BASIC CALCULUS (QUARTER 3)

MODULE 1:
UNIT 1: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

INTRODUCTION

You live in a world that is constantly changing. You experience things that move
at different paces and at different times. Some are in constant motion, while the rest are still.
Humans have developed several machines and tools to explain these phenomena. One of the
tools used in explaining motion is calculus. Calculus is a numerical language that creates
mathematical models to solve problems dealing with objects or things in motion. The calculation
of velocity and motion (in physics), the concept of growth and decay (in biology), and the
calculation of marginal cost and marginal revenue (in economics) are some of the real-life
contexts where calculus can be applied. In fact, you may use calculus in a lot of ways. Among
the disciplines that use calculus are physics, engineering, economics, statistics, and medicine, to
name a few.

The basic idea of calculus lies on the study of limits and the continuity of
functions. The limit of a function determines the possible location of moving objects as they
approach a certain place or location. This can be best understood if one would consider a
moving vehicle with a known rate of speed at a given time. At time interval t, one can predict
the location of the vehicle. Thus, calculus is the mathematics of change.

For starters, imagine that you are going to watch a basketball game. When you
choose seats, you would want to be as close to the action as possible. You would want to be as
close to the players as possible and have the best view of the game, as if you were in the
basketball court yourself. Take note that you cannot actually be in the court and join the
players, but you will be close enough to describe clearly what is happening in the game. This is
how it is with limits of function. We will consider functions of a single variable and study the
behavior of the function as its variable approaches a particular value (a constant). The variable
can only take values very, very close to the constant, but it cannot equal the constant itself.
However, the limit will be able to describe clearly what is happening to the function near that
constant.

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LEARNING TARGET

LESSON 1.1

- Illustrate the limit of a function using table of values and the graph of the
function.

- Distinguish between and .

- Illustrate the limit laws.

- Apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions

(polynomial, rational, and radical).

LESSON 1.2

- Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions

using table of values and graphs of functions.

- Illustrate limits involving the expressions , , using table of values.

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STUDY SCHEDULE

In these lessons, you will learn the following:

WEEK TOPIC COMPETENCIES ACTIVITIES

Week 1 The Limit of a Illustrate the limit of a function Activity 1:

Function using table of values and the Push Me to My LIMITS!
graph of the function.

The Limit of a Distinguish between lim f (x) Activity 2:

Function at c x →c
Know my Limits
Versus the and f ( c ) .
Value of a
Function at c
Illustrate the limit laws. Activity 3:
Indeterminate Forms

The Limit Laws Apply the limit laws in

evaluating the limit of algebraic
functions (polynomial, rational,
and radical).

Week 2 The Limits of Compute the limits of Activity 1:

Exponential, exponential, logarithmic, and Evaluate My Limits
Logarithmic, trigonometric functions using
and table of values and graphs of
Trigonometric functions.
Functions Activity 2:
Special Limits
Illustrate limits involving the
sin t 1−cos t
expressions , ,
t t
t
e −1❑
using table of values.
t

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MODULE MAP

Here is a simple map of the lessons you will cover.

LIMITS

THE LIMIT OF A
FUNCTION

re THE LIMIT OF A
FUNCTION AT C THE LIMIT
VERSUS THE VALUE OF
LAWS
A FUNCTION AT C

THE LIMITS OF
EXPONENTIAL,
LOGARITHMIC, AND
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The Limit of a Function:

LESSON 1.1 Laws and Examples
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CORE VALUES: Excellence, Integrity

21ST CENTURY SKILLS: Creativity, Critical Thinking

EXPLORE

LEARNING TARGET:

 Illustrate the limit of a function using table of values and the graph of the function.
 Distinguish between lim f ( x ) and f ( c ) .
x →c

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the

variable x will approach (c may or may not be in the domain of f). The limit, to be denoted by
L, is the unique real value that f(x) will approach as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this
process as

lim f ( x )=L.
x →c

This is read, “The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L.”

LOOKING AT A TABLE OF VALUES

To illustrate, let us consider

lim ( 1+ 3 x ) .
x →2

Here, f(x) = 1 + 3x and the constant c, which x will approach, is 2. To evaluate

the given limit, we will make use of a table to help us keep track of the effect that the approach
of x toward 2 will have on f(x). Of course, on the number line, x may approach 2 in two ways:
through values on its left and through values on its right. We first consider approaching 2 from
its left or through less than 2. Remember that the values to be chosen should be close to 2.

x f(x)
1 4
1.4 5.2
1.7 6.1
1.9 6.7
1.95 6.85
1.997 6.991
1.9999 6.9997
1.9999999 6.9999997

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Now, we consider approaching 2 from its right or through values greater than but
close to 2.

x f(x)
3 10
2.5 8.5
2.2 7.6
2.1 7.3
2.03 7.09
2.009 7.027
2.0005 7.0015
2.0000001 7.0000003

Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 2, the values of f(x) get
closer and closer to 7. This behavior can be shown no matter what set of values, or what
direction, is taken in approaching 2. In symbols,

lim ( 1+ 3 x ) =7.
x →2

Example 1: Investigate
2
lim (x +1)
x→−1

2
by constructing table of values. Here, c = -1 and f ( x )=(x + 1).

We start again by approaching -1 from the left.

x f(x)
-1.5 3.25
-1.2 2.44
-1.01 2.0201
-1.0001 2.00020001

Now approach -1 from the right.

x f(x)
-0.5 1.25
-0.8 1.64
-0.99 1.9801
-0.9999 1.99980001

The tables show that as x approaches -1, f(x) approaches 2. In symbols,

2
lim (x +1)= 2.
x→−1

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Example 2: Investigate lim |x| through a table of values.

x →0

Approaching 0 from the left and from the right, we get the following tables.

x |x|
-0.3 0.3
-0.01 0.01
-0.00009 0.00009
-0.00000001 0.00000001

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 BASIC CALCULUS (QUARTER 3)

x |x|
0.3 0.3
0.01 0.01
0.00009 0.00009
0.00000001 0.00000001

Hence,

lim |x|=0 .
x →0

Example 3: Investigate
2
x −5 x +4
lim
x →1 x−1
2
x −5 x+ 4
by constructing table of values. Here, c = 1 and f ( x )= . Take note that 1 is not in the
x−1
domain of f, but this is not a problem. In evaluating a limit, remember that we only need to go
very close to 1; we will not go to 1 itself. We now approach 1 from the left.

x f(x)
1.5 -2.5
1.17 -2.83
1.003 -2.997
1.0001 -2.9999

Approach 1 from the right.

x f(x)
0.5 -3.5
0.88 -3.12
0.996 -3.004
0.9999 -3.0001

The tables show that as x approaches 1, f(x) approaches -3. In symbols,

2
x −5 x +4
lim =−3.
x →1 x−1

Example 4: Investigate through a table of values

lim f (x )
x→ 4

if

{
x +1if x< 4
f ( x )= ¿
2
(x−4 ) +3 if x ≥ 4

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This looks a bit different, but the logic and procedure are exactly the same. We still approach
the constant 4 from the left and right, but note that we should evaluate the appropriate
corresponding functional expression. In this case, when x approaches 4 from the left, the
values should be substituted in f(x) = x + 1. Indeed, this is the part of the function which
accepts values less than 4. So,

x f(x)
3.7 4.7
3.85 4.85
3.995 4.995
3.99999 4.99999

On the other hand, when x approaches 4 from the right, the values taken should be substituted
in f ( x )=( x−4)2+ 3. So,

x f(x)
4.3 3.09
4.1 3.01
4.001 3.000001
4.00001 3.0000000001

Observe that the values that f(x) approaches are not equal, namely, f(x) approaches 5 from the
left while it approaches 3 from the right. In such a case, we say that the limit of the given
function does not exist (DNE). In symbols,

lim f (x ) DNE.
x→ 4

Remark 1: We need to emphasize an important fact. We do not say that lim f (x ) “equals
x→ 4

DNE”, nor do we write “ lim f (x ) = DNE”, because “DNE” is not a value. In the previous
x→ 4
example, “DNE” indicated that the function moves in different directions as its variable
approaches c from the left and from the right. In other cases, the limit fails to exist because it is
1
undefined, such as lim which leads to division of 1 by zero.
x →0 x

Remark 2: Have you noticed a pattern in the way we have been investigating a limit? We have
been specifying whether x will approach a value c from the left, through values less than c, or
from the right, through values greater than c. This direction may be specified in the limit
notation, lim f (x ) by adding certain symbols.
x →c

 If x approaches c from the left, or through values less than c, then we write lim ¿.
−¿
x→ c f (x)¿

 If x approaches c from the right, or through values greater than c, then we write
lim ¿.
+¿
x→ c f (x)¿

Furthermore, we say

lim f ( x )=L
x →c

if and only if

lim ¿ and lim ¿.

−¿ +¿
x→ c f (x)=L ¿ x→ c f (x)= L¿

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In other words, for a limit L to exist, the limits from the left and from the right must both exist
and be equal to L. Therefore,

lim f (x ) DNE whenever lim ¿≠ lim ¿.

−¿ +¿
x→ 4 x→ c f (x)¿ x→ c f (x)¿

These limits, lim ¿ and lim ¿, are also referred to as one-sided limits, since you only
−¿ +¿
x→ c f (x)¿ x→ c f (x)¿

consider values on one side of c.

Thus, we may say:

 in our very first illustration that lim (1+3 x)=7 because lim ¿ and lim ¿.
−¿ +¿
x →2 x→ 2 (1+3 x )=7 ¿ x→ 2 (1+3 x)=7 ¿

 in Example 1, lim ( x + 1 )=2 since

2 lim ¿ and lim ¿.
−¿ +¿
x→−1 ( x +1)=2 ¿ x→−1 ( x +1)=2 ¿
2 2
x→−1

 in Example 2, lim |x|=0 because lim

−¿
¿ and lim
+¿
¿.
x →0 x→ 0 |x|=0 ¿ x→ 0 |x|=0 ¿
2
x −5 x +4 lim ¿ lim ¿
 in Example 3, lim =−3 because x→ 1 x −5 x+4 =−3 ¿ and −¿
2
+¿
2
x −5 x+ 4 .
x →1 x−1 x−1
x→ 1
x−1
=−3 ¿

lim f ( x ) lim ¿
 in Example 4, x→ 4
DNE because −¿
x→ 4 f ( x ) ≠ lim ¿¿ .
+¿
x →4 f (x )¿

LOOKING AT THE GRAPH OF y = f (x)

If one knows the graph of f (x), it will be easier to determine its limits as x
approaches given values of c.

Consider again f ( x )=1+3 x . Its graph is the straight line with slope 3 and
intercepts (0,1) and (-1/3, 0). Look at the graph in the vicinity of x = 2. You can easily see
the points (from the table of values in the previous example) (1, 4), (1.4, 5.2), (1.7, 6.1),
and so on, approaching the level where y = 7. The same can be seen from the right (from
the table of values in the previous example). Hence, the graph clearly confirms that
lim ( 1+ 3 x ) =7.
x →2

Let us look at the examples again, one by one.

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Recall Example 1 where f ( x )=x 2 +1. Its graph is given by

It can be seen from the graph that as values of x approach -1, the values of f(x)
approach 2.

Recall Example 2 where f ( x )=| x|.

It is clear that lim |x|=0 , that is, the two sides of the graph both move
x →0

downward to the origin (0,0), as x approaches 0.

2
x −5 x+ 4
Recall Example 3 where f ( x )= .
x−1

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x −5 x+ 4 ( x−4 )( x−1)
2
Take note that f ( x )= = =x−4 , provided x ≠ 1. Hence,
x−1 x−1
the graph of f(x) is also the graph of y = x – 1, excluding the point where x = 1.

{
x +1if x< 4
Recall Example 4 where f ( x )= ¿ .
(x−4 )2 +3 if x ≥ 4

Again, we can see from the graph that f(x) has not limits as x approaches 4. The
two separate parts of the function move toward different y-levels (y = 5 from the left, y = 3
from the right) in the vicinity of c = 4.

So in general, if we have the graph of a function, such as below, determining

limits can be done much faster and easier by inspection.

For instance, it can be seen from the graph of y = f(x) that:

a. lim f ( x )=1.
x→−2

b. lim f ( x )=3. Here, it does not matter that f(0) does not exist (that is, it is undefined, or
x →0

x = 0 is not in the domain of f). Always remember that what matters is the behaviour of
the function close to c = 0 and not precisely at c = 0. In fact, even if f(0) were defined
and equal to any other constant (not equal to 3), like 100 or -5000, this would still have
no bearing on the limit. In cases like this, lim f ( x )=3 prevails regardless of the value of
x →0

f(0), if any.

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c. lim f ( x ) DNE. As can be seen in the figure, the two parts of the graph near c = 3 do not
x →3

move toward a common y-level as x approaches c = 3.

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT c VERSUS THE VALUE OF THE

FUNCTION AT c
Critical to the study of limits is the understanding that the value of

lim f ( x )
x →c

may be distinct from the value of the function at x = c, that is, f(c). As seen in the previous
examples, the limit may be evaluated at values not included in the domain of f. Thus, it must be
clear to a student of calculus that the exclusion of a value from the domain of a function does
not prohibit the evaluation of the limit of that function at that excluded value, provided of
course that f is defined at the points near c. In fact, these cases are actually more interesting
ones to investigate and evaluate.

We will mostly recall our discussions and previous examples.

Let us again consider

lim (1+3 x) .
x →2

Recall that its tables of values are

x f(x) x f(x)
1 4 3 10
1.4 5.2 2.5 8.5
1.7 6.1 2.2 7.6
1.9 6.7 2.1 7.3
1.95 6.85 2.03 7.09
1.997 6.991 2.009 7.027
1.9999 6.9997 2.0005 7.0015
1.9999999 6.9999997 2.0000001 7.0000003

and we had concluded that lim ( 1+ 3 x ) =7. In comparison, f (2) = 7. So, in this example,
x →2

lim f (x ) and f (2) are equal. Notice that the same holds for the next examples discussed.
x →2

lim f (x ) f (c)
x →c

lim (x ¿¿ 2+1)=2 ¿ f (-1) = 2

x→−1
lim |x|=0 f (0) = 0
x →0

This, however, is not always the case. Let us consider the function

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f ( x )=
{
|x|if x ≠ 0
¿
2 if x=0
.

In contrast to the second example above, the entries are now unequal:

lim f (x ) f (c)
x →c

lim |x|=0 f (0) = 2

x →0

Does this in any way affect existence of the limit? Not at all. This example shows that lim f (x )
x →c
and f (c) may be distinct.

Furthermore, consider the third example in the previous lesson where

{
x +1if x< 4
f ( x )= ¿ .
(x−4 )2 +3 if x ≥ 4

We have:

lim f (x ) f (c)
x →c

lim f (x ) DNE f (4) = 2

x→ 4

Once again, we see that lim f ( x ) and f (c) are not the same. A review of the graph in the
x →c

previous lesson (redrawn below) will emphasize this fact.

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We restate the conclusions, adding the respective values of f (c):

a. lim f ( x )=1 and f (-2) = 1.

x→−2

b. lim f ( x )=3 and f (0) does not exist (or is undefined).

x →0

c. lim f (x ) DNE and f (3) also does not exist (or is undefined).
x →3

FIRM UP

ACTIVITY 1: PUSH ME TO MY LIMITS!

Direction: For each item, complete the following table of values and use the results to
evaluate the given limits numerically and graphically.

2
x −4
1. lim
x →2 x−2

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

f(x) ?

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¿
2. lim ¿ x−2∨ x−2 ¿
x →2

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

f(x) ?

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DEEPEN

LEARNING TARGET:

 Illustrate the limit laws.

 Apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions (polynomial, rational,
and radical).

THE LIMIT LAWS FOR POLYNOMIAL, RATIONAL, AND RADICAL

FUNCTIONS
Previously, you have learned that the limit of a function can be determined in two
ways: (1) construct a table of values and study the behavior of the function values as x
approaches its indicated value, or (2) sketch the graph of the function and study the behavior
of the function as it goes closer to the given value of x from both directions. But these methods
can be time-consuming and tedious. Nonetheless, following certain rules on limits can help
simplify this process.

LIMIT LAWS

Let c and k be real numbers so that lim f ( x ) and lim g (x) exist.
x →c x →c

1. Constant Rule
lim k=k
x →c

2. Identity Rule
lim x=c
x →c

3. Sum Rule
lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x ) ] =lim f ( x ) + lim g(x)
x →c x→ c x →c

4. Difference Rule
lim [ f ( x )−g ( x ) ] =lim f ( x )−lim g (x)
x →c x →c x →c

5. Constant Multiple Rule

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lim [ k ∙ f ( x ) ] =k ∙ lim f (x)

x →c x→c

6. Product Rule
lim [ f ( x ) ∙ g ( x ) ] =lim f ( x ) ∙ lim g(x )
x →c x→ c x→ c

7. Quotient Rule
lim f (x )
f (x) x →c
lim =
x →c g(x ) lim g( x )
x→c

8. Power Rule: If n is a positive integer, then

[ ]
n n
lim [ f ( x ) ] = lim f (x)
x →c x→ c

9. Root Rule: If n is a positive integer, then

√
lim √ f (x )= n lim f (x )
n

x →c x→ c

The first equation under the Constant Rule implies that the limit of a constant is the
constant itself, for whatever value of c. Thus, lim 1=1. The second equation under the
x→ 1 000000
lim x=−5. The sum, difference, product, and quotient rules state
Identity Rule explains that x→−5
that if two functions are involved, then the limits are first evaluated separately before adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing them, respectively. The same is true for power rule and
the root rule, where the limit of the function is first evaluated before raising its power or
extracting its root. Study how these rules are applied in evaluating through the next examples.
2
lim (4 x + 5 x −4) and indicate the limit laws used.
Example 1: Evaluate x→−2

Solution:
2
lim (4 x + 5 x −4) Given
x→−2

2
lim 4 x + lim 5 x− lim 4
= x→−2 Sum and Difference Rules
x→−2 x →−2

2
lim x + 5∙ lim x− lim 4
= 4 ∙ x→−2 Constant Multiple Rule
x→−2 x→−2

= 4 ∙¿ Power Rule

= 4 (−2)2 +5 (−2 )−4 Identity and Constant Rules

= 4 ( 4 )−10−4=16−10−4=2

x
Example 2: Find lim 2 .
x →3 x +5

Solution: This problem may be solved using the equation under the Quotient Rule, being a
rational function.

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x
lim 2
x →3 x +5

lim x
x →3
= 2 Quotient Rule
lim ( x +5)
x→ 3

lim x
= x→ 3 Sum Rule/Power Rule
¿¿

3
= 2 Identity Rule/Constant Rule
(3) +5

3 3
= =
9+5 14

Example 3: Given that lim f ( x )=8 and lim g ( x )=−2, evaluate the following limits using the
x →c x →c

limit laws:

a. lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x ) ]
x →c

=lim f ( x )+ lim g ( x )
x →c x→ c

= 8 + (-2)

=6

b. lim [ f ( x )−g ( x ) ]
x →c

= lim f ( x )−lim g ( x )
x →c x →c

= 8 – (-2)

= 10

c. lim [f ( x ) g ( x )]
x →c

= lim f ( x ) ∙ lim g ( x )
x →c x →c

= 8 (-2)

= -16

f (x)
d. lim
x →c g(x )

lim f (x)
x→c
=
lim g(x )
x→ c

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8
= =−4
−2

e. lim ¿¿
x →c

[ ]
2
= lim f (x )
x→ c

2
¿(8) = 64

f. lim √ f (x )
x →c

¿ lim √ f ( x )
x →c

= √8
= √ 4 ∙ 2=2 √ 2

The process of evaluating limits using the limit laws may be simplified further. For
2
lim (4 x + 5 x −4) is simply 4 (−2)2 +5 (−2 )−4=2 and lim x
instance, notice that x→−2 2 is
x →3 x −5
3 3
= . Thus, we can use the direct substitution method to evaluate limits. This
3 −5 14
2

method is always applicable when you deal with polynomial functions and other functions for
which f (c) exists.

DIRECT SUBSTITUTION METHOD FOR EVALUATING LIMITS

 For all polynomial functions f, the value of lim f ( x ) is equal to f ( c ) .

x →c

 If f (c ) exists, then
lim f ( x )=f (c ).
x →c

Example 1: Find lim ¿¿

x →3

Solution:

The equation above, lim f ( x )=f (c ) may be applied because the given is a polynomial
x →c

function.

lim ¿ ¿
x →3

2
¿ [ (3) 4−2 ( 3 ) +1 ]

= (81−6+1)2

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= 762 =5 ,776

4
x −1
Example 2: Evaluate lim 3
.
x →2 x −2 x +1

Solution:

By direct substitution,
4
x −1
lim 3
x →2 x −2 x +1
4
(2) −1
¿
(2)3−2 ( 2 ) +1

16−1
¿
8−4+1

15
= =3
5

ACTIVITY 2: KNOW MY LIMITS

Direction: Find the limits of the following functions by applying the limit laws.

1. lim
x→ 4
5

3 2
2. lim ( x −2 x + x−3)
x→−1

x +1
3.
lim
x→
1 x +2
3

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4. lim
√ x−2
x →9 x−4

5. lim
x →3 ( 1x − x1 )
3

REFLECT UPON

Can you give examples of functions wherein direct substitution may not be
applied? How do you classify such functions?

EVALUATING THE LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS USING OTHER

TECHNIQUES
Some limits cannot be evaluated simply by direct substitution. Particularly in
cases when the given is a rational function, direct substitution sometimes yield a number where
0
both the numerator and denominator are 0. The number is considered in calculus as
0
indeterminate because it has no definite or definable value.

Unlike in the case when only the denominator is 0, getting an indeterminate

0
number of the form upon direct substitution does not suggest nonexistence of the limit. In
0
fact, this implies that we need to apply algebraic manipulations to evaluate the limit.

Factoring Method

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lim f (x), you can

Let the function f be defined by f ( x )=5 x 3 + x−7 . To evaluate x→−2
simply do a direct substitution of -2 to the function, that is:
3
f (−2 )=5(−2) + (−2 )=−49

Limits like this can be categorized as easy limits. All you have to do is use direct
2 2
x −9 x −9
substitution. Now, consider a function g defined by g ( x )= . To get lim , solve g
x−3 x →3 x−3

(3). Thus,
2
x −9
lim
x →3 x−3

2
(3) −9 0
g ( 3 )= =
3−3 0

This is an indeterminate quantity, which can be circumvented algebraically to

evaluate the limit. Notice that the rational function can still be simplified using factoring and
cancellation of common factors.
2
x −9
lim
x →3 x−3

( x−3 ) (x+3)
¿ lim Cancel out (x- 3).
x →3 x −3

¿ lim (x +3)
x →3

Now that the function is already simplified, you can proceed with direct
substitution. Therefore,
2
x −9
lim
x →3 x−3

¿ lim (x +3)
x →3

=3+3

=6

Evaluating Limits of Rational Functions: Factoring Method

When direct substitution of the constant c gives an indeterminate number of

0
the form , the limit can be evaluated by first simplifying the rational function using
0
factoring, and then directly substituting c.

x−5
Example 1: Evaluate lim 3 .
x →5 x −125

Solution: When 5 is substituted to the function, both the numerator and the denominator will
be 0, giving an indeterminate number. Simplifying the function using factoring and cancelling
common factors, you have

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x−5
lim 3
x →5 x −125

x−5
¿ lim
x →5 ( x−5 ) (x2 +5 x +25)

1
¿ 2
(5) + 5 (5 )+ 25

1
¿
75

2
(2+r ) −4
Example 2: Evaluate lim .
r→0 r

Solution: By direct substitution,

2
(2+0) −4 22−4 0
f ( 0 )= = = .
0 0 0

Therefore, circumvent the indeterminate form by simplifying the given function first
using special products and factoring.

( 2+ r )2−4
r
2
4+ 4 r + r −4
=
r

r (r + 4)
= =r +4
r

So,
2
(2+r ) −4
lim =lim ( r+ 4 )=0+ 4=¿ 4 ¿
r→0 r r →0

Rationalization Method

0
Sometimes, the indeterminate form upon direct substitution is caused by the
0
term in a rational function that contains radical expressions. Cases like this can be circumvented
using another technique called rationalization. In this technique, the function is converted to
its equivalent form so that the radical expression is rationalized.

x−9
For example, given a function f defined by the equation f ( x )= . Using direct
√ x−3
x−9 9−9 0 0
substitution, lim = = = . The indeterminate form is caused by the radical
x →9 √ x−3 √ 9−3 3−3 0
expression in the denominator. We can circumvent this by rationalization, that is,

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 BASIC CALCULUS (QUARTER 3)

x−9
√ x−3
x−9 √ x+ 3
¿ ∙
√ x−3 √ x+ 3
( x−9 ) ( √ x +3)
=
x−9

= √ x+ 3
Therefore,

x−9
lim
x →9 √ x−3
= lim ( √ x+ 3)
x →9

= √ 9+3

=3+3 = 6

TRANSFER

ACTIVITY 3: INDETERMINATE FORMS

Direction: Evaluate the given limit below. Show the process and answer when it is
solved through direct substitution and when its indeterminate form is bypassed.

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3−√ 2 x +5
lim
x →2 x−2

Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and

LESSON 1.2 Trigonometric Functions

CORE VALUES: Excellence, Integrity

21ST CENTURY SKILLS: Creativity, Critical Thinking

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EXPLORE

LEARNING TARGET:

 Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using table
of values and graphs of functions.

LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Limit of the General Exponential Function y=b x

x c
 For all real numbers c, lim b =b .
x →c

x x
 If b > 1, then lim b =∞ and lim b =0.
x→ ∞ x→−∞

x x
 If 0 < b < 1, then lim b =0 and lim b =∞ .
x→ ∞ x→−∞

Example 1: Evaluate the following limits:

x x x x
a. lim
x →3
2 lim 2
b. x→−5 c. lim
x→ ∞
2 lim 2
d. x→−∞

Solution:
x 3
a. By direct substitution, lim 2 =2 =8.
x →3

x −5 1 1
b. By direct substitution, lim 2 =2 = = .
2 32
5
x→−5

x
c. Because b = 2 and b > 1, then lim 2 =∞ .
x→ ∞

x
lim 2 =0.
d. Because b > 1, then x→−∞

x x
The following table of values for y=2x verifies that lim 2 =∞ and lim 2 =0.
x→ ∞ x→−∞

x -15 -10 -1 0 1 3 5 10 15

y=2
x 0.00003 0.001 0.5 1 2 8 32 1 024 32 768

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Based on the table above, the function increases without bound as it approaches infinity
and it approaches 0 as it approaches negative infinity.

()
x+2
1
Example 2: Evaluate the following: lim .
x→ ∞ 2

Solution: Simplify the function first to get the basic exponential expression b x . Use the product
rule of the laws of exponents.

() ()()
x+2 x 2
1 1 1
= ∙
2 2 2

()()
x
1 1
¿ ∙
2 4

Thus,

() [( ) ]
x+2 x
1 1 1
lim =lim ∙ Substitution
x→ ∞ 2 x →∞ 2 4

()
x
1 1
¿ lim ∙ lim Product Rule
x→ ∞ 2 x→ ∞ 4

()
x
1 1
¿ lim ∙ Constant Rule
x→ ∞ 2 4

1
¿ 0 ∙ =0 Limit of b x when b < 1
4

()
x+2
1
Hence, lim =0.
x→ ∞ 2

−x+3
lim 4
Example 3: Evaluate the following: x→−∞ .

Solution: Use the laws of exponents to simplify 4 −x+3.

−x+3 −x 3
4 =4 ∙ 4
−1 x
¿ ( 4 ) ∙ 64

()
x
1
¿ 64 ∙
4

Therefore,

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−x+3
lim 4
x→−∞

[ ( )]
x
1
¿ lim 64 ∙
x→−∞ 4

()
x
1
¿ lim 64 ∙ lim
x→−∞ x→−∞ 4

¿ 64 ∙ ∞

¿∞

x x
4 +3
Example 4: Evaluate the following: lim x .
x→ ∞ 2

Solution: Apply the limit laws to solve the problem.

x x
4 +3
lim x
x→ ∞ 2
x x
lim 4 + lim 3
x →∞ x→∞
¿
lim 2 x
x→∞

∞
¿
∞

Note that this is an indeterminate form. To circumvent this form, divide each term by
the highest power ( 4 x ) .

x x
4 +3
lim x
x→ ∞ 2
x x
4 3
x
+ x
4 4
¿ lim x
x→ ∞ 2
x
4

()
x
3
lim 1+
x →∞ 4
¿
( 12 )
x

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()
x
3
lim 1+ lim
x →∞ x→∞ 4
¿
lim ( )
x
1
x→ ∞ 2

1+ 0 1 1
¿ = =∞ Because the value of is undefined, the limit
0 0 0
reaches infinity (∞ ).
3x
3+2 e
Example 5: Evaluate the following: lim x .
x→−∞ 5

Solution:
3x
3+2 e
lim x
x→−∞ 5
4x
lim e + lim 2
x →−∞ x →−∞
¿
lim e + lim e 2 x
x

x →− ∞ x →−∞

4 x
lim ( e ) + lim 2
x →−∞ x →−∞
¿ x
lim e + lim ( e 2 )
x

x →− ∞ x →−∞

( 0 )+ 2 2
¿ = =∞ 4 2
Because e and e are greater than 1.
0+( 0) 0

LIMITS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

The inverse of an exponential function is a logarithmic function. In general, the inverse
of the exponential function y=b x can be written as y=log b x . When two functions are inverses
of each other, their graphs are primarily the same in size and shape. In fact, they are
reflections of each other with respect to the line y=x . This can be used to generalize the rule
for the limit of logarithmic functions.

Limit of y=log b x

 For all real numbers c in the domain of y=log b x,

lim [ log b x ] =log b c .
x →c

 If b > 1, then lim log b x=∞ and lim ¿.

+¿
x→ ∞ x→ o log b x=−∞ ¿

 If 0 < b < 1, then lim log b x=−∞ and lim ¿.

+¿
x→ ∞ x→ o log b x=∞ ¿

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Example 1: Evaluate the following limits:

lim [ log 3 2 x ]
[ ]
3
lim [ log 2 x ]
a. x→ b. 1 c. lim log 1 9 x
32 x→ x→ ∞ 3
6

Solution:

lim [ log 2 x ]=log 2 32=5 .

a. By direct substitution of x = 32, x→ 32

1
b. Directly substituting x= , lim1 [ log 3 2 x ] =log 3 2 6 =log 3 3 =−1.
6 x→
6
(1) 1

c. Using the laws of logarithms, simplify first the given logarithmic expression.

3 3
log 1 9 x =log 1 9+ log 1 x Power Rule of Logarithms
3 3 3

¿ log 1 9+3 log 1 x Power Rule of Logarithms

3 3

¿−2+3 log 1 x log 1 9=−2

(Definition of logarithms)
3 3

Therefore,

[
lim log 1 9 x 3
x→ ∞ 3 ]
x→ ∞ (
¿ lim −2+3 log 1 x
3
) Substitution

¿ lim (−2 ) + lim 3 log 1 x

x→ ∞ x→ ∞ [ 3 ] Sum Rule

¿−2+3 lim log 1 x

x →∞ [ 3 ] Constant Rule/Constant Multiple Rule

¿−2+3(−∞) lim log b x=−∞ when 0 < b < 1

x→ ∞

Example 2: Evaluate the following: lim ¿.

+¿
x→ 0 [ ln (4 x) ] ¿

Solution: Recall that ln (4 x )means the natural logarithm of 4 x . A natural logarithm has a base
of e , which is an irrational number equivalent to 2.7182818285…. Thus, in a natural logarithm,
b > 1.

lim ¿
+¿
x→ 0 [ ln (4 x) ] ¿

¿ lim ¿
+¿
x→ 0 [ ln 4 +ln x ] ¿

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¿ lim ¿
+¿
x→ 0 [ ln 4 ] +¿ lim
+¿
¿ ¿¿
x→ 0 [ ln x ] ¿

¿ ln 4+(−∞)

¿−∞

FIRM UP

ACTIVITY 1: EVALUATE MY LIMIT

Direction: Evaluate the following limits.

()
−3 x
2
1. lim1 7
x→
3

x x
2 +5
2. lim x
x→ ∞ 3

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lim ¿
3. +¿ x
x→ 0 log 1 ¿
3
9

DEEPEN

LEARNING TARGET:

sin t 1−cos t et −1
 Illustrate limits involving the expressions , , using table of values.
t t t

SOME SPECIAL LIMITS

sin t
We start by evaluating the function f ( t )= .
t

sin t
Example 1: Evaluate lim .
t →0 t

sin t
Solution: We will construct the table of values for f ( t )= . We first approach the number 0
t
from the left or through values less than but close to 0.

t f (t)
-1 0.84147099848
-0.5 0.9588510772
-0.1 0.9983341665
-0.01 0.9999833334
-0.001 0.9999998333
-0.0001 0.99999999983

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than but close
to 0.

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 BASIC CALCULUS (QUARTER 3)

t f (t)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.9588510772
0.1 0.9983341665
0.01 0.9999833334
0.001 0.9999998333
0.0001 0.9999999983

lim ¿ lim ¿
Since t→0
sint
−¿
¿
and t→0
sin t
+¿
¿
are both equal to 1, we conclude that
t t

sin t
lim =1.
t →0 t

1−cos t
Now we consider the function g ( t )= .
t

1−cos t
Example 2: Evaluate lim .
t →0 t

1−cos t
Solution: We will construct the table of values for g ( t )= . We first approach the
t
number 1 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

t f (t)
-1 -0.4596976941
-0.5 -0.2448348762
-0.1 -0.04995834722
-0.01 -0.0049999583
-0.001 -0.0004999999
-0.0001 -0.000005

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than
but close to 0.

t f (t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762
0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999
0.0001 0.000005

lim ¿ lim ¿
Since t→0
−¿ 1−cos t
=0 ¿
and t→0
+¿ 1−cos t
=0 ¿
, we conclude that
t t

1−cos t
lim =0
t →0 t

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 BASIC CALCULUS (QUARTER 3)

t
e −1
We now consider the special function h ( t )= .
t
t
e −1
Example 3: Evaluate lim .
t →0 t
t
e −1
Solution: We will construct the table of values for h ( t )= . We first approach the
t
number 0 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

t f (t)
-1 0.6321205588
-0.5 0.7869386806
-0.1 0.9516258196
-0.01 0.9950166251
-0.001 0.9995001666
-0.0001 0.9999500016

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than
but close to 0.

t f (t)
1 1.718281828
0.5 1.297442541
0.1 1.051709181
0.01 1.005016708
0.001 1.000500167
0.0001 1.000050002

lim ¿ lim ¿
Since t→0
e −1
−¿
t
=1 ¿
and t→0
e −1
+¿
t
=1 ¿
, we conclude that
t t

t
e −1
lim =1.
t →0 t

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TRANSFER

ACTIVITY 2: SPECIAL LIMITS

Direction: Evaluate the following limits by constructing their respective tables of

values.

t
1. lim t
t →0 e −1

(2¿t)
2. lim sin 2 t ¿
t →0

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1−cos t
3. lim
t →0 sin t

REFERENCES AND WEBSITE LINKS

A. Books

Pelias, J.G. (2016). Basic calculus. Rex Book Store.

Canlapan, R. (2017). Basic calculus. Diwa Learning Systems Inc.

Balmaceda, J.M., Pilar-Arceo, C., Lemence, R., Ortega, O., & Vallejo, L.J. (2016).

Teaching guide for senior high school basic calculus . Commision on Higher
Education.

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