IB Psychology---SocioCultural Approach

The Individual and The Group

Individual + Group

Human beings are social animals and that we have a basic

need to belong. The relationship between the individual and

the group is bidirectional: as the individual is affected by being

part of the group, the individual can also effect behavior in the

group.

 Social Identity Theory

 Social Cognitive Theory

 Formation of Stereotypes and their effects on behavior

Social Identity Theory

What is your Social Identity?

Personal Identity: our self on an individual, private and

interpersonal level; self-knowledge that derives from an

individual’s unique attributes.

Social Identity: our self in terms of our group membership, like

gender or ethnicity; an individual-based perception of what

defines the “us” associated with any internalized group

membership.

Social Identity Theory

The original theory of Social Identity proposed by Tajfel &

Turner identified four psychological mechanisms:

 Social Categorization

 Social identification

 Social comparison

 Positive distinctiveness

Social categorization is the process by which we identity

which groups we belong to and which groups we do not. The

groups we belong to and identify with are referred to as our

"in-groups." When referring to our in-group, we often use the

words "we" and "us". The groups that we do not belong to, are

referred to as "out-groups." When referring to our out-groups,

we often use the words "they" and "them."

Social identification takes place after deciding to belong to

the group. This is the process of adopting the norms of the

group and taking on the characteristics of the group.

After identifying one's in-group, individuals then engage in

"social comparison" which is a means of justifying their group

membership. Finally, we seek to achieve positive self-esteem

by positively comparing our in-group to an out-group on some

valued dimension to achieve positive distinctiveness. We favor

the traits of our in-group, even if we did not necessarily

choose to be a part of the group ourselves. edit text

Tajfel et al (1971)

A group of boys were arbitrarily categorized

into groups based on artistic preference

- Klee or Kandinsky.

Boys would allocate rewards and penalties to other

participants:

 Maximum Joint Profit: largest amount to both boys in

matrix

 Maximum ingroup profit: boys could allocate largest

amount to members of ingroup.

  Maximum Difference: this amount maximized the amount

given to their ingroup and minimized the amount given to

members of outgroup. CHOICE

Members of a group favor their group. Discrimination can take

place even when no previous prejudice or competition exists.

Illustrated Minimal groups paradigm: merely being put into a

group is enough to instill loyalty to the group and

discrimination toward those outside the group.

Applying SIT to prosocial behavior

Social Identity Theory has been applied to explain many

different behaviors. In particular, it has been used to explain

prosocial behavior - that is, the willingness to help someone in

need of help.

The study of helping behavior is important as it helps us to

better understand how people react in an emergency situation.

However, it is not possible to carry out research in the field.

Therefore, studies are often highly artificial and use deception

which may have a negative effect on the participants.

Drury et al (2009) used virtual reality to investigate the role of

SIT on helping. Drury supports the idea we feel a desire to help

the crowd to the extent that we identify with it.

Applying SIT to Formation of Stereotypes

Social Identity Theory argues that by categorizing ourselves

into ingroups and outgroups, we then begin to see the

members of outgroups as more similar to each other than they

actually are. Out-group homogeneity then makes it easy for us

to apply stereotypes to the members of the groups without

having to consider whether the characteristics are actually

true of a particular individual. In addition, since we do not

usually interact with the out-group as much as with our in-

group, we learn very little about their traits and are more likely

to maintain stereotypes.

What would happen if we tried to study the role of SIT in a

naturalistic environment? This was the research done by

Hilliard and Liben (2010).

Social Groups

Social Groups: A social group is two or more humans who

interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and

collectively have a sense of unity. Social relationships involve

some degree of reciprocity and mutual awareness among the

members of the group. Thus, a social group consists of such

members as have reciprocal relations. The members are bound

by a sense of unity. Their interest is common, behavior is

similar.

As a person, you may belong to many different types of social

groups: a religious group, an ethnic group, your workplace

colleague group, your college class, a sports team, etc.

How social group membership (fans of same sports team)

shape helping behavior in an emergency is shown in Levine

(2005)

Social Cognitive Theory

How do people LEARN from other people?

Socialization: The process of becoming a member of a social

group.

 Primary Socialization: Child learns from family the basic

rules and norms of living in a group. Family is the first

social group and parents are the teacher. Children learn

 roles of gender (gender socialization) and are taught

about racial/cultural/ethnic heritage (cultural

socialization)

 Secondary Socialization: forces of larger community -

extended family, friends, media - teach norms of living in

a group. These forces influences either acceptance or

deviance from "norms" learned in primary socialization.

Group Socialization is a form of secondary socialization

were it is an individual's peer group and not the person's

parental figures that influence personality and behavior.

Observational Learning (Social Learning)

Albert Bandura's Theory that attempts to explain how we

LEARN from others. Behavior is modeled by other members of

a group and acquired through observation and imitation based

on consequences of behavior.

Learning can be done both directly and indirectly.

 Directly: We can learn by performing an action or

behavior and experiencing consequences ourselves.

  Indirectly (Vicarious learning): We can learn without

performing the behavior ourselves. We can learn by

observing the consequences of another person's actions

or behavior. We can learn from mistakes and successes

of others.

Observational Learning Implications:

 Not necessary to demonstrate actual behavior for

learning to occur

 In our learning we depend on available models - people

whose behavior we observe.

Bashing Bobo

The idea that people learn from watching others was tested in

Bandura's famous Bobo Doll Experiment.

Social Cognitive Theory

Oversimplification to say observing a behavior automatically

leads to learning. There are many cognitive factors that

mediate this influence. Bandura claimed that cognition needs

to be viewed as a mediator between environmental stimuli and

behavior.
Environmental Stimulus - Cognition - Reaction

Bandura expanded Social Learning Theory and created a

broader version Social Cognitive Theory to account for

nuances. Social Cognitive Theory Includes:

 Reciprocal Determinism

 Self-Efficacy

 Human Agency

 Identification

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura thought behaviorists were too

simplistic in explaining human behavior

as a one way relationship between the

environment and behavior.

Bandura understood that our behavior, environment and

cognition are all mutually interrelated, so he proposed a model

of behavior based upon reciprocal determinism (or triadic

reciprocal determinism)
  Mutual Influence of 3 Factors: Personal + Behavioral +

Environmental

 Humans are agents in our own lives; we don't simply

react to the world around us. We pay attention to the

people and events around us, interpret their behavior

(including rewards and punishments), design a plan

considering our own abilities and goals and behave in a

way that will bring about a desired outcome.

Self-Efficacy

Reproduction (imitation) of a task/behavior is affected by self-

efficacy. Self-Efficacy is the belief that you are able to

accomplish a task.

 High Self-Efficacy: you are optimistic and confident that

you will be able to accomplish a task successfully

 Low Self-Efficacy: You have low confidence in your

ability to accomplish a task. People tend not to try

something if they expect failure.

4 Sources of Self-Efficacy

 Master Experiences
  Vicarious Experiences

 Social Persuasion

 Emotional and Physical Status

Support for Bandura's Theory

Bandura's theory has been tested beyond the strict conditions

of experimentation: it was been used to explain behavior in

the real world.

Perry, Perry and Rasmussen (1986): examined cognitive

determinants of aggressive behavior in school children. Found

that perceived self-efficacy and reinforcement (rewards and

punishment) were both key in determining behavior.

Sheridan et al (2011): social cognitive theory can be used to

explain the learning of prosocial behavior.

Stereotypes

What is a stereotype?

Stereotype: A preconceived notion about a group of people; a

generalized belief about an entire group of people; stereotypes

are cognitive
Prejudice: an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude

toward a group and its members; generally involves

stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to

discriminatory action.

Discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group

and its members

Formation of Stereotypes - Schema

Sometimes the sources of stereotypes are actually existing

differences between groups. In these cases stereotypes are no

different from other schemas we develop about objects and

situations. They are simplified in that they ignore certain

details, but otherwise there is no reason to suspect they

represent reality inaccurately.

The ability to stereotype is often essential for efficient

decision-making, which facilitates survival. Our brain

constructs general categories from which it derives

predictions about category-relevant specific, and novel,

situations. You don’t ask a toddler for directions, you don’t ask

a very old person to help you move a sofa, and that’s because

you stereotype.
Grain of Truth? Stereotype accuracy is consistent with

schemas. Schemas are only useful if they are by and large

(albeit imperfectly) accurate. Your "party" schema may not

include all the elements that exist in all parties, but it must

include many of the elements that exist in many parties to be

of any use to you as you enter a room and decide whether a

party is going on and, if so, how you should behave.

Darley and Gross (1983): rich girl v. poor girl

Formation of Stereotypes - Illusory Correlation

Illusory Correlation: A cognitive mechanism that leads a

person to perceive a relationship between two events when in

reality they are not related.

Illusory correlation is a type of cognitive bias that takes place

when two statistically infrequent events co-occur. The

frequency of this co-occurrence is overestimated.

Encountering a person from a minority group is statistically

less frequent, and negative behaviors (such as crime) are also

statistically less frequent than acceptable behaviors. So when

the two events (belonging to a minority group and negative

behavior) co-occur, the frequency of this co-occurrence is

exaggerated, which gives rise to a negative stereotype about

the minority group.

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) aimed to investigate illusory

correlations based on the co-occurrence of infrequent events.

Research concluded that participants perceived correlation

between undesirable behavior and minority group membership.

Limitations of Illusory Correlation

Illusory correlation effects have been found in many research

studies with a variety of samples and experimental situations.

However, limitations of these effects have been discovered as

well:

 Illusory correlation effects disappear when judgments

about groups are made simultaneously with the

presentation of stimulus material. it is only when

participants retrieve information about groups from

memory that the effect occurs. So, illusory correlation as

a mechanism of stereotype formation is limited to

situations where people evaluate groups in a memory-

based fashion.
  Illusory correlation is also inhibited when there are

excessive demands for one's attention. For example,

illusory correlation effects disappeared in studies where

there was increased cognitive load on the participants.

Formation of Stereotypes - Social Categorization

Social categorization refers to the classification of other

individuals into particular group memberships based on

characteristics deemed meaningful by society. Examples of

social categories include age group, sex, and race. Social

categorization based on age can lead to stereotypical and

evaluative biases.

Social categorization is the first step in Tajfel's Social Identity

Theory process by which we identity which groups we belong

to and which groups we do not.

 In-group: The groups we belong to and identify with.

When referring to our in-group, we often use the words

"we" and "us".

 Out-group: The groups that we do not belong to. When

referring to our out-groups, we often use the words

"they" and "them."

Schaller supports the idea that social categorization

enhances the formation of illusory correlations.

Effects of Stereotypes on Behavior

Self-Fulfilling Prophesy: People who hold a stereotype may

influence the behavior of the stereotyped group. An example of

this is found in the phenomenon of self-fulfilling prophesy and

demonstrated in the study Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)

Stereotype Threat: Members of a stereotyped group itself may

inadvertently reinforce the stereotype by changing their

behavior as a result of increased anxiety or apprehension. This

has been demonstrated in research of stereotype threat:

Steele and Aronson (1995) and Spencer et al (1999). Shewach

et al (2019) challenges the theory of stereotype threat.

Self-Fulfilling Prophesy

In a self-fulfilling prophecy an individual's expectations about

another person or entity eventually result in the other person

or entity acting in ways that confirm the expectations. People

have an expectation about how others will behave and as such

treat them differently. The way in which they treat individuals

cause those individuals to change their behavior in such a way

that the original expectation becomes true.

Consider what happens if we apply a label (stereotype) to a

group of people on the societal level?

Cultural Origins

What is culture?

Culture is what we refer to when we talk about the behaviors,

attitudes and identities that are common among a group of

people who claim some form of unity with each other

Hofstede's definition: The collective programming of the mind

distinguishing the members of one group or category of people

from another. Culture guides a group of people in their daily

interactions and distinguishes them from other groups of

people.

Matsumoto's definition: Culture is a unique meaning and

information system, shared by a group and transmitted across

generations, that allows a group to: meet basic survival needs,

coordinate socially to achieve a viable existence, transmit

social behavior, pursue happiness and well=being and derive

meaning from life.

Why Culture? Helps us survive.

Humans are social animals and have a basic need to belong.

We form social groups to protect ourselves and better enable

us to survive in a given environment.

Culture is a response of a group of people to their

environment. Cultures are different from one another because

different groups of people were responding to different

environments, resources, social makeups, size of communities

and families.

Surface v. Deep Culture

Differences in culture can be split into 2 categories: surface

and deep

Surface Culture: refers to the tangible norms that are often

associated with a certain culture. These are the norms that

we are aware of and can see; for example, the types of food,

clothing, music and art, languages and dialects, or history and

folktales attributed to a certain culture or country

Deep Culture: refers to culture that exists below the surface.

Deep culture is all about the attitudes and feelings that we

adopt while existing as a part of any specific culture or the

thoughts and ideas that we experience as associated with

another country or culture.

Enculturation

Enculturation: The process by which individuals learn the

necessary and appropriate skills and norms in the context of

their culture

How does enculturaion occur?

 observation

 formal instruction

 direct personal experience

We learn a culture's rituals and traditions in order to function

successfully within it. Although cultures are dynamic, they do

remain largely stable as generations come and go. This

continuity is important to the survival of cultures. Survival

relies on culture being passed from one generation to the next

through a process called cultural transmission.

Cultural Influences on Behavior + Cognition

Our brains actively absorb our cultural environments. The

representations created in the brain in turn influence how we

interact with and shape our own environments. Culture

impacts the way in which the brain is wired and activated, but

the brain is malleable. Changed experience with varying

cultures over time can reshape these brain activations. In this

sense, the brain can be seen as a “cultural sponge” of sorts,

absorbing the cultural norms of our surrounding physical and

social environments.

The Geography of Thought - Nesbitt

Asians and Westerners "have maintained very different

systems of thought for thousands of years." Different how?

"The collective or interdependent nature of Asian society is

consistent with Asians' broad, contextual view of the world

and their belief that events are highly complex and determined

by many factors. The individualistic or independent nature of

Western society seems consistent with the Western focus on

particular objects in isolation from their context and with

Westerners' belief that they can know the rules governing

objects and therefore can control the objects' behavior."

The Asian way of Thinking - Holistic

Ancient Chinese philosophers and ordinary East Asians today

share a “holistic” orientation — perceiving and thinking about

objects in relation to their environments and reasoning

dialectically (focusing on contradictions, change and

relationships), trying to find the Middle Way between opposing

propositions.

Asians, whose more collectivist culture promotes group

harmony and contextual understanding of situations, think in a

more holistic way. They pay attention to all the elements of a

scene, to context and to the relationships between items.

Asians see more of a given scene or context than Westerners

do. In tests of categorization, Asians, are more likely to group

items based on relationships-so a cow and grass might go

together because a cow eats grass.

The Western way of Thinking - Analytic

Ancient Greek philosophers were “analytic” — objects and

people are separated from their environment, categorized, and

reasoned about using logical rules. Psychological experiments

show the same is true of ordinary Westerners today.

Westerners focus on salient objects or people, use attributes

to assign them to categories, and apply rules of formal logic to

understand their behavior. Western culture emphasizes

personal autonomy and formal logic, and so Westerners are

more analytic and pay attention to particular objects and

categories. In tests of categorization, Americans are more

likely to group items based on how well the items fit into

categories by type-so, say, a cow and a chicken might go

together because they are both animals.

Advantages of the Western cognition are more openness to

debate and peer review and less respect for hierarchy

Bilingual - shift in language...and behavior?

Czech proverb says, "Learn a new language and get a new

soul."

Bicultural individuals (individuals with 2 distinct sets of

cultural values) shift the values they espouse depending on

cues such as language

Bicultural bilinguals use their languages for different purposes,

in different domains of life, with different people. Different

contexts and domains trigger different impressions, attitudes

and behaviors. Bicultural bilinguals adapt to the situation or

the person they are talking to, and change their language

when need to.

It is the environment, the culture, and the interlocutors

(person conversing with) that cause bicultural bilinguals to

change attitudes, feelings and behaviors (along with

language).

Asian and Western Decision-Making Behavior

To what extent do bilingual individuals shift the underlying

strategies used to resolve choice problems? Research has

shown shifts in the general decision-making strategy of

avoiding losses rather than pursuing gains, which is more

often exhibited by Chinese than by Westerners.

Briley, Morris and Simonson (2005) found that language

manipulation (Cantonese vs. English) increases tendencies to

choose compromise options in a product decision task and

defer decision making in problems where it can be postponed.

The motivation to conform to observers’ cultural norms can

also drive these shifts

Choice Deferral: The behavior of not selecting one of a set of

available options as choice deferral; a situation in which an

individual chooses not to choose for the time being

Cultural Group - SAQ only

A cultural group is defined simply as a collection of individuals

who share a core set of beliefs, patterns of behavior, and

values. The groups may be large or small, but they are

identified by their ways of thinking and behaving. All cultural

groups are marked by intragroup variation. Many factors of

diversity impact culture, including, but not limited to:

ethnicity, country of origin, language, gender, race, physical

appearance, age, religion, sexual identity, disability,

education, and social class or status.

The United States is a diverse country, racially and ethnically.

Six races are officially recognized: white, American Indian and

Alaska Native, Asian, black or African American, Native

Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more

races.

Asian Americans + Education

22.6 Million: The estimated number of Asian alone-or-in-

combination residents in the United States in 2018.

53.9%: The percentage of the Asian alone-or-in-combination

population age 25 and older who had a bachelor’s degree or

higher level of education in 2018.

88.1%: The percentage of the Asian alone-or-in-combination

population age 25 and older who had at least a high school

diploma or equivalency in 2018.

https://www.higheredtoday.org/2019/08/21/uneven-playing-field-

complex-educational-experiences-asian-americans/

Asian v. American views of Education

Asian Culture: Prevalent belief in Asian culture that a

deficiency can be overcome with diligence (in other

words...hard work pays off). This attitude stems from

Confucian beliefs about the role of effort in achievement,

which has been emphasized in Chinese writings and is also

found in Japanese philosophy. This value has transmitted to

Asian children and manifested in children's school endeavors.

Asian Americans believe lack of effort is reason for under

performance at school. Effort and achievement are linked.

White Americans: American students attribute success in

school to ability.

When parents believe success in school depends for the most

part on effort rather than ability, they are more likely to

encourage hard work and participation in activities related to

academic achievement.

Mau study found that the value of hard work was present in

the families of early Asian immigrants and Asian Americans,

evidenced by the fact both Asian immigrant and Asian

American student spent significantly more time on homework

than White Americans. Asian student success related to

parental expectations.

Cultural Norms - SAQ only

Norms are the agreed upon expectations and rules by which a

culture guides the behavior of its members in any given

situation. Norms vary widely across cultural groups. Cultural

norms are learned and reinforced from parents, friends,

teachers and others while growing up in a society.

Examples of Cultural Norms:

 Who decides who will marry whom?

 How much personal space is normal?

 What is more important, the needs of the individual or the

needs of the group?

 How important is hierarchy and authority?

 Are there specific gender roles? What are they? Who

determines them?

Do Cultural Norms Matter?

Some societies may care quite a bit about their cultural

norms, insisting on strong conformity to them across the

board. They reflect “cultural tightness.” Others tolerate a lot of

deviance from the norms. These are “culturally loose”

societies. What factors explain cultural tightness?

1. Ecological & Historical Threats. Hostile neighbors, disease,

and dense populations increase the need for coordinated and

disciplined action from the population.

2. Socio-Political Institutions. Culturally tight nations tend to

have more autocratic governments, restricted media, stronger

suppression of dissent, and more severe punishments for

crime.

3. Everyday Social Situations. All kinds of interactions with

fellow members of the culture are more formal in nations with

tight cultural norms. These include situations at home, the

workplace, school, places of worship, parks, and others. Loose

cultures provide more room for individual discretion in such

situations. A wider range of behavior is counted “appropriate.”

4. Psychological Adaptations. People’s minds become attuned

to the different requirements of living in places with tight or

loose cultural norms. Individual psychology then further

supports the level of cultural tightness or looseness. People

living in tight cultures become more focused on avoiding

mistakes. They are more cautious in their own behavior, and

more closely monitor themselves and others for norm

violations.

Personal Space
Personal space - how close we stand to our colleagues,

friends, strangers - varies widely between countries.

Sociologists have studied the whys and hows and they have

come up with some theories as to why these cultural norms

exist: Temperature, gender and age.

Personal boundaries also have a lot to do with our culture.

Researchers sort the world into "Contact Cultures" (South

American, the Middle East, Southern Europe) and "Non-Contact

Cultures" (Northern Europe, North American and Asia). In

"Non-Contact Cultures" people stand farther apart and touch

less.

Personal space helps us understand social roles. Cultural

space tells us a lot about the nature of a relationship. If

someone comes more into your personal space than you are

used to it can be confusing. It's easy to misread what

someone if actually communicating if you only come from your

cultural perspective.

Sorokowska and Sorokowska et al

Researchers looked at 9,000 people in 42 countries to

understand exactly how personal space is defined in different

countries. They handed each subject a graph showing 2

figures, then told each subject: Image you are person A. How

close should person B stand to you? Does that change if the

person is a close friend? a colleague?

Based on Hall's Classical Proxemic Theory: Classified

interpersonal distance into four categories each of which

reflects a different relationship between individuals:

1. Public Distance

2. Social Distance

3. Personal Distance

4. Intimate Distance

Cultural Dimensions

Cultural Dimensions

Cultural Dimensions are general factors underlying cross-

cultural differences in values and behavior. Cultural

dimensions refer to the values of members of a society living

within a culture.

2 approaches to studying cultural dimensions:

  Emic Approach - examining a specific culture from

within; enables an in-depth understanding of the unique

culture without "imposed ectic", but comparison with

other cultures is difficult

 Etic Approach - studying cultures from an outside

perspective; enables cross-cultural comparisons, but

requires the identification of universal phenomena that

will serve as comparison criteria

Identifying Universal Phenomena

Each culture is unique, so to compare cultures on a large

scale is not an easy task. One needs to identify universal

phenomena that are present in every individual culture. These

criteria will then becomes criteria for comparison.

Geert Hofstede (1973) conducted an extensive study involving

participants from more than 70 countries and identified 5 such

universal phenomena, or cultural dimensions.

 Individualism v. Collectivism

 Power distance index (PDI)

 Masculinity v. Femininity

 Uncertainty avoidance index.

  Long-term v. short-term orientation

 Indulgence v. retstraint

Individualism-Collectivism

Individualism: the belief that the needs of each person are

more important than the needs of the whole society or group.

Collectivism: the individual is seen as being subordinate to a

social collectivity such as a state, a nation, a race, or a social

class

Hofstede's individualism-collectivism paradigm refers to the

strength of the ties that people have to others within their

community.

A high IDV score indicates weak interpersonal connection

among those who are not part of a core "family." Here, people

take less responsibility for others' actions and outcomes.

In a collectivist society, however, people are supposed to be

loyal to the group to which they belong, and, in exchange, the

group will defend their interests. The group itself is normally

larger, and people take responsibility for one another's well-

being.
High IDV

 Characteristics:

 High value placed on people's time and their need for

privacy and freedom.

 An enjoyment of challenges, and an expectation of

individual rewards for hard work.

 Respect for privacy.

 Tips:

 Acknowledge individual accomplishments

 Don't mix work life with social life too much

 Encourage debate and expression of people's own ideas

Low IDV

 Characteristics

 Emphasis on building skills and becoming master of

something

 People work for intrinsic rewards

 Maintaining harmony among group members overrides

other moral issues

 Tips

 Wisdom is important
  Suppress feelings and emotions that may endanger

harmony

 Avoid giving negative feedback in public

 Saying "no" can cause loss of face, unless it's intended

to be polite. For example, declining an invitation several

times is expected.

Individualism-Collectivism + Behavior/Cognition

 Individualism-Collectivism may influence rates of

conformity. Berry and Katz (1967)

 Individualism-Collectivism may influence volunteering.

Finkelstein (2010).

 Individualism-Collectivism may influence factors involved

in formation of Flashbulb Memories. Kulkofsky et al

(2011)

Acculturation

Acculturation

Acculturation is the process by which people change as a

result of contact with other cultures in order to assimilate

with a new culture. Acculturation is internalizing the norms of

the dominant culture where you have migrated.

This occurs when a person comes into contact with a different

culture, as, for example, when they move from one type of

society to another. Almost inevitably, some of the habits,

values, attitudes and behavioral characteristics of the society

into which the move is made will be acquired. Elements of the

person’s original culture are thereby replaced. At an aggregate

level, acculturation refers to the contact between two

adjacent cultures or civilizations, whereby each influences the

other by a sort of exchange process

Berry - 4 strategies of cultural change

1. Assimilation: individuals are open to change and not

concerned about the loss of connection with their original

culture. They adjust their behavior, attitudes and beliefs to the

norms of the dominant culture.

2. Integration: individuals preserve their original values and

beliefs, but at the same time explore relationships with other

cultures.
3. Separation: individuals value their original culture, are

afraid of losing it an, as a result, actively avoid contact with

other cultures.

4. Marginalization: individuals do not maintain their original

culture, but neither do they seek contact with other cultures.

Assimilation, Integration, Separation and Marginalization

strategies can be visualized as a system of two independent

dimensions: maintenance of heritage culture and seeking

relationships with other groups.

In a way, the two dimensions can be thought of as

enculturation (maintaining the heritage culture) versus

acculturation (seeking relationships with the dominant

culture). This idea has far-reaching implications: it means that

enculturation and acculturation are not necessarily opposite

processes and can act together to pursue a common goal if

cultural diversity is accepted in the society.

Which one is best?

Limitations of Acculturation Research

Acculturation is a process that occurs over a period of time,

so it is important to conduct longitudinal studies. Ideally,

studies should take into account changes in both the minority

and dominate culture. Since acculturation involves a wide

range of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors, the common method

of choice is self-report measures (questionnaires). Naturally,

self-report data from surveys and questionnaires lends itself to

correlational design (no cause-and-effect).

The majority of research studies look at samples of migrants:

 Most migration occurs from poorer countries to richer

countries

 Most migration occurs from traditional societies to more

liberal societies

 Migration in the opposite direction is very rarely studied

due to limited availability of samples.

This makes acculturation research biased in one direction.

How does acculturation affect health behavior of

migrants?

Research has identified two interesting effects:

  The healthy migrant effect: people who recently migrated

have a tendency to be healthier than their counterparts

who stayed in the country of origin. One potential

explanation is that host countries are selective and they

prefer to select healthy immigrants.

 The negative acculturation effect: the healthy migrant

effect diminishes over time: migrants are becoming less

healthy and more similar to their counterparts who

stayed in the country of origin. One potential explanation

is that the food environments in the migrant origin

cultures tend to be healthier than food environments in

the more "developed" host societies.

Assimilation and Intermarriage

Assimilation is the process by which two or more cultures or

cultural groups are gradually merged, although one is likely to

remain dominant. Can also be the process by which individuals

are absorbed into the culture or mores of the dominant group.

Marriages between individuals of different groups suggest a

weakening of preferences for in-group marriage and of

boundaries between them. Intermarriage is therefore often

viewed as an index of assimilation into the larger host society.

What about the kids?!?

Global Identity

Effects of Globalization

Globalization influence on adolescence identity

Arnett (2002) argues that the primary psychological influence

of globalization is on individual's identity - how individuals

think about themselves in relation to social groups.

Arnett claims the most affected group is adolescents:

 Adolescents are still discovering their identity

 Adolescents are usually more interested in global media

(music and TV) which is a driving force of Globalization

4 Main Influences of Globalization in adolescent's identity:

Bicultural Identity: many people in the world develop a

bicultural identity - part of their identity stems from local

culture, and another part from global culture. This is similar to

the kind of identity developed by immigrants and members of

ethnic minority groups.

Identity Confusion: Identity confusion may be increasing,

especially among adolescents in non-western societies. This

happens if the development of a bicultural identity has not

been successful. For these individuals, the norms of the global

culture undermine their belief in local culture. At the same

time, the global culture for them is too alien and out of reach.

Identity confusion may lead to further problems such as

substance abuse, depression and suicide.

Self-Selected Cultures: In response to globalization, some

people choose to form self-selected cultures with like-minded

individuals and develop an identity that is not dependent on

the global culture. Self-selected cultures may be diverse,

ranging from religious fundamentalism to musical subcultures.

What unifies them is an attempt to find an identity that is

different from the mainstream global culture.

Identity Exploration: The age period for identity formation

increases, and identity explorations, which used to end

typically by age 18, are being extended to a later life period

(18-25).

Identity in today's world is based on individual choices. Some

people react with confusion, but others embrace the diversity

and assimilating both the global and local culture.

Ikigai: Japanese Happiness

And according to the residents of the Japanese village with

the world's longest-living people, finding it is the key to a

happier and longer life. Having a strong sense of ikigai--the

place where passion, mission, vocation, and profession

intersect--means that each day is infused with meaning.

the rural-living Japanese population more commonly had an

ikigai rooted in family or a wider sense of community—Japan,

after all, is considered a collectivist society. Unlike the West,

which encourages people to express their uniqueness and

strive for personal betterment, Japanese people are willing to

share in each other’s failures and successes.

Does globalization of Western individualist values mess with

Japanese Ikigai
Effects of Interaction of Global

and Local Influences on Behavior

Ogihara and Uchida (2014): Aim to investigate the adverse

effects of individualism in an East Asian culture by examining

the relationship between individualistic values, subjective

well-being (SWB), and the number of close relationships in

Japan and the U.S.

The spread of Western values through globalization could have

negative effects on people in collectivist cultures.

Individualistic systems decrease interpersonal relationships

through competition but, individualistic values have prevailed

in European American cultures. One reason is because

individuals could overcome negativity by actively constructing

interpersonal relationships. The effect of globalization on

Japanese SWB might be because they become more

competitive and individualistic but lack the skills to establish

strong friendships because they were not taught this from a

young age.