5/12/22, 7:36 PM 20th WCP: Enlightenment and its Attainment: Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhist Perspectives

Philosophy in Asia

Enlightenment and its Attainment: Samkhya-Yoga and

Buddhist Perspectives
Deepti Dutta
Miranda House, New Dehli, India
Sdutt@giasdla.vsnl.net.in

ABSTRACT: Enlightenment is the value par excellence in all Indian

philosophical systems except Carvaka. This paper attempts to elucidate some
moral and esoteric aspects of enlightenment in the context of Samkhya-Yoga
and Buddhism. Analysis of moral aspects of Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhist
concepts necessarily refers to various steps and stages of Enlightenment and
their affinity. That Yama (the first step of eightfold Yoga of Patanjali
comprising Truth, Non-Violence, etc.) is accepted by Jainas, Buddhists and
Vedantins irrespective of their creed, is universally agreed upon. Here an
analysis is given as to the details of the cultivation of these virtues and the
meeting point of the Samkhya-Yogi and the Buddhist Sadhaka. Consideration
of ontological and spiritual aspects of Enlightenment also reveals some
interesting analogies. In treading the path of Vipassana meditation (of the
truth), the Buddhist develops Nirveda (non-attachment) and the Yogi, by
unfaltering habitual concentration on the true nature of the matter and spirit,
attains supreme detachment (Parama Vasikara) and contrives an effective tool
to develop insight at the experiential level.

Enlightenment in Western Philosophy technically stands for the cultural-intellectual

process that emerged in Europe in the 18th Century and was widely and eagerly accepted
as the scientific critical spirit. The band of thinkers in showing their concern in almost all
areas of human interest successfully challenged the dominance of the medieval ways of
thought. They did not express merely a negative contempt of authority and tradition but
initiated a new method of Philosophical investigation. Immediate objective was to obtain
certain and demonstrable knowledge. Logic and experiment or rationalism-empiricism
were the model methods. Indirect result was to deliver man from entertaining uncritical
beliefs leading to the living of an unexamined life.

Moksa is the right word for 'Enlightenment' in the Indian tradition. Moksa comes from the
root 'muk' meaning ' to free' 'to release'. Moksa is the complete freedom from suffering . . .
the recurrent cycle of birth and death. Bondage is due to ignorance (beginnigless Avidya)
about the true nature of reality, specifically the nature and being of man. Just as light
dispels darkness, true knowledge or 'Vidya' redeems from ignorance and cosequent
suffering. 'Vidyā' is that which liberates (Yā Vidyā Sā Vimuktaye). This redeeming
knowledge (Vidyā) is the higher knowledge or 'Parāvidyā' (Mundaka 1. I. 5) and all other
knowledge, even the studies of the Vedas, is the lower knowledge or ' Aparāvidyā' .

European enlightenment came as a revolt against authority and tradition. Enlightenment is

deeply rooted in Indian culture and tradition. The difference lies in their understanding and
approach to knowledge. The most important component of the European spirit of

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Enlightenment is 'reason' . This is conspicuous even in classificatory definitive

experimental sciences. But reason witnessed its own limits and weakness as it failed to
deliver the goods. In the process of raising up humanity it ran away from humanity and its
concerns. The concept of freedom, though theoretically defended, started yielding the pride
of the place to the concept of rational order. Freedom is being considered almost
exclusively in its social dimensions to the utter neglect of inner or individual aspect of
freedom. European enlightenment has sought to derive secular-liberal values, which seem
to have been shattered in historical experience.

Indian spiritual Enlightenment is the unique realization of the 'Self' as the indwelling
essence of everything. This 'liberating knowledge' radically transforms the man freeing him
once and for all from delusion, fear, aversion and attachment. On the positive side the
'enlightened one' is the living emblem of universal love and selflessness. Attainment of this
' wisdom' is the fulfillment of all desires, which the liberated man has accomplished by
complete desirelessness, 'Realization of the Self that is within all' (Brihadaranyak.III.IV.I)
is the basis of this knowledge of Reality that permeates all existence. Thus the enlightened
man overcomes all forms of alienation.... alienation from the world, from other men and
from oneself. Enlightenment in India is not just attaining perfect knowledge by subtle
dialectic powers, but it is a way of life. The enlightened man naturally and effortlessly
translates his wisdom into a model way of living . . . a life of peace, freedom and universal
outlook.

It would be wrong to surmise that ' Enlightenment' viewed in two contexts are totally
incongruent. Descartes, the father of modern Western philosophy, mentions some moral
maxims for his Rational method. One or two may be mentioned:

To be as firm and resolute in my actions as I could . . . . To try always to

conquer myself rather than fortune, and to change my desires rather than the
order of the world . . . . (Discourse 3-Descartes).

Man cannot reap the fruits of Enlightenment unless the seeker develops some serenity and
dispassion and resolution to live upto his ideal i. e. his search and attainment of the Truth.
With this observation we pass on to the distinctive ideas of Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhist
Enlightenment.

In Samkhyā-Yogā, enlightenment is described as Discriminative Knowledge (Viveka-

khyāti). Ignorance is failure to differentiate the self from the not-self (Aviveka). Positively
it is the realization of self (Purusa) as Absolute Awareness (Jnasvarupa) as distinct from the
intellect, ego, mind and other Prakritik modifications. Liberation in Sāmākhya-Yogā is
neither the acquisition of a new state, nor the shaking of an old one. It is only the
disappearance of the conditioning factors i. e. the absence of contiguity with experientiable.
Prakritic reality thereby Purusa, that is pure Awareness is no longer reflected in the
Prakritic mirror and ceases to be identified with the objective realities. This is designated as
' aloneness' or Kaivalya because Purusa enjoys unique aloofness in its splendid Isolation.
Actually there is no deviation from this state of absolute Awareness either in emergence or
in liberation (Vyasa Bhasya II/15, Tattva Vaisāradi 1/3). Lack of space does not permit us to
discuss how bondage and liberation are actually states of Prakriti and not of Purusa
(Sāmkhya Kārikā. 63).

Liberating knowledge of Buddhism also is the realization of the true nature of reality . . .
more specifically nature of being, non-being and becoming. The goal of life is to rise above
or stand apart of the ceaseless motion of life. This is the state of quiescence, attainment of
highest bliss, known as Nirv āna. The enlightened one attains the insight and knowledge of
the real. This wisdom of Prajnā or (Pannā) has been variously described in Buddhist
literature. Buddha' s followers differ on the question of what this real is and the nature of
Nirvana. There is general agreement that Nirvāna is absolute extinction of suffering and
attainment of unique intuitive wisdom (Pannā). There are three kinds of Prajnā or Pannā.
Of the three kinds of Pannā, Suttamayi Pannā (knowledge gained from listening to others),

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Chintāmayi Pannā (knowledge being pondered over) and Bhāvanāmayi Pannā (knowledge
gained by direct realization), the Buddha plumps for the last. The first two are useful to the
extent they inspire one to experience the truth directly, they are no substitute for the third i.
e. attainment of truth at the experiential level.

It is interesting to note some basic points of agreement towards which both Samkhya-Yoga
and Buddhism were drawn. Their approach is positive and pragmatic. In Anguttara-Nikaya
Buddha says, " believe nothing because the belief is generally held, believe nothing
because it is written in ancient, so called books . . . . But believe only that what you
yourself judge to be true through your reason and experience"

Samkhya-Yoga and Lokayata are described as ' Anvikshiki Vidya' (reasoned discourse) by
Kautilya. Yajnavalka describes Samkhya as Anvikshiki to Janaka.

This positivistic attitude is reflected in their rejection of sacrificial ritualism, priests, God,
etc. Buddha' s antipathy towards sacrifice and violence is well known. But Samkhya being
in the fold of orthodox systems also renounces the ritualistic way unable to solve the
problem of suffering. In Samkhya Sutra (1/2 & 1/3) and Samkhya Karika (2) scriptural
means i. e. sacrificial rituals are said to be like the ordinary perceptible means; hence
ultimately ineffective in bringing that abiding and final release from suffering. Samkhya
goes to the extent describing one form of bondage, "Bondage by sacrificial gifts." (S. K.
44)

As we find in Comte, Positivism culminates in Humanism, so in Samkhya and Buddhism.

Both are humanistic. The goal is achievable by everyone by his own effort; one need not
look for any divine grace for attaining moksa. Every liberated man attains to the self-
effulgent nature of the isolated Purusa (Kevalin) or Buddhahood by following the
prescribed method. A man must depend entirely on himself, as the canonical text says: 'you
yourselves must make the effort, the Buddhas do but point the way'.

Both for Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhism enlightenment is the central theme. Mahabharata
declares Samkhya as a doctrine of liberation (Moksadarsanam) or Samkhya-Yoga as
twofold path to liberation. Buddha has said that as salt is the only flavor (rasa) of sea, the
only flavour of his true religion (Saddharma) is deliverance or Nirvana.

The basic motive of Buddha's teaching is redemption from suffering. Iswarakrishna also
declares the purpose of metaphysical speculation as removal of threefold suffering (S.K. 1).
The threefold pain is the motive force and end of philosophy. Four Aryasatyas on which the
Buddha bases his philosophy fully accord with the four fundamental principles of
Samkhya-Yoga . . . Heya, Heyasadhana, Hana and Hanasadhana.

We may take up the word ' sadhana' to bring home our second point i. e. the moral aids to
enlightenment. In enunciating the moral auxiliaries, both Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhism
finally made them a matter of ' Sadhana' or meditative accomplishment. Five restraints or '
Yama' comprising the first accessory to Yoga and five vows of Buddhism known as 'Sila'
are well known moral auxiliaries. They consist in abstention: 1) from harming others
(Ahimsa); 2) from falsehood (Satya); 3) from theft (Asteya); 4) From incontinence
(Brahmacharya); and 5) From greed (Aparigraha). Primarily they look as prohibitions or
restrictions, actually they consist of a tough course of long drawn practice. Ahimsa is the
abstinence from injuring any being at any time and any manner. Positively it means that we
must cultivate goodwill and friendliness towards all giving up selfishness in respect of all
external matters. 'To use harsh words or speaking ill of others, deprivation or covetousness
born of greed . . . . All are forms of injury'. Hence practice of Ahimsa or universal amity is
the mainstay of other virtues. These are basic rules of conduct or great vows (Mahabrata) to
be practised universally without any reservation of time, place, purpose or caste rules.

Attainment of some moral powers (Balas) is essential for enlightenment. They are Sraddha
(faith), Viriya or Virya (energy) and Sati or Smriti (vigilance).They culminate in samadhi
(contemplation) and Prajna (intuitive wisdom) (Anguttara Nikaya 363, Yoga Sutra of
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Patanjali. 1/20). With unwavering faith and uninterrupted energy the seeker gets firmly
established in the moral precepts by intense self-absorption and meditation. We will take up
the case of Ahimsa in Samkhya-Yoga and Smriti-Sampajanna in Buddhism to illustrate the
point.

In order to secure oneself on the foundation of Sila, practising meditation (Samadhi) and
developing wisdom and understanding (Prajna) is essential, Buddha says. Patanjali points
out: meditation lessens afflictions and evil thoughts (Y.S. 2/11). The keynote of this moral
attainment is unselfishness. Ahimsa as non-injury need to be developed into a positive
sentiments of friendliness (Maitri) towards the happy, compassion (Karuna) towards those
who are in distress, joyfulness (Mudita) at seeing others virtuous and indifference (Upeksa)
towards the non-virtuous. By willing culture of these virtues the mind is purged of dirt of
envy, jealousy, impatience and anger and is at peace with the world. Virtue derives its
sanction in yoga from its tendency to weaken that narrow sense of individuality. Yoga
technique of attaining freedom from shackles of nature and natural impulses is; ' by
concentration on Nature' s objects they are subdued and seen through. In the process,
Nature could be dominated by sage before being annulled'. They come in the form of
powers and perfections. The concentration resulting from contemplation is called
Samyama. Samyama of the feelings of Maitri etc. begets unfailing power (Y.S. 3/23). When
abstention from harming others i.e. ahimsa is accomplished, there will be abandonment of
animosity in his presence (Y.S. 2/36). As the yogi entirely renounces violence any enmity
must cease to exist, because they find no reciprocation. Similar account is given about
establishment in other virtues (Satya, Asteya etc. ) by Patanjali.

We may now turn to the grand vision of the great teacher Buddha who gave us meticulous
details of meditative accomplishment of virtues. Practice of Samprajanna or mindfulness
(Smrtyupasthana) is the most significant contribution of Buddhism for effective realization
of ethico-religious goal of life. Mahasatipatthana sutta laying the action plan of Buddha's
philosophy prescribes 'mindfulness' as an essential component. It consists in keeping watch
over one's own external and internal conduct. To explore the truth about ourselves we must
examine what we are body and mind and observe these directly within ourselves. It is
looking within and seeing reality with zeal, awareness and mindfulness, i.e., one has to be
atapi (ardent) Sampajano (aware) and Satima (mindful).

By developing mindfulness we can control our mind. By being constantly aware we may
keep the sense doors well guarded so that sensations may not arise unobserved. By constant
vigilance we may keep out craving, aversion and delusion to attain non-infatuation, etc. It
is most expressively described as 'Cittaraksa' , i.e., protection of one' s mind against self-
forgetfulness. The aim of the practice of mindfulness is as much to drive out the evil
thoughts as the cultivation of beneficial and desirable thoughts. Dhammapada (1& 2) ays
all actions good or bad stem from our mind. Hence we can make achievements in all
spheres if our mind is tamed and made more mindful. Buddha asserts that when one
practices fourfold Satipathana meditation for seven years and thereby mindfulness is
established, he becomes an arihant. Sruti also says that, one whose memory is established is
always pure (Katha Up. I. iii. 8).

Consideration of Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhist enlightenment as spiritual realization

directly takes us to its nature as a vision of Truth or reality. Both in Samkhya-Yoga and
Buddhism, enlightenment comes from ascertainment and realization of the true nature of
Existence.

Yoga practices and various exercises of mind-discipline are actually explained against the
background of metaphysical categories (Samkhya Tattvas). Samkhya enumeration of the 25
principles of existence is done with a view to clarify and establish the emancipating
knowledge or 'Vivekakhyati' . Knowledge of the Tattvas is essential for 'Kaivalya' and the
cognitive pattern follows a strict ethical, mental and spiritual discipline. For the perfection
of contemplation and absorption the adept is advised to concentrate on the ascending stages
of reality . . . . from lower to higher accomplishment of different stages of Samadhi (Y.S.
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3/6). ' The first stage of Samprajnata yoga is Grahya-Samapatti ) engrossment in objects of
knowledge), the second is Grahana samapatti (engrossment in organs of reception), and the
third is Grahitri Samapatti (engrossment in the receiver). The highest stage ' Viveka-Khyati'
can only be reached after attaining perfection in the previous stages one after another. The
Yogasutra lay down a progressive scheme of fixation of attention from the smallest to the
greatest, from outward to inward, from gross to subtle. By perfecting concentration, the
adept transcends the various stages of matter (Prakritik evolutes). It is necessary to
transcend the stage altogether and to realize the essential non-spiritual character of the
world of matter. By thorough practice of SAMKHYA categories (Tattvabhyasa) through
yogic contemplation, finally attention is fixed in the 'Mahat' or the greatest. In this context
the greatest refer to 'Mahat' in two senses . . . the internal and the external. The internal is
the endless universal ' asmita' and the external is the cosmos. Among the evolutes of
Prakriti ' Mahat' is the first and the most expansive. Among the objects of Samprajnata
samadhi, asmita, whose substratum is ' Mahat' is the highest. To remove the affliction of '
Asmita', contemplation of 'Asmita' is essential to realize the nature of ego and its functions.
The concentration on the ' I' principle conveys that the 'Knower' is only the Prakritic agent
and the ' Buddhi' or function- of-consciousness is illuminated by the spiritual ' Awareness-
Self' . Hence concentration on the knower is the most refined, and must be constantly
practised, since it opens up on the very source of consciousness. With this one attains
complete mastery over mind (Y. S. 1.40). This is also brought out by Iswarakrisna as he
says: "Through the cultivation of the principles, the final, pure (because free from doubt)
and one single 'salvation knowledge' arises that neither does agency belong to me, nor is
attachment mine, nor am I" (S.K. 64). In all kinds of afflictions ' Indiscriminating
consciousness' (Aviveka) is the all pervading factor. The root cause is the failure to
dissociate the factor of ' awareness' and egotism' (Ahamkara) from all other components of
experience. ' Vivekakhyati' (Discriminative consciousness ) is not a direct perception
dependent on an external object but it is the cumulative effect of often-repeated and
perfected concentrations. Buddha also teaches: " Pull out delusion by root by thinking no
more in terms of I."

Starting with the reflective analysis of experience Samkhya shows that our experience is
resolved in some noumenal antecedents. But these noumenal antecedents are themselves
objects of ' metaphysical intuition' . Evolutionary cycles of Prakriti synchronizes with the
experience of enjoyment-suffering and ' release' of Purusas.

Though Buddhism gives an intricate analysis of the Four Noble Truths and the doctrine of
Dependent Origination, Buddha shuns entirely the tendency to turn abstractions into
substances. The paradigm of reality is the change or impermanence inherently connected
with suffering and selflessness (nairatmya). The threefold nature of reality (Tilakkana) is
realized only by direct experience. Belief born of intellectual pursuit melts away and
evaporates. One develops thorough understanding of impermanence by concentrating on
body sensations etc. as the meditator tangibly realizes continuous arising and passing away
of all experience and existence. Here we may significantly refer to ' Vipassana' meditation,
which seem to be the Buddha' s distinctive contribution to the contemplative culture of
India. The essence of the method is to see things as they are, specially the contents that
keep bobbing up to the surface of consciousness without interpretation or any kind of
interference. To extinguish suffering and dejection, to acquire the right mode of life and to
realize Nibbana, Buddha exhorts the four applications of ' mindfulness'. The four
applications are: 1) To observe the body qua body (kaye kayanupassi); 2) To observe
sensations qua sensations (vedanasu vedananupassi); 3) To observe thoughts as thoughts
(citte cittanupassi); and 4) To observe mental objects as mental objects (dhammesu
dhammanupassi). The first two applications of mindfulness aim at alienating the
psychophysical complex and turning oneself into a detached observer. In the third, i.e.,
reflection about the contents of consciousness can be combined with direct awareness of
them. The fourth consist in sustained awareness and reflection on dhamma. When one
continually engages in observing objects in the context of Dhamma, doctrinal truths
become directly evident and disinterestedness set in, consummation is reached.

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Thus contemplation goes a long way to develop non-attachment (nirveda). On reaching the
truth, i.e., transitoriness of all things at the experiential level one is cured of delusion.
Clinging to and craving for objects are gone: suffering and substancelessness is directly
seen. As Buddha says: "one who is concentrated knows and sees correctly." There are
various stages of concentration and meditation. First stage of meditation is born of
seclusion and is accompanied by deliberation, delight and happiness. The second stage
leads to inner serenity and one-pointedness unaccompanied by deliberation. Then one
enters the third stage being indifferent to joy and suffering and attains a sense of well being
and equanimity. One enters the fourth stage of meditation where there is no well being or
suffering and there is utter purity of dispassion and mindfulness. The whole mechanism of,
mind being gone through and its working seen, the key is at last found to purify one' s
entire nature both within and without. Absolute dispassion born of concentration is the
keynote to Enlightenment in both SamkhyaYoga and Buddhism.

Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhist ideals of ' Kaivalya' and 'Nirvana' though transcendental in
nature, the prescribed path has immense relevance for Paideia. Both stress on performance
of universal moral duties in the form of Truth, Non-violence, forbearance, right effort etc.
as essential for highest spiritual attainment. Proper practice of these ideals leads to the
height of selflessness, restraint and tranquility. For an integral social living, the necessity of
setting a limit to one's desires and ambitions is recognized by any sober person. Buddhism
effectively inculcates the pragmatic value of this self-discipline and conquering animosity
by goodwill. Progress in Yoga depends upon goodness in personal character and social
relations. But there is no scope of educating others by mere precepts and maxims. Ethico-
Spiritual fruition is earned by one's own effort. Preceptors being a living epitome of the
ideal may motivate and inspire people around him. A general clime of virtuosity and well
being is ensured by increased good deeds. Even Mahayana Buddhism, setting the goal as
redemption of suffering for everyone declares; one cannot work out one' s salvation without
oneself trying for it. Even Tathagatas cannot stand for others.

In both systems ' Ahimsa' is given the foremost place amongst all the virtues. It derives
sanction from the tendency to weaken the narrow sense of individuality, which disguises
the real nature of the soul. Teaching of ahimsa, i.e., non-violence in deed, words and
thought bears particular importance in the present-day world of tension and Nuclear
warfare.

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