Drilling Fluids - Water Based Drilling Fluids

Quartz School for IPM Well Site Supervisors
Module – 4
Drilling Fluids & Solids
Control
Section – 1
Water Based Mud
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Introduction
History of Drilling Fluids
• 1900 water & clays (no properties controlled)
• 1940 weighted WBM (well control & stability)
• ’50s & ’60s Cellulosic polymers (inhibited systems)
• ’70s PHPA systems (formation inhibition)
• ’80s Mineral oils (formation damage)
• ’90s Synthetic oils (environment protection)
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Introduction
Constructing a Drilling Fluid
▪ Liquid (continuous phase) ▪ Solids

▪ Water ▪ Soluble
▪ Oil ▪ Insoluble
▪ Blend of both
▪ Pneumatic Fluids
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Introduction
Composition
Dependent on…
▪ Environmental concerns
▪ Formations being drilled
▪ Anticipated temperatures
▪ Drilling operations
▪ Cost
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Introduction
Continuous Phase of Mud
Continuous
Phase
GAS / AIR OIL WATER
AND COMBINATIONS OF ALL THE ABOVE

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Introduction
Liquid Phase: Water
WATER
FRESH BRACKISH SEAWATER BRINE
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Introduction
Liquid Phase: Oil
OIL
CRUDE DIESEL MINERAL SYNTHETIC
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Introduction
Non Liquid Phase : Pneumatic Mud
GAS/AIR
PURE MIST FOAM
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Introduction
Solids Mixed in the Mud: Inert Solids
Weight
Material
Sand Additives
Older
Silt
Shale
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Introduction
Solids Mixed in the Mud
SOLIDS
INERT REACTIVE
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Introduction
Solids Mixed in the Mud: Inert Additives
LCM
BRIDGING WEIGHTING
AGENTS AGENTS
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Introduction
Solids Mixed in the Mud: Reactive Solids
SELECTED
ADDITIVES
CLAY SHALE
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Introduction
Solids Mixed in the Mud: Reactive Solids
Selected Additives
Fluid Loss
Agents
Thinners
Viscosifier
Specialist
Additives
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Introduction
Viscosifiers
Viscosifiers
Inorganic
Polymers
Clay
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Introduction
Inorganic Clays
Inorganic Clays
Bentonite Attapulgite Sepiolite
Sodium Calcium
Montmorillonite Montmorillonite
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Introduction
Polymers
Polymers
Xanthan Guar
PAC CMC
Gum Gum
16/187
Introduction
Deflocculants
Deflocculants
Polymeric Phosphates Tannins Polyacrylates
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Introduction
Fluid Loss Control Agents
Fluid Loss
Control Agents
Starch CMC PAC
18/187
Introduction
Reactive Shales
Reactive Shale
Hydratable Dispersible
19/187
Introduction
Additives
Special Additives
Corrosion Control Shale Control
Lubricants Detergents
LCM Preservatives
Oil Mud Additives Spotting Fluids
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Introduction
Drilling Mud Classification
Oil Based Water Based
Non Damaging
Polymer Clay
Uninhibited Inhibited Non dispersed Dispersed
Salt Saturated KCl Glycol Silicate
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Introduction
Key Drilling Fluid Functions
Properties
• Flow Rate
• Viscosity
• Density
Remove drill
cuttings and
cavings
from the well
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Properties
• Density
Control
formation
pressure
23/187
Maintain
bore hole
stability
Properties
• Density
• Inhibition
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Properties
Minimise • Fluid Loss
loss of fluid
to the formation
• Static
• Dynamic
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Properties
• Minimal Fluid Loss
• Non reactive filtrate
• Removable Filter
Cake
Protect the
productive
formation
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Properties
Suspend barite
• Low shear viscosity under static and
dynamic
• Gels conditions
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Properties
• Lubricity Coefficient
Lubricate
the drill string
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Properties
• Pump Rate
• Rheological Properties
• Density
Provide hydraulic
horse power
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Transmit
Information
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Maintain
Transmit
bore hole
Information
stability
Minimise Suspend barite

loss of fluid under static and
to the formation dynamic
conditions
Lubricate
the drill string Remove drill
cuttings and
cavings
Control from the well
formation
pressure
Provide hydraulic
Protect the horse power
productive
formation
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Functions of Drilling Fluids
• Overcome formation fluid pressure
• Cool and lubricate the bit
• Clean the bottom of the hole
• Carry cuttings to the surface
• Permit cuttings removal
• Geology Information
• Transmission of Directional and Formation Evaluation Data
• Allow interpretable electric logs to be obtain
• Deposit an impermeable wall cake
• Avoid damage to productive zones
• Protect the drill pipe against corrosion
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Drilling fluid is the lifeblood of drilling operations:
Drilling fluid technology is dominated by three factors :

Technical Requirements
Economics
Environmental Concerns
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Drilling Fluid Technology

The principal task of the drilling fluid is
• To achieve the well objectives effectively & efficiently
Drilling Fluid Design must focus on

• Formation Geology
• Primary Drilling Objectives
• Potential Problems
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Drilling Fluids Functions
Multi-Functional Chemistry and Engineering
Drilling Fluid Criteria
▪ Density Requirements
▪ Cuttings Transportation
ECONOMICAL
▪ Viscosity TECHNICAL
▪ Filtration Control
TARGET
▪ Hole Stabilization
▪ Chemistry
▪ Economics
▪ Environment
Considerations ENVIRONMENTAL
▪ Well Control
▪ Drilling Performance
▪ Telemetry transmission
▪ Formation Evaluation
▪ Lubricity
▪ Hydraulics
▪ Cuttings Removal
▪ Waste Control
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Drilling Fluids
The Key to Successful Drilling Operations
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Developing Fluid Technology
to Improve Drilling Performance
6 0 d e g re e s C
1 2 0
1 0 0
% Glycol s e par ation

3 % 2 0 8
8 0
1 0 % 2 0 8
3 % 1 0 1
6 0
1 0 % 1 0 1
6 % 2 0 2
4 0
2 0
Wellbore
0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5
K C l c o n c e n t r a t io n ( % w t )
2 0 0
0
Filter Cake
0 1 0 2 0 13 20 0 4 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
Formation 0
Wellbore Stability - Gauge Hole

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0
Low Dilution Rates - Less Waste

Reduced Bit Balling - Less Time
Thin, low COF cakes - Less Torque
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Applying Chemical Shale Inhibition using Silicates
AFTER
BEFORE
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Multiple Drivers for Fluids Research and Development
ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP
DRILL TO RESERVOIR
Lower cost / higher efficiency
- shale control
RESERVOIR CONNECTIVITY - stuck pipe/ lubricity
Better productivity - real time measurement
- formation damage
- effective completions
- reservoir imaging
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Water Based Muds
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Water Based Muds
• In the early days of the drilling business, freshwater and produced
water were used as drilling fluids.
• Low annular velocities hindered cuttings from being properly

removed from wells - causing drilling problems
• In places where hydratable clays were present (termed “mud

making” shales) these tended to viscosify the water which
improved hole cleaning.
• Commercially produced clays - Wyoming Bentonite were added

to drilling muds to improve viscosity and control fluid loss
• Present technology has pushed the performance envelope of

drilling fluids by utilizing water soluble polymers and specialty
additives to assist the drilling process
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CLAYS IN DRILLING FLUIDS
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Why Are Clays Important ?
• The elements that go to make up clay minerals make up 80% of the

mass of the earth (Al 8.1%, Si 27.7%, O 46.6%)
• Clays in Rocks :
• In shales / mud rocks / clays causing possible drilling problems
• In reservoirs giving possible formation damage
• Clays in the Drilling Fluid :
• Bentonite (gel, sodium montmorillonite) for viscosity and fluid loss control in
some WBM
• Organophilic bentonite for viscosity and fluid loss control in OBM
• Attapulgite for viscosity in salt & very high temperature WBM
• Drilled solids help with fluid loss control but can give unwanted viscosity
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Clay Structures
Key: Silica Sheet (T) Alumina Sheet (O)
Kaolinite TO or 1:1
Montmorillonite and Mica + + + TOT or 2:1

(Includes Illite)
Chlorite TOT : 0 : TOT or 2:1:1
Attapulgite / Sepiolite: TOT or 2:1
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Clay Dispersion / Deflocculation
• Clay particles in a fluid can be :
• Deflocculated
• Flocculated
• Aggregated
• Dispersed
• Degree of dispersion / deflocculation of clays will affect viscosity, fluid loss
control and shale inhibition.
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Clay Dispersion / Deflocculation
There are four basic colloidal states of clay particles in a fluid :
Deflocculated. There is an overall repulsive force between the particles. This is done by
ensuring all the particles have the same charge. (The particles may be aggregates)
Flocculated. There are net attractive forces for the particles and they can associate with
each other to form a loose structure.
Aggregated. The clay sheets are still attached to each other and hydration has not
occurred, or the hydration process has been reversed.
Dispersed. This is where the aggregates have all been broken down. The dispersed clays
may be flocculated or deflocculated.
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Colloidal states
Dispersed and
deflocculated Aggregated but
deflocculated
Edge to face Edge to edge

flocculated flocculated
but dispersed but dispersed
Edge to face Edge to edge

flocculated flocculated
and aggregated and aggregated
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Clay Dispersion
• Mechanical energy causes DISPERSION of aggregates
MECHANICAL
ENERGY
• Leads to increased surface area of solids
MECHANICAL ENERGY
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Clay De-flocculation
- - - - -
1. Change pH
+ + - - - - -
+ - - - +
- + - add alkali (OH-)
- - - - - - -
-
- - add acid (H+) - - - - -
-
- +
+
+ - - + - +
- - - - -
< ~ pH 6.5 > ~ pH 8
FLOCCULATED DEFLOCCULATED
2. Add chemical deflocculants
+
+ - - - + - add deflocculant - -
- - - - - - -
+ - -
- - - -
- -
-
-
+ + - - - - -
+ - - - + -
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Clay De-flocculation
Chemical energy is used to deflocculate clays
Chemical Energy
FLOCCULATED DEFLOCCULATED
The state of deflocculation is determined by surface charges and

electrical double layers surrounding particles in suspension
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Flocculation and Dispersion Mechanisms
• To increase viscosity
• Increase level of solids
• Add high molecular weight viscosifying polymer
• Flocculate with calcium or other polyvalent cation
• Flocculate with salts
• Flocculate with low pH conditions
• To decrease viscosity
• Dilute with water
• Disperse with low molecular weight polymers
• Remove calcium by chemical treatment
• Disperse with higher pH conditions
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Clays in Drilling Fluids
Clays are added to some water based muds to give :

Viscosity : Bentonite / Sepiolite / Attapulgite
Fluid loss control : Bentonite
Organophilic bentonite added to oil based muds to give viscosity and

fluid loss control.
Clays entrained in mud as drilled solids. These give viscosity and fluid
loss control.
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Problems Associated with Clay Systems
1. Calcium ions (from anhydrite / gypsum or cement) will

flocculate the system. A dispersant may be needed, also
remove the calcium ion with soda ash or bicarbonate
2. Any increase in the chloride concentration (whether by

formation fluids or from drilled salt deposits) will
flocculate the system. This will increase the viscosity and
fluid loss. Increase additions of CMC or PAC to de-
flocculate
3. Viscosity may be reduced with a thinner prior to casing

runs the reduce surge pressures.
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Problems Associated with Clay Systems
4. High viscosities and gel strengths are usually an indication
of excessive solids. Reduce solids concentration by using
solids removal equipment or with dilution
5. Prior to drilling out any cement the system should be

pretreated with ½ ppb sodium bicarbonate.
• Note: flocculation due to polymers increases the fluid loss control
• Note: flocculation due to higher chlorides or multivalent cations
reduces the fluid loss control
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Water Based Mud Systems
Spud
Mud System becoming increasingly complex

• There are many types of water based
Mud
Increasing Temperature and Pressure

mud systems available
• Basic systems are usually converted to Dispersed
Systems
more complex systems as a well is
deepened, as wellbore temperatures
Inhibitive
and/or pressures increase and as per
Polymer Muds
formations dictate
• More than one fluid system is typically High
used to drill a given well Temperature
Polymer Mud
Non-Damaging
Drill in Fluids
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Spud Mud
Benefits Limitations
• Usually simple systems (un-weighted)
• Cheap • Minimal Fluid loss control
• Can be prepared quickly • Can’t be weighted-up too much
• High viscosity to clean large diameter • Not suitable for high temperatures
holes • Susceptible to contamination from
• Viscosity usually easily measured as cement, acid gas and hardness
Funnel Viscosity ( seconds/quart or liter)
Spud Mud
Freshwater
+ Bentonite
+ Caustic Soda = (Pre-Hydrated Bentonite)
15-20 ppb 0.5 ppb 57/187
Spud Muds
Properties
• Density , usually un-weighted (8.34 to 10.5 ppg)

• Viscosity ( Funnel) usually in the range of 50-100 s/Quart
• pH 9.0-11.0
• Fluid Loss - not controlled
• PV/YP/ 6 rpm and Gels – not usually measured unless a full
circulating system is established for hydrostatic control purposes
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Water Based Mud Types
Water Based
Polymer Clay
Uninhibited Inhibited Non Dispersed Dispersed
Salt Saturated KCl Glycol Silicate Calcium
Non Damaging
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Water Base Fluids
Water Base Fluid

• Spud mud (Gel mud)
• Gel/Polymer Fluid
• Lignosulfonate mud Increasingly
• Calcium Base Fluids Inhibitive
• Salt-Saturated Muds
• KCl Polymer Fluids
• Glycol mud
• Silicate Mud
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Dispersed Muds
Benefits Limitations
• Relatively simple systems - inexpensive • Generally upper temperature range of
• Can convert from Bentonite muds 250ºF (although can be extended for
• Slightly higher temperature and density HPHT work)
range (Usually weighted with Barite) • Generally not very inhibitive
• Less susceptible to contamination • pH and Hardness (Ca 2+ and Mg 2+)
• Improved Fluid Loss Characteristics sensitive
• Very sensitive to contamination from
cement and electrolytes
Caustic Soda
Barite as Required
1.0-2.0 ppb For Density Dispersed
Freshwater
or Seawater + (Pre-Hydrated
Bentonite) Lignosulphonate
+
PAC or CMC =
Bentonite
Mud
5.0-8.0 ppb 4.0-6.0 ppb
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Dispersed Muds
Properties
• Can be un-weighted (9.0 ppg) or weighted systems up to 21.0 ppg

• Viscosity measured using 6- speed viscometer and Funnel Vis. (for
rig trends only)
• pH 9.0-11.0
• Fluid Loss controlled with Bentonite, or Polymers like PAC, CMC at
low temperatures and with thermally stable resins at elevated
temperatures
• PV – kept as low as possible by controlling low gravity drilled solids
(LGS)
• YP and 6 RPM reading - used to determine cuttings carrying
capacity – see hole cleaning
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Polymers in Drilling Fluids
• Polymers are used in all types of drilling fluids to provide and
to control fluid properties, like:
• Viscosity
• Fluid Loss Control
• Flocculation
• De-flocculation (Thinning)
• Shale Inhibition
• Lubricity
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Clasificación polímeros
lineales
Forma
ramificados
Naturales u orgánicos
(Starch)
Origen Modificados (HEC)

Sintéticos o artificiales
(PHPA)
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Se pueden dividir segun:
-Estructura Química :
• Celulosa (PAC-CMC)
• Alcohol
-Estructura física:
Iónicos: poseen carga eléctrica– Desarrolla viscocidad iónicamente.
No inonicos: No poseen carga – Desarrolla viscocidad por solubilidad.
-Iónicos:
• Aniones- aniónicos (Mayoria de polímeros en la industria)
• Cationes- catiónicos (Mayor capacidad encapsulante y efectivos como inhibidores)
Anfotericos: de acuerdo al ph pueden ser (+) o (-)
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Polymer Muds
XC Polymer
Freshwater
or Seawater/
Brine
+ 1.0 – 2.0 ppb
and/or Starch + Barite or Calcium
Carbonate as Required
= Final Polymer
Mud
4.0-6.0 ppb For Density
PAC or CMC
4.0-6.0 ppb
▪ In addition to the above additives, which make up the basis of the polymer mud
system, it is possible because of its tolerance to contaminants to add a wide
variety of other chemicals to perform a variety of duties. For example:
▪ For Inhibition – KCl, NaCl, CaCl2,CaSO4 (Gypsum) K2CO3, Glycols, polyamines, and
Silicates
▪ For Lubricity - Esters, Polyols, Glycerols, surfactants, etc
These additions can significantly increase the cost per barrel!
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Polymer Muds
Advantages
▪ Shear thinning, low viscosities at the bit
▪ Good hole cleaning
▪ Not subject to flocculation
▪ Decreased storage space and transport costs
▪ Can be used in saline muds
▪ Maximum horsepower at bit
▪ Can stabilize hydratable / sensitive shales
▪ May be used for high densities
▪ Lower solids content
▪ Helps in solids control
▪ Decreased ECD reduces risk of formation fracture
▪ Relatively simple mud system
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Polymer Muds
Disadvantages
▪ Bacterial degradation
▪ Temperature limitations
▪ Cost, especially if solids control equipment performance is poor
▪ Sensitive to divalent cations
▪ Corrosive, oxygen easily entrained
▪ Polymers can be depleted by adsorption on drilled solids
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Polymer Muds
Building the system:
Polymer muds may be made with just polymers and weighting

material, or may also have some pre-hydrated bentonite which is
added for the following reasons:
• Achieving some viscosity and gel strengths, this may be cheaper than
deriving all the viscosity from polymers
• It also helps the mud system to build a very good wall cake
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Polymer Muds
To increase viscosity
• Add XC, pre-hydrated gel or Hi Vis PAC, CMC and PHPA. (Viscosity from PAC, CMC
and PHPA may be short lived due to removal with solids).
• Starch additions will also increase the viscosity slightly
To reduce viscosity:
• Reduce solids content by dumping mud and adding new mud.
• Reduce solids with solids control equipment.
• If viscosity is due to flocculation (indicated by high YP’s, low PV’s and high F/L)
add a de-flocculant e.g. CMC Lo vis or PAC Lo vis.
• A dispersant can be added, but this should be avoided as it may promote
formation hydration. It maybe acceptable prior to running the casing.
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Polymer Shapes
▪ The shape of the polymer will depend on :

▪ What it is sourced from - natural products or
synthesized from hydrocarbons
▪ Most natural polymers such as starch and
cellulose have a saccharide backbone which is
bio-degradable – although they have
temperature limitations of around 250°F Branched
▪ Synthetic polymers such as PHPA (Partially
Hydrolyzed Poly Acryl Amide) and SPA (Sodium
Poly Acrylate) tend to have a carbon chain Linear
backbone which is less biodegradable and more
thermally stable
Crossed linked
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Viscosifying Polymers
High molecular weight
solution
viscosity
Low molecular weight
polymer concentration
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PAC – Poly Anionic Cellulose
PAC (Poly Anionic Cellulose) is essentially the same as CMC (Carboxy

Methyl Cellulose) except that it has a higher degree of substitution
(D.S.)
• The tolerance for hardness (Ca and Mg) is much higher
• Greater solubility in high chloride muds
• These variable sized molecular weight polymers therefore can be used as fluid loss
reducing agents in a wide variety of aqueous mediums I.e. Freshwater/ Brackish
water/ Seawater
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Starch
▪ For the starch to exhibit fluid loss control the amylopectin outer shell
has to be ruptured in a process known as pre-gelatinization, which
releases the water-swellable amylose. This is then further modified to
decrease the viscosity and crosslink to increase temperature stability.
▪ The properties may vary with the source of the crude starch eg.,
potato, corn or tapioca.
▪ The colloidal water-swellable particles will seal pores in the filter cake
▪ A slight increase in viscosity may be noted with starch additions
▪ Starch is biodegradable; a biocide needs to be added when it is used
▪ Starch is effective in saline solutions
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Xanthan Gum
▪ Produced by single cell bacteria (Xanthomonas Campestris) from
sugar fermentation
▪ The gum is extracted, dried and milled. The final mud polymer is
usually referred to as “XC” Polymer
▪ Molecular weight of XC is greater than 1 million
▪ It forms viscous solutions that are highly shear-thinning. This is due

to branched rod-like structures that physically interact at low shear
rates. Additions of XC increase yield point and gel strength
▪ The polymer is not affected by salt or hardness and is not subject to

bacterial degradation
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Polymer Applications
Fluid Loss Control:
• Add PAC “lo vis” or CMC if viscosity is normal
• Add PAC “hi vis” or CMC “hi vis” if viscosity is low.
• Adding Starch is more cost effective than the above additions.
• PHPA has a secondary fluid loss control properties. It should be added

if increased inhibition is also required.
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Polymer Applications
Solids Control:
• Polymer requirements will increase considerably with the volume
of drilled solids. the smaller the size of the solids, the greater the
surface area, the greater the polymer requirement.
• The low gravity solids content should be maintained around 5%
by volume, with 6% as a maximum value.
• At elevated temperatures polymers will degrade leading to a loss
in functionality and therefore loss of properties. Check the fluid
loss of bottoms up samples after trips. This will be a good
indication of whether polymer degradation is taking place.
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Water Based Inhibited Mud Systems
Properties of Inhibitive muds:
▪ Reduce the chemical interaction between the fluid and

the water sensitive formations
▪ Use diverse inhibitors to minimize hydration and
swelling with reactive clays
▪ By a combination of polymers - salts - glycols - silicates
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Increasing inhibition:
PHPA
GLYCOL
Sodium Silicate
Organic Cations
Encapsulating Amines
K+
+
80/187
Polymer mud
• Polymers, natural & synthetic are routinely used for:
• Viscosity
• Filtration control
• Shale inhibition Polymers
• Flocculation
Shale
• De-flocculation
• Lubricity
Water
82/187
Chemical Shale Inhibition
K Silicate Polymer
Polymer Base
Fluid Fluid
85/187
Inhibited Systems Can Reduce…
• Bit balling
• Torque and drag
• High swab and surge pressures
• Packed-off hole
• Loss of returns
• Stuck pipe
86/187
Inhibiting Agents
• Polymer based fluids • Clay based fluids
• Calcium Systems • Calcium Systems
• Gypsum • Gypsum
• Lime • Lime
• Salt
• Na+,K+
• Glycol
• Silicate
• Encapsulation
• PHPA
87/187
Clay Based Inhibited Mud
Systems
88/187
• Calcium Systems
• Lime
• Gypsum
89/187
Lime Systems
• There are 3 categories:

• High-lime
• Low-lime
• Gypsum
90/187
Lime Systems – Properties
• High Lime: • Low Lime:

• PV cP 15 – 18 • PV cP 15 – 18
• YP lb/100ft2 6 – 10 • YP lb/100ft2 6 – 10
• 10 sec Gel 0-2 • 10 sec Gel 0–2
• 10 min gel 0-4 • 10 min gel 0–4
• PM 12 - 18 • PM 5 – 10
• PF 5 - 10 • PF 1–2
• pH 12 – 12.5 • pH 10.5 – 12.5
• XS Lime 5 - 15 • XS Lime 1–2
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Lime Systems – Formulation
• Bentonite (Viscosity/Fluid loss) 22 – 26

• Lignosulphonate (De-flocculant) 2–6
• Lime (Inhibition) 2 – 10
• Caustic Soda (Alkalinity -pH) 10.5 – 12.5
• Lignite (Filtrate Control) 2–4
• Starch (Filtrate Control) 3–4
• PAC (Filtrate Control) 0.25 – 1 .5
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Lime Systems
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Low viscosity • High ECD during conversion
• Low Gel strengths • High temperature gelation after
• Inhibit shale 300°F (149°C)
• Resistance to contamination: • Safety problems from high pH
• Cement • Borehole stabilization
• Anhydrite • Poor filter cake quality
• Salt <50,000 mg/l Cl-
93/187
Gypsum Systems (12.0 ppg, 1.44 sg)
• PV 15 – 20 cP
• YP 2 – 15 lb/100ft2
• 10 sec Gel 0 – 5 lb/100ft2
• 10 min gel 2 – 15 lb/100ft2
• PF 2–3
• pH 11 – 12
• XS Gypsum 10 – 15 ppb
• Ca++ 200 – 600 mg/L
• API fluid loss 6 – 8 cc
94/187
Gypsum Systems - Formulation
• Bentonite (Viscosity / Fluid loss) 20 – 24

• Lignosulphonate (De-flocculant) 4–8
• Gypsum (Inhibition) 4–8
• Caustic Soda (Alkalinity for pH) 9.5 – 11.5
• DESCO (De-flocculant) 2–3
• Starch (Filtrate Control) 2 – 6
• PAC (Filtrate Control) 0.25 – 1.5
95/187
Gypsum Systems
• Low viscosity • High ECD during conversion
• Low Gel strengths • High temperature gelation after
• Inhibit shale 300°F (149°C)
• Resistance Cement • Borehole stabilization
• Anhydrite • Poor filter cake quality
• Salt <100,000 mg/l Cl-
• Easy weighted to
• 18.0 ppg 2.16 sg
96/187
Inhibited Polymer Mud
Systems
97/187
Inhibited Polymer Mud Systems
Inhibited System:
• Calcium System
• Gypsum
• Lime
• Salt – Based Mud
• Saturated NaCl (Na+)
• Potassium Systems KCl Mud (K+)
• Glycol
• Silicate Mud
• Encapsulation
• PHPA
98/187
Saturated Salt – NaCl (12.0 ppg, 1.44 s.g.) – Properties:
• PV 11 – 15 cP
• YP 12 – 25 lb/100ft2
• 10 sec Gel 5 – 12 lb/100ft2
• 10 min gel 8 – 25 lb/100ft2
• PF 2–3
• pH 8.5 – 10.5
• Salt NaCl 125 ppb
99/187
Saturated Salt – NaCl (12.0 ppg, 1.44 s.g.) –

Formulation:
• Xanthan Gum (Viscosity/Fluid loss) 1.25 – 1.5
• Salt NaCl (Inhibition) 125
• Caustic Soda (Alkalinity – pH) 9.5 – 11.5
100/187
Saturated Salt – NaCl (12.0 ppg, 1.44 s.g.)
• Good LSRYP viscosity • Max temperature 300°F (149°C)
• Low Gel strengths • Tendency to Foam
• Inhibition salt
• Resistance to Cement
• Anhydrite
• Saltwater flows
• Good hole cleaning
101/187
Potassium System (KCl Mud):
Source of (K+):
• Potassium Chloride
• Potassium Carbonate
• Potassium Formate
102/187
Potassium System (KCl Mud) – Properties:
• PV 11 – 15 cP
• YP 12 – 25 lb/100ft2
• 10 sec Gel 5 – 12 lb/100ft2
• 10 min gel 8 – 25 lb/100ft2
• PF 2–3
• pH 8.5 – 10.5
103/187
Potassium System (KCl Mud) – Formulation:
• Xanthan Gum (Viscosity/Fluid loss) 1.25 – 1.5
• Salt (KCl) (Inhibition) 11 – 14 % w/w
• Caustic Soda (Alkalinity – pH) 9.5 – 11.5
104/187
Potassium System (KCl Mud):
• Good LSRYP viscosity • Max temperature 300°F (149°C)
• Low Gel strengths • Tendency to Foam
• Inhibition
• Good hole cleaning
105/187
Glycol Mud System - Characteristics:
• Glycols are surfactants

• Ability to adsorb onto clay surfaces
• Function best near their cloud point
• Need to be selected and engineered for specific wellbore conditions
• Circulating temperatures
• Formation temperatures
• Required salinity of mud system
106/187
Glycol Mud System – Modes of Glycol Action:
• Below cloud point

• Inhibition of swelling by surface adsorption as individual molecules on clay
particles
• Above cloud point
• Provides a protective surface coating on the borehole wall and on cuttings near
the bottom of the hole
• Acts to limit/prevent filtrate invasion and pressure transmission
107/187
Glycol Mud System – Cloud Point Optimization:
• The cloud point can be:

• Higher than flow-line temperature to avoid phase separation
• Between BHCT and formation temperature beneath the bit
• Adjusted by one of three mechanisms:
• Change in glycol concentration
• Change in salinity
• Change in glycol type/combination
108/187
Glycol Mud System – Cloud Point behaviour:
109/187
Glycol Mud System – Applications:

• Drilling reactive shales:
• The cloud point mechanism results in the deposition of glycol onto
cuttings and into the formation at higher bottom-hole temperatures
• As the fluid cools the glycol goes back into solution and remains in the
fluid phase
110/187
Silicate Mud System – pH of Silicates:
• Silicate solutions are characterised by high pH

• Increasing oxide ratio increases pH
• Lowering the pH below 10 results in the formation of gels
• Lowering oxide ratio increases buffering capability
111/187
Silicate Mud System – Silicate Precipitation:
• Silicates are precipitated by cations such as Ca+2, Mg+2 and Al+3

• Sea-water will reduce the silica concentration by up to 4.0 ppb
• Precipitation reaction is essentially irreversible
• Surface adsorption onto minerals and oxides can further deplete
silicate levels
112/187
Silicate Mud System – Shale Stabilization:

• Silicates enter shale pores either by diffusion or by hydraulic flow
➢At pH 11-12.5, silicate structures are smaller than pore throats
• Pore water pH is typically around 7, causing the formation of silicate gels
• Pore water frequently contains divalent cations which induce silicate
precipitation in the pores
• Gelled and/or precipitated silicates provide stabilization by:
➢Providing a physical barrier which prevents further mud filtrate invasion
➢Preventing interaction between the shale and filtrate
➢Preventing invasion of pressure from the drilling fluid
• Formation of an osmotic membrane
• Prevention of water invasion into the shale
113/187
Silicate Mud System – Pressure Transmission:
• Key mechanism for structural destabilisation of shales

• Can be critical when drilling fractured shales
• Results in hole instability which is frequently treated by
increasing mud density which can make the problem worse
• Prevention is the only cure!
114/187
Silicate Mud System – How do Silicates Work:
• Prevention of pore pressure transmission

• Precipitation in presence of divalent cations
• Gellation in presence of low pH
• “Healing” of fractured formations
115/187
Silicate Mud System – Formulation:

• Sodium silicate
• Sodium salt preferred to potassium salt
• Typical concentration 30-50 gm/l SIO2 (5-12% v/v sodium silicate)
• Xanthan Gum (XCD Polymer)
• Conventional viscosity and gel structure
• Low Viscosity PAC
• Fluid loss control
• Potassium chloride
• Inhibition
• Synergy with silicate ions
116/187
Silicate Mud System – Formulation:
• Liquid oxygen scavenger

• Prolongs the life of polymers in the high pH environment
• Barite
• Weighting agent
• Caustic soda
• Control of pH and magnesium
• To be added continuously while drilling
• Soda ash
• Soluble calcium suppression
117/187
Silicate Mud System – Applications:
• Fractured shales
• Tectonically stressed
• Micro fractured
• Brittle
• Soft chalk
• High calcium levels enhance performance of silicates
• Temperatures to 225°F (107ºC)
• Densities to 15 ppg (1.8 SG)
118/187
Relative Shale Inhibition
100
90
80
70 Gyp mud
60 Seawater Poly
KCl
50 KCl Glycol
40 Enhanced Glycol
30 OBM /pseudo
20
10
0
120/187
Mud Testing
▪ API drilling fluids tests
▪ Drilling fluids are continually measured and adjusted at the well

site:
▪ Basic physical and chemical tests serve to monitor the drilling
fluid conditions.
▪ American Petroleum Institute issues Recommended Practices for
testing procedures and equipment:
▪ API RP 13B -1 for water based mud
▪ API RP 13B -2 for oil based mud
121/187
Mud testing
Standard API tests:
▪ Tests common to water and oil based muds:

▪ Mud weight,
▪ Filtration,
▪ Water, Oil and Solids,
▪ Viscosity and Gel strength,
▪ Marsh Funnel Viscometer.
122/187
Mud testing
▪ Standard API tests for Water - Based Mud (API RP 13B-1):

▪ Sand
▪ pH
▪ Methylene Blue Test, MBT
▪ Drill pipe corrosion
▪ Chemicals analysis
▪ Alkalinity
▪ Chloride
▪ Total hardness
▪ Sulfide
123/187
Mud testing
▪ Standard API tests for Oil - Based Mud (API RP 13B-2):

▪ Electric stability
▪ Activity
▪ Oil and water content from cuttings
▪ Chemicals analysis
▪ Whole mud alkalinity
▪ Whole mud chlorides
▪ Whole mud calcium
124/187
Mud Properties
• Mud Weight
• Rheological Properties
• Solid Analysis
• Filtration
• Alkalinity
• Chlorides
• Total Hardness
• Clays & Shales
125/187
Mud Weight (density)
• lbs / gal - Pounds per Gallon.
• SG - Specific gravity.
• lbs / ft3 - Pounds per Cubic Foot.
• psi / 1000 ft - Pounds per Square Inch per 1000 ft. (Vertical Depth)
(a hydrostatic pressure gradient)
126/187
Mud Balance:
• A beam balance consisting of a cup and a graduate arm carrying a

sliding weight and resting on a fulcrum
• Used to determine the density (or weight) of drilling mud
• Sources of Error:
• Improper Filling
• Air/Gas Entrapment
• Calibration
• Dirty Balance
• Cuttings
128/187
129/187
Marsh (Funnel) Viscosity
• The timed rate of flow in seconds per quart or or seconds per liter.
• Begin with 1500 cc’s of mud poured thru a 12 mesh screen.
• Time the first 946 cc’s thru a 3/16” opening.
• Calibrate The Funnel with water:

26 Seconds per Quart
130/187
Funnel Viscosity – Equipment
131/187
Rheology
▪ Definitions:
▪ Rheology is the science dealing with deformation and flow of a
Fluid.
▪ Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow
▪ Mud Rheology is determined (measured) with a viscosimeter like the
Fann VG model 35 (6 speed viscosimeter)
▪ VG viscosimeter (VG = Viscosity & Gels) is commonly used and is
specially designed to facilitate the use of the Bingham plastic Model in
conjunction with drilling fluids in the field
▪ A torsion spring-loaded stator gives a dial reading proportional to torque
and analogous to the shear stress.
▪ The speed of rotation (rpm) is analogous to the shear rate and simulates
the shear rate of fluid inside the well bore (drill string and annulus)
132/187
Fann Rheometer - Overview
133/187
Rheology
Viscosity-Shear relation
Internal resistance to flow = The ratio of “Shear Stress” to the “Shear Rate”
▪ Internal resistance is the

frictional force between layers of
a fluid as they slide past one
another
▪ Internal relation is known as

Shear Stress (lb/100ft2) = Force
causing the shearing / surface of
the platelet
▪ Relative speed of layers is named

Shear Rate (s-1)
134/187
Rheology
FANN Model 35
VISCOMETER
(6 - Speed VG-Meter)
•  600  600
•  300 -  300
•  200 = PV
•  100
• 6  300
• 3 - PV
= YP
135/187
Rheological Properties of Drilling Mud
Oilfield Calculations
▪ Measure deviations at 600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm.
▪ Field Approximation: viscosities are calculated from the readings

at 600 rpm and 300 rpm.
▪ Calculations:
▪ Apparent viscosity: AV = (Fann600) / 2 (cP)
▪ Plastic viscosity: PV = Fann600 - Fann300 (cP)
▪ Yield point: YP = Fann300 – PV (lb/100ft2)
▪ Gel strength GS0 and GS10
▪ Rheological index n = 3.32 log(Fann600/Fann300)
▪ Consistency index K = Fann600 / 1020
136/187
Rheological Models
Newtonian Model
Viscosity is CONSTANT
Examples:
▪ water
h = PV  g ▪ low viscosity fuel
▪ most mineral oils
h : Shear Stress ▪ gasoline, kerosene
▪ most salt solutions in water
g : Shear Rate ▪ kaolin (clay slurry)
PV: Plastic Viscosity = constant

137/187
Rheological Models
Bingham Plastic Model

Examples:
thermoplastic polymer
solutions
sewage sludge’s
clay
•
mud
h = YP + PV  g
ketchup
h : Shear Stress chewing gum
tar
YP: Yield Point = Shear stress to start flowing
g : Shear Rate
PV: Plastic Viscosity = constant
138/187
Rheological Models
Oswald Model
Viscosity increases with the rate of shear.
Examples:
h = K g
n starch in water
beach sand
quicksand
h : Shear Stress feldspar
mica
K: Consistency Index clay
g : Shear Rate candy compounds
peanut butter
n: Rheological Index
139/187
Understanding Rheology
▪ PLASTIC VISCOSITY, PV = Resistance to flow due to the
mechanical contact among solid particles in the mud
▪ Plastic Viscosity is a Physical Effect :
▪ Measure of Shearing Stress
▪ Internal resistance to fluid flow attributable to:
▪ Frictions between particles
▪ Amount and type of solids,
▪ Size of solids
140/187
▪ YIELD POINT, YP = Minimum Shear Stress required to overcome electric attraction
between particles.
▪ Yield Point is an Electrostatic Effect = Chemical Interaction between particles
▪ Resistance to initial flow
▪ Represents the Stress required to start fluid movement
▪ Electrochemistry of the mud + chemical contamination
▪ YP is an indicator of the particle charges in the fluid
▪ YP gives some indication of the hole cleaning ability of the fluid , when the fluid is
in slow motion. YP at low speed can be calculated with Fann readings at 3 & 6 RPM:
LSRYP= 2 Fann3 – Fann6

141/187
• Increased YP • Decreased YP
• Flocculation of solids due to • Addition of water
temperature • Use of de-flocculants
• Chemical contaminant • increasing pH
• Reduction in pH • Removal of contaminants
• Thermal degradation of
chemicals
142/187
▪ GEL STRENGTH (GS)
▪ Tendency for a fluid to thicken under static conditions
▪ Gel Strength initial: GS0
▪ Gel Strength 10 min: GS10

▪ Gel strength progressive (under-deflocculated, reactive
drilled solids, chemical contamination)
▪ GS0 = max. reading after the fluid has been quiescent for 10 sec
▪ GS10 = max. reading after the fluid has been quiescent 10 min
143/187
Laminar Flow
MUD
Velocity Profile (Sliding motion)
144/187
Turbulent Flow
MUD
Velocity Profile (Swirling motion)
145/187
Rheology vs. flow
NEWTONIAN
NEWTONIAN or
or NON-NEWTONIAN
NON-NEWTONIAN
Shear Shear
Stress Stress BINGHAM
PLASTIC
TT TT
LAMINAR RR TURBULENT RR
FLOW AA AA
NN
Z
Z FLOW NN
Z
Z
POWER
S O
O S O
O
S S
II N
N II N
N LAW
T E
E T E
E
T T
II II
OO OO
NN NN
Shear rate Shear rate

NEWTONIAN
NEWTONIAN NON-NEWTONIAN
NON-NEWTONIAN
rate
146/187
147/187
Mud Temperature
• WATER BASE MUDS • OIL BASE MUDS

• Flowline • Flowline
• Pits
• Pits
• Rheology (120oF)
• Fluid loss • Rheology (150oF)
• API
• HTHP • Fluid loss
• HTHP
• Electrical Stability
148/187
Filtration
Differential
+ Pressure
Permeable
Clay Formation
▪ Filtration is the transfer of Suspension
some liquid from mud to

the formation throughout
a cake built at the surface
of reservoir Cake
▪ Follows Darcy’s Law: dV/dt = Instantaneous filtration rate
S = Surface of filtration
dV K P K = Cake Permeability
=S 
dt  Z m = Filtrate Viscosity
DP = Differential Pressure in/out

cake
149/187
Z = Cake thickness
Filtration
Fluid Loss Control

▪ Fluid must be designed for minimum filtrate
invasion in the formation in static and dynamic
conditions.
▪ Tests conducted:
▪ Spurt loss
▪ API test filtration
▪ High Temperature High Pressure filtration
▪ Other tests can be performed: Turbidity, Particle
size distribution, Gravimetric measurements of
total solids
150/187
Filtration
Filtration Test
K  P  T
▪ Fluid loss control : Conventional API Filter Press V =S
 b
▪ Darcy law application: Filtration law
▪ Time: 30 min
▪ Atmospheric Temperature
▪ Pressure 100 psi V = Volume of filtrate
S = Surface of filtration
▪ Volume of filtrate
K = Cake Permeability
▪ Cake analysis T = Time
▪ High Pressure / High Temperature Fluid loss  = Filtrate Viscosity
▪ Same law P = Differential Pressure in/out cake
b = Cake thickness (solids on filter)

▪ Time: 30 min
▪ T > 90 °C, DP= 500 psi
151/187
Filtration
Conventional API Filter Press

Volume (cc) of mud filtrate collected (STATIC) @:
▪ 100 psi
▪ 30 MINUTES
▪ 7.5 in2 # 50 Whitman Paper
▪ Ambient Temperature
152/187
Filtration
HP-HT Filtration Test
API High Pressure / High Temperature Fluid Loss Test
Volume of mud filtrate collected x 2 (static) after:

▪ 30 minutes interval
▪ 300°F
▪ 3.75 sq. in. #50 Whitman paper
▪ 500 psi - Differential Pressure
▪ 600 psi - TOP
▪ 100 psi - BOTTOM (back pressure)
153/187
Filtration

• This is one of several types of units. Good
For 300oF on a regular basis.
• For higher temperatures a different type

unit must be used, and higher pressures
(top and bottom) should be used.
(Differential pressure should still be 500 psi)
FLUID LOSS * API - HTHP
154/187
Filtration

• This type of unit is used for
temperatures above 300oF.
• Usually uses Nitrogen
pressurization from a big cylinder.
FLUID LOSS * API - HTHP
155/187
Filtration Control
▪ Goals are:
▪ To reduce invasion of formation by the fluid
▪ To reduce formation damage:
▪ No internal cake (particle-free fluid in contact with
formation)
▪ Wettability of formation by oil/water
▪ Emulsion
▪ To avoid weakening of non producing formations as
composition of filtrate is different from the formation water.
▪ Sources of particles inside fluids:
▪ Solids from mud incorporated during displacement,
▪ Scales in pits and storage,
▪ Insoluble impurities in salts, water or other components
156/187
Filtration
Filter Cake Description

▪ Filter cake texture :
▪ Slickness
▪ Toughness
▪ brittleness
▪ Cake thickness, a measurement of the solids deposited on
filter paper, reported in a 32nd of an inch
▪ Cake consistency:
▪ Hard
▪ Soft
▪ Firm ...
158/187
Filtration
Examples of Filter Cake

159/187
Filtration
High Filtration: Causes & Problems
▪ Excessive dilution or salt-water flow ▪ Permeability damage

▪ Flocculation of mud solids ▪ Stuck pipe
▪ Lack of filtration control products ▪ Wellbore instability
▪ Poor particle size distribution ▪ Complicate cement jobs
▪ High temperature degradation ▪ Inaccurate formation evaluations
160/187
Filtration
Control Maintenance
▪ Improved mud de-flocculation
▪ Addition of polymers (PAC, CMC, starch, lignite)
▪ Addition of bentonite
▪ Addition of Synthetics
▪ Control of Centrifugation time/speed
▪ Precipitation of contaminant cation
161/187
Filtration
Filtration: Area of Invasion
• The main area where

filtrate invasion occurs is
at the bit face and in the
bit throat.
162/187
Filtration
Conclusions
• Filtration control agent when combined with filtration support (cake) can
provide additional protection against drilling fluid filtrate invasion in formations
• When drilling fluids have insufficient HTHP fluid loss characteristics, gel can help
alleviate this deficiency
• If low-invasion cannot be achieved , Polymers will help minimize drilling filtrate

invasion in the formation
• In loosely consolidated rock, with moderate compressive strength, polymer can

add mechanical integrity to the formation, thus eliminating potential damage
during surface handling.
164/187
Solids Content in Mud
• % OIL
• Measured
• % WATER
• Measured
• % SOLIDS
• Calculated
165/187
Sand Content in Mud
The sand content of mud is the volume % of particles > 74 microns
166/187
Sand Content in Mud
Sand content is expressed as % by Volume
167/187
“Cation Exchange Capacity” of Mud - CEC
A measure of formation clay content in the mud system, expressed in pounds
of bentonite per barrel of mud
• Procedure:
• 2 cc of Mud
•15 cc of Hydrogen Peroxide (3%)
•10 cc of Distilled Water
•0.5 cc of 5N H2SO4
•Boil gently for 10 minutes
•Dilute to 50 cc with distilled water
•Add Methylene Blue, 1 cc at a time until a typical blue ring is seen around a drop
of liquid on a filer paper
➢(Total cc’s of Methylene Blue in 2 cc of Mud) x (5)
= Equivalent Pounds Per Barrel of Bentonite.
168/187
169/187
170/187
Alkalinity
Measurement of pH
• There are 3 methods for measuring pH :
• a probe and meter,
• pH-Paper,
• field kit.
• The most accurate and reliable method is the probe
and meter. This method is not less convenient than
the other methods, but requires more equipment.
172/187
Alkalinity
Measurement of pH
• pH meter
(Preferred Method)
• pH strips indicator
(General Range)
173/187
Alkalinity
Sources of Alkalinity
▪ Hydroxyl ions – Bases
▪ Carbonates (CO32-)
▪ Bicarbonates (HCO3-)
▪ Silicates - Phosphates
174/187
Alkalinity
Alkalinity of Mud (Indicated by Phenolphthalein): Pm
• Alkalinity of whole mud measures hydroxyl ions and “basic”

condition of both soluble and insoluble materials in the mud,
mainly:
• Soluble ions: OH-, CO32-, HCO3-
• Insoluble compounds: Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
• Pm is the volume of 0.02 N sulphuric acid to lower pH to 8.3
• Indicator is phenolphthalein
• Colour turns from pink to clear (mud initial colour)
175/187
Testing Pm
176/187
Alkalinity
Alkalinity of Mud Filtrate (Indicated by Phenolphthalein): Pf
• Alkalinity of the mud filtrate is a measure of its concentration of

hydroxyl ions
• Pf is the volume of 0.02 N sulphuric acid to lower pH to 8.3
• Usually Pf < Pm : insoluble alkaline materials removed by filtration
• Indicator is phenolphthalein
• Colour turns from pink to clear (mud initial colour)
177/187
Testing Pf
178/187
Alkalinity
Alkalinity of Mud Filtrate (Indicated by Methyl Orange): Mf
• At pH = 8.3 (Pf measure), all carbonates are converted to bicarbonates.
• More 0.02N sulphuric acid is to be added to convert bicarbonates to

carbonic acid at pH=4.3
• Indicator is Methyl Orange

• Colour turns from yellow to orange-red
• If Mf < 5 ml of 0.02 N sulphuric acid, there is usually no carbonate problem
• If the Mf is greater than 5 ml of 0.02 N sulphuric acid, and the Mf/Pf ratio
increases, carbonate contamination is a strong possibility
179/187
Testing Mf
180/187
Alkalinity
Alkalinities - Interpretation
▪ Pf = 0 Bicarbonates
▪ 2Pf < Mf Carbonates and Bicarbonates
▪ 2Pf = Mf Carbonates
▪ 2Pf > Mf Carbonates and Hydroxyls
▪ Pf = Mf Hydroxyls
181/187
Chlorides [Cl-]
• Measure of chloride ions dissolved in the filtrate from soluble sources
• Titration with 0.1N AgNO3 solution (Mohr method)
• Indicator is K2CrO3 (potassium chromate)

• Color turns from yellow to red
• [Cl-] = VAgNO3 x CAgNO3 x 35.5
• CNaCl = VAgNO3 x CAgNO3 x 58.5
182/187
Testing [Cl-]
183/187
Sources of Chlorides
▪ Chloride (NaCl)
▪ Potassium Chloride (KCl)
▪ Chloride Calcium (CaCl2)
▪ Calcium bromide (CaBr2)
▪ Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2)
▪ Other salts from evaporites
184/187
Total Hardness in Mud Filtrate
• Total hardness is a measure of the concentration of divalent cations
• Reported as mg/l Ca2+ ion.
• Hardness is primarily calcium and magnesium although other cations may

influence the results
• Impact on:
• Performance of clays
• Performance of some polymers
185/187
Calcium sources
▪ Water
▪ Formation water
▪ Anhydrite
▪ Cement
▪ Formation
188/187
Testing Calcium (Ca2+)
189/187

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Quartz School for IPM Well Site Supervisors

History of Drilling Fluids

• 1900 water & clays (no properties controlled)

• 1940 weighted WBM (well control & stability)

• ’50s & ’60s Cellulosic polymers (inhibited systems)

• ’70s PHPA systems (formation inhibition)

• ’80s Mineral oils (formation damage)

• ’90s Synthetic oils (environment protection)

▪ Liquid (continuous phase) ▪ Solids

Continuous Phase of Mud

GAS / AIR OIL WATER

AND COMBINATIONS OF ALL THE ABOVE

FRESH BRACKISH SEAWATER BRINE

Liquid Phase: Oil

CRUDE DIESEL MINERAL SYNTHETIC

PURE MIST FOAM

Solids Mixed in the Mud: Inert Solids

Solids Mixed in the Mud

Solids Mixed in the Mud: Inert Additives

Solids Mixed in the Mud: Reactive Solids

Bentonite Attapulgite Sepiolite

Polymeric Phosphates Tannins Polyacrylates

Starch CMC PAC

Corrosion Control Shale Control

Oil Mud Additives Spotting Fluids

Oil Based Water Based

Uninhibited Inhibited Non dispersed Dispersed

Salt Saturated KCl Glycol Silicate

Minimise Suspend barite

Drilling fluid is the lifeblood of drilling operations:

Drilling fluid technology is dominated by three factors :

Drilling Fluid Technology

Drilling Fluid Design must focus on

Drilling Fluid Criteria

% Glycol s e par ation

Wellbore Stability - Gauge Hole

Low Dilution Rates - Less Waste

• Low annular velocities hindered cuttings from being properly

• In places where hydratable clays were present (termed “mud

• Commercially produced clays - Wyoming Bentonite were added

• Present technology has pushed the performance envelope of

• The elements that go to make up clay minerals make up 80% of the

Montmorillonite and Mica + + + TOT or 2:1

Chlorite TOT : 0 : TOT or 2:1:1

Attapulgite / Sepiolite: TOT or 2:1

Edge to face Edge to edge

Edge to face Edge to edge

• Leads to increased surface area of solids

The state of deflocculation is determined by surface charges and

Clays are added to some water based muds to give :

Organophilic bentonite added to oil based muds to give viscosity and

1. Calcium ions (from anhydrite / gypsum or cement) will

2. Any increase in the chloride concentration (whether by

3. Viscosity may be reduced with a thinner prior to casing

5. Prior to drilling out any cement the system should be

Mud System becoming increasingly complex

Increasing Temperature and Pressure

• Density , usually un-weighted (8.34 to 10.5 ppg)

Uninhibited Inhibited Non Dispersed Dispersed