they include active, semi-active, adjustable, and passive systems.
Passive suspension systems are the least costly and relatively least effective form of
suspension system since the damping level is fixed based on the design. An
adjustable damper system has the advantage of allowing the operator to adjust the
desired level of damping according to the road characteristics upon which the
vehicle is travelling. However, this system is ineffective against time inputs such as
potholes, turns, or other common road inputs [8]. In contrast to a passive damper,
which can only dissipate energy, a force actuator could add and remove energy from
the system. An active suspension allows the force actuator to exert force regardless
of the relative displacement or suspension velocity. Given the right control
parameters, this system achieves a better balance between ride comfort and vehicle
stability. Unfortunately, this system is very costly and is typically only found in
luxury production cars, such as Rolls Royce, for its high effectiveness and even
higher price point. Thus, due to the high cost of components, materials, and
manufacturing cost of the active suspension system is unsuitable for the average
consumer. However, a solution may be found in the form of semi-active suspension
systems. This type of suspension system offers greater ride performance than that of
passive damper system, as well as responds better to time inputs that an adjustable
damping system, and finally is typically found to be less costly and energy
consuming than an active suspension system. In addition, with the aid of a PID
controller, the damping force can be adjusted in a range of damping bound by the
minimum and maximum damping force making it continuously variable.
Result Presentation
This paper is divided into a total of 5 chapters. Each chapter is divided into
two or more sub headers further discussing the chapter title. Chapter 1 serves as an
introduction to primary suspension systems and the different types. This chapter
introduces the background of the study, as well as the research objectives, problem
statement, and scope of study of the paper. It illustrates the objectives required to
complete this research study. This is briefly summarized in Figure 1.5 of the
research methodology section. Next, chapter 2 includes a literature review of
previous works. It presents and briefly discusses relevant past research and journals
in relation to this papers scope of study. Chapter 3 further explains the methodology
utilized in completing the objectives of this paper. In this chapter all the methods and
concepts that this paper will employ shall be presented and discussed. Chapter 4 will
present the simulation analysis results and fine tune the control parameters in order
to verify the performance of semi-active suspension again passive. Chapter 5
presents the simulation results and compiles the results of the paper and analysis of
the simulation. The overall conclusion of the project and recommendations, if
applicable, for future works will be discussed in this chapter.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
There are four different types of primary suspension systems that had been
discovered namely passive, adjustable, active, and semi-active systems. An
understanding of suspension systems and their functions is essential for the analysis
and design of semi-active suspension systems. Suspension systems are designed to
reduce the transmission of road inputs to the vehicle body, and to improve handling,
ride comfort, and safety. There are several types of suspension systems, including
passive, adjustable, active, and semi-active suspension systems.
A
semi-
Figure 2.4 Range of damping values. (A) On-off semiactive; (B) continuously variable semiactive
active suspension system uses external power just to change the damping levels and
run an embedded PID controller and a collection of sensors. Whereas in comparison,
an active damping system uses an actuator that controls the vehicle and needs an
external energy source to operate. The controller automatically instructs the damper
to alter the damping force to the required force that is determined by a set of control
parameters. This force operates in one of two levels, a maximum or minimum
damping force, as illustrated in Figure 2.4A. This type of system is commonly
referred to as an on-off (bang-bang) semiactive suspension. Alternatively, the
damping force can be adjusted in a range of damping bound by the minimum and
maximum damping, as illustrated in Figure 2.4B.
In comparison to active suspension systems, the semi-active suspension
system provides similar performance benefits with lower costs and complexity. The
semi-active suspension system uses fewer actuators and sensors, and can be designed
using simpler control strategies, making it more suitable for low-cost and medium-
performance vehicles. The semi-active suspension system is also less prone to
reliability and robustness issues compared to active suspension systems and can
provide improved performance with lower maintenance costs. It provides a good
balance between performance, costs, and complexity compared to passive,
adjustable, and active suspension systems. The semi-active suspension system is
appropriate for vehicles that require improved ride comfort and handling, but with
lower costs and complexity compared to active suspension systems.
1. Proportional (P) term: The proportional term is proportional to the error and
represents the immediate response to the current error. The proportional term
provides a fast initial adjustment to reduce deviations.
2. Integral (I) term: The integral term provides a control signal proportional to
the integral of the error between the desired and the actual suspension
parameters. The integral term accumulates past errors and addresses any
existing steady-state error from disturbances or inaccuracies in the system. It
also helps eliminate any long-term errors and ensures a stable response.
3. Derivative (D) term: The derivative represents the rate of change of the error
and contributes to the damping force based on how fast the error is changing.
The derivative term provides a damping effect that reduces overshoot and
oscillations by anticipating future changes in the error.
The PID controllers can be designed using control strategies and can be tuned
to optimize the suspension performance. The controllers can be optimized using
different tuning methods, such as the Ziegler-Nichols (Z-N) method, Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO), or the Cohen-Coon method, among others. The tuning methods
aim to minimize steady-state errors and provide optimal suspension performance,
such as fast response, good stability, and minimal overshoot and oscillations, based
on the desired performance goals and the road inputs.
In conclusion, the PID controllers in a semi-active suspension system provide
the main control mechanism for regulating the behavior of the suspension system in
real-time, based on the road inputs and the desired performance goals. The PID
controllers provide robust and easy-to-implement control strategies and can be
designed and tuned to provide optimal performance in most cases. The PID
controllers in a semi-active suspension system are a key component for providing
improved ride comfort and handling compared to passive suspension systems, with
lower costs and complexity compared to active suspension systems.
2.4 Previous Research
In the year 2017, As'Arry, Azizan et al. submitted a research paper titled
“Semi-Active Suspension Control for Formula SAE Car using Magneto-rheological
Fluid” to the IEEE Symposium on Computer Applications & Industrial Electronics
(ISCAIE). In this study, a semi-active suspension quarter car model is employed as a
plant. The Bingham model of MRF damper is exploited with PID and Fuzzy PID
controllers. The current is controlled by the controllers according to the quarter car
chassis disturbance. The step road profile is used as an input disturbance to the
suspension system. The displacement of sprung mass is analyzed in terms of time
and frequency domain [23]. The authors state that in conclusion, the viscosity effects
of a MR fluid damper showed a significant improvement in the vibration of a car.
The Bingham model of MR fluid damper was used in the simulation which depends
on the input current. The PID and Fuzzy + PID controllers were used to control the
current based on the displacement of the car chassis. Findings show that the Fuzzy +
PID controller performed better in reducing the vibration of the system as compared
to PID controller. Hence, semi-active suspension with Fuzzy + PID controller
offered a better suspension performance, therefore providing a much safer ride to the
passengers and more stability to the vehicle structure [23].
Two years ago in February, a study emerged from Iraq titled “Vibration
Control of Quarter Car Model Using Modified PID Controller” conducted by
Mustafa Mohammed Matrood and Ameen Ahmed Nassar. This paper’s purpose is to
control a quarter car suspension system and also to reduce the fluctuated movement
caused by passing the vehicle over road bump using modified PID (Proportional
Integral and Derivative) controller. The proposed controller deals with dual loop
feedback signals instead of single feedback signal as in the conventional PID
controller [29]. A relatively new approach to modified PID controllers. The structure
of the modified PID controller was created by moving the proportional and
derivative actions in the feedback path while remaining the integral action in the
forward path. Thus, high accuracy results were obtained. Firstly, modelling and
simulation of linear passive suspension system for a quarter car system was
performed using MATLAB Simulink software. Then the linear suspension system
was activated and simulated by using an active hydraulic actuator to generate the
necessary force which can be regulated and controlled by the proposed controller
[29]. The performance of the whole system has been enhanced with a modified PID
controller. The paper concludes by showing that system dynamic responses such as
car body displacement have been improved in the paper which reflects the stability
and comfort of the passengers. Other system dynamic responses such as acceleration,
velocity and suspension travel have been improved when using modified PID
controller. According to that, the modified PID controller is better than the
conventional PID controller. In addition, the simplicity of computing modified PID
controller gains makes it easier to use for controlling purposes to prevent the long
time needed to compute and tune both Fuzzy and Fuzzy-PID controllers [29].
Another study coming from Iraq conducted by Ammar Majid Hameed Al-
Ghanim and Dr. Ameen Ahmed Nassar titled “Modeling, Simulation, and Control of
Half Car Suspension System Using MATLAB Simulink” was conducted in January
of 2018. In this paper the modeling, simulation, and control of linear half car
suspension system with different control algorithms are studied using MATLAB
programming package. The model has 4DOF, comprising of heavy movements of
the front and rear axle, pitch, and heavy motions of the unsprung mass of the vehicle
[30]. Different controllers were developed and implemented in this study such as
PID, Fuzzy and Fuzzy-PID. Each controller was widely simulated for linear half car
models hydraulically actuated for active suspension system. The aim of each
controller was to minimize the deflection and the acceleration of the suspension
system in the presence of road disturbances, modeled by step input excitation
wheels. Comparisons between passive and active, linear simulation models have
been carried out with different control schemes. The result of these comparisons was
that performance of the linear model was attuned better than the linear model, and
the Fuzzy-PID controller suggested in the work was the best among other controllers
used in analysis [30]. The simulation results revealed that, compared with other
controllers, Fuzzy-PID controller has a better response amplitude, shorter settling
time, small overshot, high steady precision, and good dynamic performance.
However, the author admits that the analysis of the study shows and proves that the
simulation result can be improved by achieving better simulation and the controller
needs to be tuned carefully and that experience is required to achieve better results.
Rashid, M. M., et al. conducted another study into MR dampers in 2007 titled
“DEVELOPMENT OF A SEMI-ACTIVE CAR SUSPENSION CONTROL
SYSTEM USING MAGNETO-RHEOLOGICAL DAMPER MODEL” submitted to
the International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME). In this
paper, the development of a semi- active suspension control of a QCM using fuzzy-
based controller was done. The QCM used can be described as a nonlinear 2DOF
system which is subject to excitation from different road profiles. The semi-active
control is designed as the fuzzy control inferred by using two single input rule fuzzy
modules, and the road profile is used as the control force is released by actuating an
electromagnetic shaker [31]. To implement semi-active suspension system
experimentally, the MR damper is used here as the adjustable damper. The MR
damper is a control device that consists of a hydraulic cylinder filled with
magnetically polarizable particles suspended in a liquid. MR dampers dissipate
vibration by absorbing energy. Magnetorheological (MR) fluids dampers are very
effective to control vibration, which use MR fluids to produce controllable damping
force and provide both the reliability of passive systems and the facility of active
control systems with small power supply. Due to their mechanical simplicity, high
dynamic range, low power requirements, large force capacity, and robustness, offer
an attractive means of vibration protection. The objectives of this are modeling of
semi-active suspension system, developing controller, and understanding the
characteristics of the MR damper to provide effective damping for the purpose of
suspension isolation or suppression car model. In this work PID, fuzzy logic and
fuzzy-hybrid controller are used to control semi-active car suspension system [31].
In 2017, Wong, Pak Kin, et al. completed a paper titled “Damping Force
Control of a Semi-Active Suspension System Using Cuckoo Search Optimized PID
Method”. This research proposes a cuckoo search optimized proportional- integral-
derivative (CS-PID) strategy for the damping force control system to improve the
vehicle performance under different driving conditions and to improve the handling
stability and smoothness of driving. Firstly, a quarter car dynamic model with an air
spring and an adjustable damper is developed. Subsequently, the CS-PID controller
is designed to generate the desired damping force according to the vehicle states in
real-time. The quarter car dynamic model with an air spring and an adjustable
damper has been successfully developed. The proposed CS-PID strategy has been
well designed and applied to the SAS system. The paper concludes that the obtained
simulation results show that the CS-PID strategy is effective in improving the ride
comfort of the vehicle. It is believed that this work will provide guidance for the
improvement of vehicle ride comfort. [32].
On the 31st of December 2021, a paper with the title “Analysis of passive vs.
semi-active quarter car suspension models” was submitted by Manolache-Rusu,
Ioan-Cozmin, et al. The paper aims to solve the problem with adaptive suspension
systems such as active and semi-active such that traction is not maximised while
maintaining increased passenger comfort. The paper aims to simulate and analyze a
passive suspension by referring to the characteristics of a semi-active suspension
system. The study evaluates the vertical movements of a vehicle with known
parameters over different shapes of the cross section of the road. The study involves
the use of the MATLAB Simulink environment in which a physical study model for
the QCM is made, using the predefined blocks found in Simscape. The paper
concludes that according to the obtained results, there is a substantial change in the
damping characteristic when using the semi-active suspension, in order to reduce the
oscillations and shorten the time to reach equilibrium [33].
2.6 Conclusion
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the approaches used in the execution of the tasks
required to achieve its objectives. The methodology for the research will also be
illustrated via flowchart to describe the basic framework to carry out the tasks
needed for successful completion of the research. In addition, this chapter of the
paper will entail the review of the research methodology flowchart, the construction
and analysis of the free body diagram (FBD) of the passive suspension system in a
quarter car model, derive the equation of motion (EOM) and choose the parameters
required for the MATLAB/Simulink software simulation, as well as present different
control strategies for a P controller sensitivity analysis, and an overview of the
genetic algorithm.
Firstly, the FBD of the quarter car model of the suspension system shall be
constructed. The components of which include the sprung mass ( ms ) which is
defined as any portion of the vehicle body supported by the suspension system such
as the chassis and in most applications approximately half of the weight of the
suspension system, the unsprung mass (mu) which accounts for the remaining portion
of the vehicles weight that is not supported by the suspension such as the wheels,
brakes, tire-axle assembly. The FBD will also include the coil or leaf springs ( k s)
which are positioned between the sprung and unsprung masses, as well as the shock
absorbers, or dampers’ damping coefficient, (c s ) which are also positioned alongside
the springs. Lastly, in addition to the displacement of the sprung and unsprung
masses denoted by ( x 2) and ( x 1) respectively, the spring element of the vehicles tire
is also accounted for and denoted as (k t).
3.2 Flowchart
As shown in the figure above, the study consists of two sections namely the
development of the MATLAB/Simulink QCM for both passive and semi-active
suspension system and control strategy for the latter as well as the fine tuning of the
semi-active suspension systems control parameters and the verification of its
performance nearing the end of the study.
3.4 Quarter Car Suspension System Model
+↓ ∑ F y =mu ẍ 1
F s + F d−F t =mu ẍ 1
k s ( x2−x 1 ) + c s ( ẋ 2− ẋ 1 )−k t (x 1−x t )=mu ẍ 1
mu ẍ 1−k s ( y 2− y 1 ) −c s ( x 2−x 1) + k t (x 1−x t )=0 (eq. 3.2)
Table 3.1 shows the parameters of the vehicle used in combination with
equations 3.1 and 3.2 in the simulation.
Table 3.1 Vehicle Parameters
Value
Unsprung mass, m u 20 kg
With the results from SA, PSO, and the Z-N method, an iterative
refinement process is implemented. This iterative approach involves
adjusting the PID controller parameters based on the insights gained from the
various methods. The initial parameters from SA are refined using the
information obtained from PSO and the Z-N method. The PID controller can
be finetuned through multiple iterations, continually improving its
performance and convergence to the optimal set of parameters.
By using sensitivity analysis for optimization, and PSO and the Z-N
tuning methods together, the system can benefit from the strengths of each
method while compensating for their limitations. Sensitivity analysis helps
identify the most influential parameters, reducing the search space and
focusing on the relevant variables during optimization. PSO offers a
powerful optimization technique to explore a broad range of parameter
values and find optimal solutions. The Z-N method provides a
straightforward benchmark and validation step to verify the PSO-optimized
parameters and serves as a starting point for the refinement process. The
iterative refinement process ensures continuous improvement and fine-tuning
of the PID controller for the semi-active suspension system.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction
Let e(t) be the error at time t, which is the difference between desired setpoint
r(t), which is the target value the system aims to maintain, and the actual output y(t)
of the system:
e ( t )=r ( t )− y (t) (eq. 4.1)
Let u(t) be the control output at time t, representing the control action applied
to the system:
Kd∗d e (t)
u ( t )=Kp∗e ( t )+ Ki∗∫ e ( t ) d ( t )+ (eq. 4.2)
dt
Where Kp is proportional gain, Ki is the integral gain, and Kd is the
derivative gain. The PID controller continuously updates the control output as the
error changes over time, providing a dynamic control action to maintain the system
at the desired setpoint and achieve stable and precise control. The specific values of
Kp, Ki, and Kd are determined through tuning methods such as the Ziegler-Nichols
method or particle swarm optimization algorithm to optimize the performance of the
PID controller for the specific system being controlled. Incorporating the PID
controller in the quarter car model involves integrating the control algorithm into the
existing dynamic equations of the system. The PID controller calculates the control
output (u) based on the error between the desired setpoint and the actual
displacement of the vehicle body. The control output represents the control action
that the PID controller applies to adjust the damping force in real-time. Adding the
control output to the suspension damper equation yields the following modified
equation:
F d=c s ( ẋ 2− ẋ 1 ) +u (eq. 4.3)
By adding the control output (u) from the PID controller to the damper force
equation, the PID controller can dynamically adjust the damping force based on the
real-time error between the desired setpoint and the actual displacement of the
vehicle body. This enables the semi-active suspension system to continuously adapt
to changing road conditions and optimize ride comfort and handling performance.
The step input test will be used to assess the performance of the PID
controller and how the system reacts in response to an abrupt change in the
displacement of the vehicle body. The suspension system is stable during the step
input test, and the car is in its initial ride height or equilibrium position. The
suspension system's setpoint is abruptly changed to a new value at a specific time.
The control system reacts to this change in the setpoint which represents a step input
and modifies the damping force in the suspension. A step input signal of 2 cm will
be used to test the performance of a semi-active suspension system optimized by SA,
and another semi-active suspension system optimized by SA and tuned by Z-N
method. In addition, a passive suspension system will be used as a benchmark to
identify performance. The three parameters that will be observed are vehicle body
displacement, Z b, suspension travel, Z b−Z w, and relative acceleration, Z̈ b− Z̈ w.
The sinusoidal input test is a dynamic test used to evaluate the frequency
response and damping characteristics of a control system, in this case a semi-active
suspension system with a PID controller. The test involves applying a harmonic
oscillation or sinusoidal input to simulate road disturbances and then recording the
systems response to measure its effectiveness in maintain road holding abilities and
providing passengers ride comfort. Although the test does not simulate any real-
world road profile, it does provide insight into the effectiveness of the suspension
systems. In this section, a sinusoidal waveform with an amplitude of 2 cm is tested
on a set of semi-active suspension systems, the first being optimized by SA, and the
second being optimized by SA and tuned by Z-N. Similar to the previous section a
passive suspension system is also tested in order to be used as a benchmark for both
systems. Furthermore, similar to the step input test, the three parameters being
monitored are the vehicle body displacement, Z b, suspension travel, Z b−Z w, and
relative acceleration, Z̈ b− Z̈ w.
4.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, Figure 4.1 – 4.6 show that the performance of the PID
controlled semi-active suspension is better than that of the passive suspension
system. Moreover, the combination of SA optimization and Z-N tuning further
improves the performance of the semi-active suspension system. The percentage of
deviation of each of the semi-active systems is determined by the following
percentage deviation equation by using the passive system as a benchmark:
Semi active− passive
Percentage of deviation=1−( ∗100) (eq. 4.4)
Passive
The results of the step input test show that the vehicle body displacement for
a passive suspension system is 3.468 cm, and a displacement of 3.164 cm for the
semi-active system optimized by SA, while the semi-active system optimized by SA
and tuned by Z-N had a displacement of 3.155 cm. In addition, using (eq. 4.4) the
same test shows that the percentage of deviation from the passive system to SA and
SA-ZN system is 91.23% and 90.97% for vehicle body displacement; 79.15% and
78% for suspension travel; and 98.8% and 98.27% for relative acceleration,
respectively, as shown in Table 4.1.
Passive % SA % SA-ZN %
Body displacement, Z b (cm) 3.468 100 3.164 91.23 3.155 90.97
Suspension travel, Z b−Z w (cm) 1.3 100 1.029 79.15 1.014 78.00
(cm/s²)
In the sinusoidal input test, the vehicle body displacement for the passive
suspension system is 2.656 cm, while the semi-active SA suspension system was
2.615 cm, and the SA-ZN semi-active system had a displacement of 2.598 cm.
Furthermore, the percentage deviation from the passive system to the SA and SA-ZN
systems was 98.46% and 97.82% for the vehicle body displacement; 93.03% and
90.86% for suspension travel, and 97.98% and 97% for relative acceleration,
respectively, as shown in Table 4.2.
Passive % SA % SA-ZN %
Suspension travel, Z b−Z w (cm) 0.6914 100 0.6432 93.03 0.6282 90.86
(cm/s²)