Science Notes

 Fetal Viability
 In medicine, it's the point at which a fetus can survive outside the womb.
 It is generally considered to be around 23 or 24 weeks, but there's no universal consensus and
some hospitals will resuscitate and actively treat babies born in the 22nd week of pregnancy.
 germination, the sprouting of a seed, spore, or other reproductive body, usually after a period of
dormancy. The absorption of water, the passage of time, chilling, warming, oxygen availability,
and light exposure may all operate in initiating the process.
In the process of seed germination, water is absorbed by the embryo, which results in the
rehydration and expansion of the cells. Shortly after the beginning of water uptake, or
imbibition, the rate of respiration increases, and various metabolic processes, suspended or
much reduced during dormancy, resume. These events are associated with structural changes in
the organelles (membranous bodies concerned with metabolism), in the cells of the embryo.
 Germination sometimes occurs early in the development process; the mangrove (Rhizophora)
embryo develops within the ovule, pushing out a swollen rudimentary root through the still-
attached flower. In peas and corn (maize) the cotyledons (seed leaves) remain underground
(e.g., hypogeal germination), while in other species (beans, sunflowers, etc.) the hypocotyl
(embryonic stem) grows several inches above the ground, carrying the cotyledons into the light,
in which they become green and often leaflike (e.g., epigeal germination).
 Seed dormancy - Dormancy is brief for some seeds—for example, those of certain short-lived
annual plants. After dispersal and under appropriate environmental conditions, such as suitable
temperature and access to water and oxygen, the seed germinates, and the embryo resumes
growth.
The seeds of many species do not germinate immediately after exposure to conditions generally
favourable for plant growth but require a “breaking” of dormancy, which may be associated
with change in the seed coats or with the state of the embryo itself. Commonly, the embryo has
no innate dormancy and will develop after the seed coat is removed or sufficiently damaged to
allow water to enter. Germination in such cases depends upon rotting or abrasion of the seed
coat in the gut of an animal or in the soil. Inhibitors of germination must be either leached away
by water or the tissues containing them destroyed before germination can occur. Mechanical
restriction of the growth of the embryo is common only in species that have thick, tough seed
coats. Germination then depends upon weakening of the coat by abrasion or decomposition.

In many seeds the embryo cannot germinate even under suitable conditions until a certain
period of time has lapsed. The time may be required for continued embryonic development in
the seed or for some necessary finishing process—known as afterripening—the nature of which
remains obscure.

The seeds of many plants that endure cold winters will not germinate unless they experience a
period of low temperature, usually somewhat above freezing. Otherwise, germination fails or is
much delayed, with the early growth of the seedling often abnormal. (This response of seeds to
chilling has a parallel in the temperature control of dormancy in buds.) In some species,
germination is promoted by exposure to light of appropriate wavelengths. In others, light
inhibits germination. For the seeds of certain plants, germination is promoted by red light and
inhibited by light of longer wavelength, in the “far red” range of the spectrum. The precise
significance of this response is as yet unknown, but it may be a means of adjusting germination
time to the season of the year or of detecting the depth of the seed in the soil. Light sensitivity
and temperature requirements often interact, the light requirement being entirely lost at
certain temperatures.

Seedling emergence
Active growth in the embryo, other than swelling resulting from imbibition, usually begins with
the emergence of the primary root, known as the radicle, from the seed, although in some
species (e.g., the coconut) the shoot, or plumule, emerges first. Early growth is dependent
mainly upon cell expansion, but within a short time cell division begins in the radicle and young
shoot, and thereafter growth and further organ formation (organogenesis) are based upon the
usual combination of increase in cell number and enlargement of individual cells.

Until it becomes nutritionally self-supporting, the seedling depends upon reserves provided by
the parent sporophyte. In angiosperms these reserves are found in the endosperm, in residual
tissues of the ovule, or in the body of the embryo, usually in the cotyledons. In gymnosperms
food materials are contained mainly in the female gametophyte. Since reserve materials are
partly in insoluble form—as starch grains, protein granules, lipid droplets, and the like—much of
the early metabolism of the seedling is concerned with mobilizing these materials and
delivering, or translocating, the products to active areas. Reserves outside the embryo are
digested by enzymes secreted by the embryo and, in some instances, also by special cells of the
endosperm.

In some seeds (e.g., castor beans) absorption of nutrients from reserves is through the
cotyledons, which later expand in the light to become the first organs active in photosynthesis.
When the reserves are stored in the cotyledons themselves, these organs may shrink after
germination and die or develop chlorophyll and become photosynthetic.

Environmental factors play an important part not only in determining the orientation of the
seedling during its establishment as a rooted plant but also in controlling some aspects of its
development. The response of the seedling to gravity is important. The radicle, which normally
grows downward into the soil, is said to be positively geotropic. The young shoot, or plumule, is
said to be negatively geotropic because it moves away from the soil; it rises by the extension of
either the hypocotyl, the region between the radicle and the cotyledons, or the epicotyl, the
segment above the level of the cotyledons. If the hypocotyl is extended, the cotyledons are
carried out of the soil. If the epicotyl elongates, the cotyledons remain in the soil.

Light affects both the orientation of the seedling and its form. When a seed germinates below
the soil surface, the plumule may emerge bent over, thus protecting its delicate tip, only to
straighten out when exposed to light (the curvature is retained if the shoot emerges into
darkness). Correspondingly, the young leaves of the plumule in such plants as the bean do not
expand and become green except after exposure to light. These adaptative responses are known
to be governed by reactions in which the light-sensitive pigment phytochrome plays a part. In
 most seedlings, the shoot shows a strong attraction to light, or a positive phototropism, which is
most evident when the source of light is from one direction. Combined with the response to
gravity, this positive phototropism maximizes the likelihood that the aerial parts of the plant will
reach the environment most favourable for photosynthesis.

life cycle, in biology, the series of changes that the members of a species undergo as they pass
from the beginning of a given developmental stage to the inception of that same developmental
stage in a subsequent generation.

In many simple organisms, including bacteria and various protists, the life cycle is completed
within a single generation: an organism begins with the fission of an existing individual; the new
organism grows to maturity; and it then splits into two new individuals, thus completing the
cycle. In higher animals, the life cycle also encompasses a single generation: the individual
animal begins with the fusion of male and female sex cells (gametes); it grows to reproductive
maturity; and it then produces gametes, at which point the cycle begins anew (assuming that
fertilization takes place).

What does the word "migration" mean? How many sets of legs does a shrimp have? From
poisonous fish to biodiversity, learn more about the study of living things in this quiz.

In most plants, by contrast, the life cycle is multigenerational. An individual plant begins with the
germination of a spore, which grows into a gamete-producing organism (the gametophyte). The
gametophyte reaches maturity and forms gametes, which, following fertilization, grow into a
spore-producing organism (the sporophyte). Upon reaching reproductive maturity, the
sporophyte produces spores, and the cycle starts again. This multigenerational life cycle is called
alternation of generations; it occurs in some protists and fungi as well as in plants.

The life cycle characteristic of bacteria is termed haplontic. This term refers to the fact that it
encompasses a single generation of organisms whose cells are haploid (i.e., contain one set of
chromosomes). The one-generational life cycle of the higher animals is diplontic; it involves only
organisms whose body cells are diploid (i.e., contain two sets of chromosomes). Organisms with
diplontic cycles produce sex cells that are haploid, and each of these gametes must combine
with another gamete in order to obtain the double set of chromosomes necessary to grow into a
complete organism. The life cycle typified by plants is known as diplohaplontic, because it
includes both a diploid generation (the sporophyte) and a haploid generation (the
gametophyte).

 Life cycle, in biology, the series of changes that the members of a species undergo as they pass
from the beginning of a given developmental stage to the inception of that same developmental
stage in a subsequent generation.

In many simple organisms, including bacteria and various protists, the life cycle is completed
within a single generation: an organism begins with the fission of an existing individual; the new
organism grows to maturity; and it then splits into two new individuals, thus completing the
 cycle. In higher animals, the life cycle also encompasses a single generation: the individual
animal begins with the fusion of male and female sex cells (gametes); it grows to reproductive
maturity; and it then produces gametes, at which point the cycle begins anew (assuming that
fertilization takes place).

In most plants, by contrast, the life cycle is multigenerational. An individual plant begins with the
germination of a spore, which grows into a gamete-producing organism (the gametophyte). The
gametophyte reaches maturity and forms gametes, which, following fertilization, grow into a
spore-producing organism (the sporophyte). Upon reaching reproductive maturity, the
sporophyte produces spores, and the cycle starts again. This multigenerational life cycle is called
alternation of generations; it occurs in some protists and fungi as well as in plants.

The life cycle characteristic of bacteria is termed haplontic. This term refers to the fact that it
encompasses a single generation of organisms whose cells are haploid (i.e., contain one set of
chromosomes). The one-generational life cycle of the higher animals is diplontic; it involves only
organisms whose body cells are diploid (i.e., contain two sets of chromosomes). Organisms with
diplontic cycles produce sex cells that are haploid, and each of these gametes must combine
with another gamete in order to obtain the double set of chromosomes necessary to grow into a
complete organism. The life cycle typified by plants is known as diplohaplontic, because it
includes both a diploid generation (the sporophyte) and a haploid generation (the
gametophyte).

 (Plant) perennial, any plant that persists for several years, usually with new herbaceous growth
from a part that survives from season to season. Trees and shrubs are perennial, as are some
herbaceous flowers and vegetative ground covers. Perennials have only a limited flowering
period, but, with maintenance throughout the growing season, they provide a leafy presence
and shape to the garden landscape. Popular flowering perennials include bellflowers,
chrysanthemums, columbines, larkspurs, hollyhocks, phlox, pinks, poppies, and primroses. See
also annual; biennial.
 (Plant) biennial, Any plant that completes its life cycle in two growing seasons. During the first
growing season biennials produce roots, stems, and leaves; during the second they produce
flowers, fruits, and seeds, and then die. Sugar beets and carrots are examples of biennials. See
also annual, perennial.
 (Biology) alternation of generations, also called metagenesis or heterogenesis, in biology, the
alternation of a sexual phase and an asexual phase in the life cycle of an organism. The two
phases, or generations, are often morphologically, and sometimes chromosomally, distinct.
In algae, fungi, and plants, alternation of generations is common. It is not always easy to
observe, however, since one or the other of the generations is often very small, even
microscopic. The sexual phase, called the gametophyte generation, produces gametes, or sex
cells, and the asexual phase, or sporophyte generation, produces spores asexually. In terms of
chromosomes, the gametophyte is haploid (has a single set of chromosomes), and the
sporophyte is diploid (has a double set). In bryophytes, such as mosses and liverworts, the
gametophyte is the dominant life phase, whereas in angiosperms and gymnosperms the
sporophyte is dominant. The haploid phase is also dominant among fungi. Although some algae
 have determinate life cycle stages, many species alternate between the sexual and asexual
phases in response to environmental conditions.
Among animals, many invertebrates have an alternation of sexual and asexual generations (e.g.,
protozoans, jellyfish, flatworms), but the alternation of haploid and diploid generations is
unknown.
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