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Language status
We summarize the status of each language in each country where it is used in
the Status element of a language entry by reporting two types of information. The first is
an estimate of the overall development versus endangerment of the language using the
EGIDS scale (Lewis and Simons 2010). The second is a categorization of the Official
Recognition given to a language within the country.

The EGIDS consists of 13 levels with each higher number on the scale representing a
greater level of disruption to the intergenerational transmission of the language. Table 1
provides summary definitions of the 13 levels of the EGIDS.

Table 1. Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

Level Label Description

0 International The language is widely used between nations in trade, knowledge
exchange, and international policy.
1 National The language is used in education, work, mass media, and
government at the national level.
2 Provincial The language is used in education, work, mass media, and
government within major administrative subdivisions of a nation.
3 Wider The language is used in work and mass media without official status
Communication to transcend language differences across a region.
4 Educational The language is in vigorous use, with standardization and literature
being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally
supported education.
5 Developing The language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form
being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable.
6a Vigorous The language is used for face-to-face communication by all
generations and the situation is sustainable.
6b Threatened The language is used for face-to-face communication within all
generations, but it is losing users.
7 Shifting The child-bearing generation can use the language among
themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children.
8a Moribund The only remaining active users of the language are members of the
grandparent generation and older.
8b Nearly Extinct The only remaining users of the language are members of the
grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the
language.
9 Dormant The language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic
community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency.
10 Extinct The language is no longer used and no one retains a sense of ethnic
identity associated with the language.

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The EGIDS levels are designed to largely coincide with Fishman’s Graded
Intergenerational Disruption Scale, or GIDS (Fishman 1991). We refer users to
Fishman’s work for an orientation to this approach to evaluating endangerment and to
the original work on EGIDS (Lewis and Simons 2010) for the rationale behind the
development of the expanded framework. The descriptions of the levels used in this
edtion of the Ethnologue have been adjusted to take into account significant feedback
on the scale that has been received since its initial development. Most notably, the
EGIDS level descriptions have been reworded to take into account signed languages.
Like the GIDS, the EGIDS at its core measures the level of disruption of
intergenerational transmission. Therefore, stronger, more vital languages have lower
numbers on the scale and weaker, more endangered languages have higher numbers.

In comparison to GIDS, the EGIDS includes some additional factors at both the stronger
and weaker levels of the scale and thus adds some levels not included in the original
scale. As a result, the EGIDS can be applied to all of the languages of the world. In
addition, two of the levels in the GIDS (6 and 8) have been split (6a, 6b, 8a, 8b) in the
EGIDS in order to allow for a finer-grained description of the state of intergenerational
transmission in the presence of language shift (or revitalization). We have used letters
to distinguish these divided levels in order to maintain numbering alignment with
Fishman’s better-known GIDS. Each number on the EGIDS has also been assigned a
one or two word label that summarizes the state of development or vitality of the
language. The labels are intended to provide mnemonics for those who prefer to use
words rather than numbers. In a few cases, alternative labels are assigned to a level in
order to distinguish significantly different situations that are associated with the same
level on the scale. Table 2 lists the alternative labels that are used.

Table 2. Alternative labels for other special situations

Level Label Description

5 Dispersed The language is fully developed in its home country, so that the
community of language users in a different country has access to a
standardized form and literature, but these are not promoted in the
country in focus via institutionally supported education.
9 Reawakening The ethnic community associated with a dormant language is working to
establish more uses and more users for the language with the results
that new L2 speakers are emerging.
9 Second The language was originally vehicular, but it is not the heritage language
language only of an ethnic community and it no longer has enough users to have
significant vehicular function.

How the EGIDS Works

The EGIDS is a multi-dimensional scale which focuses on different aspects of vitality at

different levels. Like Fishman’s GIDS, the EGIDS, at its core, measures disruption in
use. At the weakest levels of vitality, EGIDS 9 (Dormant) and EGIDS 10 (Extinct) the
primary factor in focus is the function of the language as a marker of identity. If no one

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still associates the language with their identity, the language can be considered to be
Extinct. If there is an ethnic group that associates its identity with the language but uses
the language only for symbolic purposes to remind themselves of that identity, the
language can be categorized as Dormant (EGIDS 9).

At EGIDS levels 6a (Vigorous), 6b (Threatened), 7 (Shifting), 8a (Moribund), and 8b

(Nearly extinct) the primary factor in focus is the state of daily face-to-face use and
intergenerational transmission of the language. Each successively weaker level on the
scale represents the loss of use, generation by generation.

EGIDS 4 (Educational) and EGIDS 5 (Developing) bring into focus the degree to which
the ongoing use of the language is supported and reinforced by the use of the language
in education. This largely focuses around issues of standardization and literacy
acquisition and the degree to which those are institutionally supported and have been
adopted by the community of language users.

EGIDS 3 (Wider Communication) focuses primarily on the notion of vehicularity. If a

language (whether written or not) is widely used by others as a second language and as
a means of intergroup communication, it has greater vitality than a language with a
smaller number of users and which is seen as being less useful by outsiders. Where we
have data, we report the use of each language by speakers of other languages.

EGIDS 2 (Provincial) and EGIDS 1 (National) focus on the level of recognition and use
given to the language by government. Beyond purely official use, however, the focus
includes the widespread use of the language in media and the workplace at either the
provincial (sub-national) or national levels. EGIDS 0 (International) is a category
reserved for those few languages that are used as the means of communication in
many countries for the purposes of diplomacy and international commerce. Because the
Ethnologue organizes the language entries by country, EGIDS 1 (National) is the
strongest vitality level that we report.

The EGIDS levels are hierarchical in nature. With only one exception, the scale
assumes that each stronger level of vitality entails the characteristics of the levels below
it. Thus, for example, a language cannot be characterized as EGIDS 5 (Developing) if it
cannot also be characterized as being at EGIDS 6a (Vigorous). A language with written
materials which is not used for day-to-day communication by all generations and which
is not being passed on to all children cannot be categorized as EGIDS 5 (Developing).
The one exception to this principle is EGIDS 3 (Wider Communication) where the
vehicularity of languages of wider communication is counted as being weightier than the
existence of an orthography and the use of the language in education. Some languages
that are widely used for intergroup communication are not used in formal education and
have no written materials. Were these languages to lose that vehicularity, they would
drop directly to EGIDS 6a (Vigorous).

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Methodology

The EGIDS levels reported in this edition of the Ethnologue were initially arrived at by
inspecting our database and analyzing the factors that we categorized as indicators of
vitality. In many cases, we had sufficient data to allow an initial EGIDS evaluation.
Where the data were not sufficient, we set the EGIDS default value at EGIDS 6a. The
initial estimates were then distributed to a large number of correspondents who were
asked to review the data and make corrections based on their knowledge of specific
countries, regions, language families and individual languages. This review process
resulted in a large number of corrections and revisions. Any remaining unreviewed or
uncertain estimates were more closely scrutinized by the editors and, after soliciting
additional commentary from knowledgeable sources, decisions made as to how best to
evaluate the EGIDS level in each case. The EGIDS estimates, though based on the
best information available to us, are preliminary and the review process is ongoing. We
encourage users of the Ethnologue to provide us with comments and corrections that
will lead to a more accurate assessment for inclusion in future editions.

In a few cases, there is real doubt as to whether the language actually exists as a
distinct variety. Although an ISO 639-3 code has been assigned, data on the existence
of the language is not convincing. In such cases, we do not report an EGIDS level but
identify the language status as “Unattested”.

The existence of an EGIDS estimate for every known language in every country
provides a useful new resource for the assessment of language vitality globally,
regionally, and country-by-country. For instance, this site includes histograms that use
this information to plot summary profiles of the language situation in each of the major
geographic areas, UN regions, and countries of the world. The existence of such data
opens up the possibility for other kinds of analysis, such as the evaluation of the vitality
of language families (see, for example, Whalen and Simons 2012).

Official recognition

If a language has an official function within a country or is specifically recognized in

legislation, the entry for the language includes a description of the nature of its
recognition. When that recognition is by statute, the specific law is also cited. Table 3
lists and defines (with examples) the fourteen language recognition categories that are
used.

In developing these recognition categories, we have adapted the general framework

described by Cooper (1989:99-103). Following Stewart’s (1968) identification of the
official function of languages in a country, Cooper further distinguishes between
statutory, working, and symbolic official languages. To that we have added a further
distinction between those same functions at either the national or the provincial level.
This descriptive framework identifies the legal foundation (if any) for the recognition, the
nature of the official use of the language, and the geopolitical scope of that use and
recognition. The combination of these three parameters (legal status, nature of use, and

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scope of application) results in the first twelve function categories that are listed in table
3. The final two categories represent any other kind of statutory recognition for a
language.

The distinction between statutory and de facto functions is relatively straightforward.

When a language function is described as statutory, it means that there is a legal
document such as the constitution of the country, language or diversity policy
legislation, or the like, that specifies the functions for which the language will be used.
Whenever a language is assigned a function that is statutory, we provide the name of
the relevant statute. We are unable at this time to distinguish in all cases between
legislation that is in force and legislation which may not be enforced though it is still
legally viable. As for de facto status, in many countries languages are commonly used
for governance functions but there is no formal legislative mandate for that use. In those
cases, we identify the function as de facto.

Table 3. Official recognition categories and definitions

Function Definition Example

Statutory national This is the language in which the business of the Bengali [ben] in
language national government is conducted and this is Bangladesh
mandated by law. It is also the language of national Indonesian [ind] in
identity for the citizens of the country. Indonesia
Spanish [spa] in
Spain
Statutory national This is a language in which the business of the Amharic [amh] in
working language national government is conducted and this is Ethiopia
mandated by law. However it is not the language of Bislama [bis] in
national identity for the citizens of the country. Vanuatu
English [eng] in India
Statutory This is the language of national identity and this is Kituba [mkw] in
language of mandated by law. However, it is not developed Congo
national identity enough to function as the language of government Maori [mri] in New
business. Zealand
Rarotongan [rar] in
Cook Islands
De facto national This is the language in which the business of the Standard German
language national government is conducted but this is not [deu] in Germany
mandated by law. It is also the language of national Japanese [jpn] in
identity for the citizens of the country. Japan
Tswana [tsn] in
Botswana
De facto national This is a language in which the business of the Brunei [kxd] in Brunei
working language national government is conducted, but this is not Tagalog [tgl] in
mandated by law. Neither is it the language of national Philippines
identity for the citizens of the country. Shona [sna] in
Zimbabwe

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Function Definition Example

De facto This is the language of national identity but this is not Algerian Arabic [arq]
language of mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or in Algeria
national identity known enough to function as the language of Jamaican Creole
government business. English [jam] in
Jamaica
Tokelauan [tkl] in
Tokelau
Statutory This is the language in which the business of Assamese [asm] in
provincial provincial government is conducted and this is India
language mandated by law. It is also the language of identity for Slovene [slv] in Italy
the citizens of the province. Uyghur [uig] in China
Statutory This is a language in which the business of the Afar [aar] in Ethiopia
provincial working provincial government is conducted and this is Corsican [cos] in
language mandated by law. However, it is not the language of France
identity for the citizens of the province. Lü [khb] in China
Statutory This is the language of identity for the citizens of the Maithili [mai] in India
language of province and this is mandated by law. However, it is Rotokas [roo] in
provincial identity not developed enough or known enough to function as Papua New Guinea
the language of government business. Walloon [wln] in
Belgium
De facto This is the language in which the business of the Chinese, Yue [yue] in
provincial provincial government is conducted, but this is not China
language mandated by law. It is also the language of identity for Faroese [fao] in
the citizens of the province. Denmark
Hausa [hau] in
Nigeria
De facto This is a language in which the business of provincial Greek [ell] in Albania
provincial working government is conducted, but this is not mandated by Kurdish, Central [ckb]
language law. Neither is it the language of identity for the in Iran
citizens of the province.
De facto This is the language of identity for citizens of the Fulfulde, Adamawa
language of province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it [fub] in Nigeria
provincial identity developed enough or known enough to function as the Khinalugh [kjj] in
language of government business. Azerbaijan
Thai, Northeastern
[tts] in Thailand
Recognized There is a law that names this language and New Zealand Sign
language recognizes its right to be used and developed for Language [nzs] in
some purposes. New Zealand
Sénoufo, Mamara
[myk] in Mali
Candoshi-Shapra
[cbu] in Peru
Language of There is a law that names the ethnic group that uses Lisu [lis] in China
recognized this language and recognizes their right to use and Puma [pum] in Nepal
nationality develop their identity.

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The nature of the use of a language in government operations is specified using the
term “working” or “identity” or the absence of these terms. When a language is identified
as a working language, it means that the operations of the government (debate in
parliament, the language of the laws, the language used in government offices, on
official forms,) may be carried out in the language, but the language is not the language
of identity of the majority of the citizens. There are many countries where, for very
practical reasons, an international language or the language of a colonial power is used
for day-to-day operations of the government, but national (or provincial) identity is linked
to a different language. On the other hand, when a language is identified as a language
of identity, the reverse is true. The majority of citizens identify that language as being
closely associated with their identity but for practical reasons the language is not
generally used for governmental operations. In these cases, the language often has a
very strong symbolic use to reinforce a common identity and to build national or
provincial unity. In the final case, in which the language functions both as the working
language of the government and as the language of identity for the majority of the
citizens, the label for the category is simply “national language” or “provincial language”,
implying both the working function and the identify function.

In terms of geopolitical scope, we distinguish between the national and provincial levels
of recognition and use. When a language is identified as performing a particular function
at the provincial level, we describe the geopolitical regions involved. If there are many,
that description may be reduced to a summary statement.

Some languages are not used or recognized for all of the functions of governance as
described above, but may instead be granted only partial or limited recognitions by law.
Those languages have been identified more generically as a “recognized language”.
Though our data is admittedly incomplete, we attempt to describe the nature of the
recognition and its geopolitical scope in as many cases as possible. In addition, in some
countries, ethnic groups or nationalities are given official recognition rather than their
languages. In some cases these recognized nationalities speak multiple languages. We
attempt to identify the languages of such officially recognized nationalities using the
label “language of recognized nationality”.

The recognition category for each language is based on the best research available to
us. As with all Ethnologue information, we welcome corrections and updates from
informed users.

This web edition of the Ethnologue may be cited as: Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons,
and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2015. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Eighteenth
edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.

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