4 Forces, Density - Pressure

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YOUR NOTES
AS Physics CIE 
4. Forces, Density & Pressure
CONTENTS
4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium
4.1.1 Centre of Gravity
4.1.2 Moments
4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces
4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium
4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure
4.2.1 Density
4.2.2 Pressure
4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h
4.2.4 Upthrust
4.2.5 Archimedes Principle
Page 1 of 35
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4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium YOUR NOTES


4.1.1 Centre of Gravity
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object
may be considered to act
For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in the
middle of the body behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre
For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the
point of symmetry
The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry
Stability
The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability
An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base
Page 2 of 35
YOUR NOTES

The object on the right will topple, as its centre of gravity is no longer over its base
The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of gravity and it is more stable
The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of gravity and the object is
more likely to topple over if pushed
The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of gravity
Centre of gravity v centre of mass

In a uniform gravitational field, the centre of gravity is identical to the centre of
mass
Page 3 of 35
The centre of mass does not depend on the gravitational field YOUR NOTES
Since weight = mass ✕ acceleration due to gravity, the centre of gravity does 
depend on the gravitational field
When an object is in space, its centre of gravity will be more towards the object
with larger gravitational field for example, the Earth’s gravitational field on the
Moon
The Earth’s stronger gravitational field pushes the Moons centre of gravity closer to
Earth
 Exam Tip
Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside
of a body. The centre of gravity can also move, depending on the shape or
the orientation of the object being considered.
For example, a human body’s centre of gravity is lower when leaning
forwards than when standing upright. And you must notice your own centre
of gravity shift backwards when you pick up your heavy school bag and put
it on your back. This is why you instinctively lean forwards to carry it.
Page 4 of 35
4.1.2 Moments YOUR NOTES


What is a Moment?
A moment is the turning effect of a force
Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
The moment of a force is given by
Moment (N m) = Force (N) × perpendicular distance from the pivot (m)
The SI unit for the moment is Newton metres (N m). This may also be Newton
centimetres (N cm) depending on the units given for the distance
The force might not always be perpendicular to the distance
An example of moments in everyday life is opening a door

The door handle is placed on the other side of the door to the hinge (the pivot) to
maximise the distance for a given force and therefore provides a greater moment
(turning force)
This makes it easier to push or pull it
Page 5 of 35
Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 50 cm mark.

A 0.5 kg weight is suspended at the 80 cm mark, causing the rule to rotate

about the pivot.
Assuming the weight of the rule is negligible, what is the turning moment
about the pivot?
Page 6 of 35
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
If not already given, drawing all the forces on an object in the diagram will 
help you see which ones are perpendicular to the distance from the pivot.
Not all the forces will provide a turning effect and it is not unusual for a
question to provide more forces than required to throw you off!
Page 7 of 35
The Principle of Moments YOUR NOTES

The principle of moments states: 
For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a

point must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments (about the
same point)
Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam
In the above diagram:

Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
Hence: F2 × d2 = (F1 × d1) + (F3 × d3)
 Worked Example
A uniform beam of weight 40 N is 5 m long and is supported by a pivot
situated 2 m from one end.When a load of weight W is hung from that end,
the beam is in equilibrium as shown in the diagram.
What is the value of W?A 10 N B 50 N C 25 N D 30

N
Page 8 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Page 9 of 35
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and you’re considering 
the correct forces as clockwise or anticlockwise, as seen in the diagram
below
Page 10 of 35
4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces YOUR NOTES


Couples
A couple is a pair of forces that acts to produce rotation only
Unlike moments of a single force, the moment of a couple doesn’t depend on a
pivot, only on the perpendicular distance between the two forces
A couple consists of a pair of forces that are:
Equal in magnitude
Opposite in direction
Perpendicular to the distance between them
Diagram of a couple
Couples produce a resultant force of zero, so, due to Newton’s Second law (F =
ma), the object does not accelerate
The size of this turning effect is given by its torque
 Worked Example
Which pair of forces act as a couple on the circular object?
ANSWER: A
Page 11 of 35
In diagram A, the forces are: YOUR NOTES

Equal in size 
In opposite directions
Perpendicular to the distance between them
B is incorrect as the forces are in the same direction
C is incorrect as the forces are different in size
D is incorrect as the distance between the forces is not perpendicular
 Exam Tip
The forces that make up a couple cannot share the same line of action which
is the line through the point at which the force is applied. An example of
this is shown in the diagram below
Page 12 of 35
Torque YOUR NOTES

The moment of a couple is known as a torque 
You can calculate the torque of a couple with the following equation
Torque τ (N m) = one of the forces (N) × perpendicular distance between the forces (m)
 Worked Example
A steering wheel of diameter 40 cm and the force of the couple needed to
turn it is 10 N.Calculate the torque on the steering wheel.
Page 13 of 35

 A rule of length 0.3 m is pivoted at its centre.Equal and opposite forces of

magnitude 4.0 N are applied to the ends of the ruler, created a couple as
shown below.
What is the magnitude of the torque of the couple on the ruler when it is at
the position shown?
 Exam Tip
The forces given might not always be perpendicular to the distance between
them. In this case, remember to find the component of the force vector that
is perpendicular. You can learn more on how to do this in the ‘Resolving
Vectors’ section of ‘Scalars & Vectors’
Page 14 of 35
4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium YOUR NOTES


Equilibrium
A system is in equilibrium when all the forces are balanced. This means:
There is no resultant force
There is no resultant torque
An object in equilibrium will therefore remain at rest, or at a constant velocity, and
not rotate
The system is in an equilibrium state when applying the principle of moments (see
The Principle of Moments)
 Worked Example
Four beams of the same length each have three forces acting on
them.Which beam has both zero resultant force and zero resultant torque
acting?
Page 15 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Page 16 of 35
Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

Coplanar forces can be represented by vector triangles 
Forces are in equilibrium if an object is either
At rest
Moving at constant velocity
In equilibrium, coplanar forces are represented by closed vector triangles
The vectors, when joined together, form a closed path
The most common forces on objects are
Weight
Normal reaction force
Tension (from cords and strings)
Friction
The forces on a body in equilibrium are demonstrated below:
Three forces on an object in equilibrium form a closed vector triangle
Page 17 of 35

 A weight hangs in equilibrium from a cable at point X. The tensions in the

cables are T1 and T2 as shown.
Which diagram correctly represents the forces acting at point X?
Page 18 of 35
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The diagrams in exam questions about this topic tend to be drawn to scale, 
so make sure you have a ruler handy!
Page 19 of 35
4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES


4.2.1 Density
Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of an object
Objects made from low-density materials typically have a lower mass
For example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite
occupying a larger volume
The units of density depend on the units used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g /
cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg
/ m3
Gases are less dense than a solid
The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated
with the appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape
Page 20 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Volumes of common 3D shapes
 Worked Example
A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 40 mm × 500 mm × 850
mm.
Calculate the density, in kg m-3 of the material from which the paving slab
is made.
Page 21 of 35
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)
E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
E.g. 5 g = 5 / 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg
When dealing with squared or cubic conversions, cube or square the
conversion factor too
E.g. 1 mm3 = 1 / (1000)3 = 1 × 10-9 m3
E.g. 1 cm3 = 1 / (100)3 = 1 × 10-6 m3
Page 22 of 35
4.2.2 Pressure YOUR NOTES


Pressure
Pressure tells us how concentrated a force is, it is defined as the force per unit
area
Pressure is equal to the force per unit area
This equation tells us

If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure
Different pressure is exerted for the same force on different areas
Page 23 of 35
The units of pressure depend on the units of area: YOUR NOTES

If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in 
N/cm2
If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in
N/m2
Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa where 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

Pressure, unlike force, is a scalar. Therefore pressure does not have a specific
direction
U-tube manometer
A manometer is an instrument to measure pressure and density of two liquids
In Figure 1: The level of liquid is equal because the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is
the same
In Figure 2: If the pressure on one side rises, the liquid will be forced down making
the liquid in the other limb rise. The difference between the two levels gives the
pressure difference between the two ends of the tube
Page 24 of 35
In Figure 3: The U-tube now has two different liquids. The density of the blue one YOUR NOTES
is larger than that of the orange one. The pressure at each point is due to the 
atmospheric pressure plus the weight of the liquid above it
 Worked Example
A cylinder is placed on a horizontal surface as shown below
The mass of the cylinder is 4.7 kg and the diameter is 8.4 cm. Calculate the
pressure produced by the cylinder on the surface in Pa.
Page 25 of 35
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The area referred to is the ‘cross-sectional’ area of a 3D object. This is the 
area of the base that the force is applied on. For a cylinder, this will be a
circle.
Page 26 of 35
4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h YOUR NOTES


Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a
given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity
The derivation for this equation is shown below:
Page 27 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Hydrostatic pressure derivation
 Exam Tip
You will be expected to remember all the steps for this derivation for an
exam question. If any equations which look unfamiliar, have a look at the
notes for “Density” and “Pressure”.
Page 28 of 35
Using the Equation for Hydrostatic Pressure YOUR NOTES

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a 
given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity
This is when an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure,
squeezing the object
The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h)
of the object and the gravitational field strength (g):
When asked about the total pressure remember to also add the atmospheric
pressure
Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric pressure) is 101 325 Pa
 Worked Example
Atmospheric pressure at sea level has a value of 100 kPa. The density of
sea water is 1020 kg m-3.At what depth in the sea would the total pressure
be 250 kPa?A. 20 m B. 9.5 m C. 18 m D. 15 m
Page 29 of 35
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
These pressures can vary widely and depend on metric prefixes such as kPa 
or MPa. When you’re doing calculations make sure all the pressures are in
the same units (otherwise you may be out by a factor of 1000!). To be on the
safe side, you can convert them all to Pascals.
Page 30 of 35
4.2.4 Upthrust YOUR NOTES


Upthrust
Upthrust is a force which pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid i.e.
liquids and gases
Also known as buoyancy force, upthrust is due to the difference in hydrostatic
pressure at the top and bottom of the immersed object
The force of upthrust is significantly larger in liquids than in gases, this is because
liquids are much denser than gases
Recall that hydrostatic pressure depends on the height (h) or depth that an object
is submerged in from P = ρgh
Therefore, the water pressure at the bottom of an object is greater than the water
pressure at the top, as shown in the diagram below:
This can will experience upthrust due to the hydrostatic pressure difference
Upthrust is a force and is directly proportional to the pressure. The force on the
bottom of the can will be greater than the force on top of the can
This resultant pressure causes a resultant upward force on the can known as
upthrust
Upthrust is why objects appear to weigh less when immersed in a liquid. If the
upthrust is greater than the weight of the object, the object will rise up
For an object to float, it must have a density less than the density of the fluid it is
immersed in
Page 31 of 35

 A steel cube with cross-sectional area of 2 m2 is totally immersed in

water.The scale balance reading is reduced when the cube is immersed.
The cube experiences pressures of 3000 Pa and 7700 Pa at the top and
bottom of the cube respectively.Which value is equal to the upthrust on the
cube during immersion?A. 9400 N B. 6000 N C. 15400 N D.
92210 N
 Exam Tip
Since upthrust is force it is influenced by pressure, not by the density of the
object as commonly misunderstood.
Page 32 of 35
4.2.5 Archimedes Principle YOUR NOTES


Archimedes' Principle
Archimedes’ principle states that an object submerged in a fluid at rest has an
upward buoyancy force (upthrust) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object
The object sinks until the weight of the fluid displaced is equal to its own weight
Therefore the object floats when the magnitude of the upthrust equals the weight
of the object
The magnitude of upthrust can be calculated by:
Upthrust equation
Since m = ρV, upthrust is equal to F = mg which is the weight of the fluid displaced
by the object
Archimedes’ Principle explains how ships float:
Page 33 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Boats float because they displace an amount of water that is equal to their weight
 Worked Example
Icebergs typically float with a large volume of ice beneath the water. Ice has
a density of 917 kg m-3 and a volume of Vi.The density of seawater is 1020
kg m-3.What fraction of the iceberg is above the water?A. 0.10 Vi B.
0.90 Vi C. 0.97 Vi D. 0.20 Vi
Page 34 of 35
YOUR NOTES

Page 35 of 35

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4. Forces, Density & Pressure

4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry

Centre of gravity v centre of mass

4.1.2 Moments YOUR NOTES

The force might not always be perpendicular to the distance

An example of moments in everyday life is opening a door

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

A 0.5 kg weight is suspended at the 80 cm mark, causing the rule to rotate

The Principle of Moments YOUR NOTES

For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

In the above diagram:

What is the value of W?A 10 N B 50 N C 25 N D 30

4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces YOUR NOTES

In diagram A, the forces are: YOUR NOTES

Torque YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium YOUR NOTES

Three forces on an object in equilibrium form a closed vector triangle

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Which diagram correctly represents the forces acting at point X?

4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES

Gases are less dense than a solid

Volumes of common 3D shapes

4.2.2 Pressure YOUR NOTES

Pressure is equal to the force per unit area

This equation tells us

Different pressure is exerted for the same force on different areas

The units of pressure depend on the units of area: YOUR NOTES

Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa where 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h YOUR NOTES

Hydrostatic pressure derivation

Using the Equation for Hydrostatic Pressure YOUR NOTES

4.2.4 Upthrust YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

4.2.5 Archimedes Principle YOUR NOTES

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