Module 1 , Specific Objective 1

Location and Definition of the Caribbean Region and Diaspora:

There are Several Definitions of the Caribbean Regions:
⦁ Geographical.
⦁ Geological.
⦁ Historical.
⦁ Political.
⦁ Diaspora.
Each Definition has Advantages and Disadvantages. Each Definition Adds Something Unique
about the Caribbean but No Definition is Complete, ie, No Definition Provides an Absolute
Definition of the Caribbean since each One has its Limitations.
Overview:
Geographic Definition: The Core / Central Point is that the Caribbean Sea is the "Common
Denominator". It deals with all Above the Surface. Eg. Landforms, Rivers.
Geological Definition: The Subterranean Earth is Inspected in terms of Geological Evolution:
The Formation and the Crustal Dynamics of the Caribbean Region.
Historical Definition: The History of the Caribbean is a Shared Commonality between the
Caribbean Nations. The Historical Definition Encompasses Geographical, Geological, Political
and Diasporical Definitions and is hence the most Complete of all the Definitions
The Historical Definition Factors in all of the Major Historical Events from Pre-Colombian to
Now, ie, all of the Catalytic Events that Shaped the Caribbean to what it has become. Among
these are:
⦁ Migration: Movement of People to a New Area or Country in order to find Work or Better
Living Conditions.

0. Colonisation: The Process of 0. Settling among and Establishing Control over the 0.
Indigenous (Native) People of an Area.

0. Imperialism: A way of Governing in which Large / Powerful Countries seek to Extend

their Authority beyond their Own Borders.

0. Labour Systems.

0. Cultural Impact: Economic and Political.

Political Definition: This Seeks to Examine the Impacts of Organised Governmental Structures
in the Evolution of the Caribbean. An Assessment of how European Politics Leads to Political
Diversity, Political Structures, Nationalism and even Political Models that Exist Today.
Diasporical Definition: This Seeks to Evaluate and Understand how the Movements of People
Overtime have Affected the Caribbean Society Socially, Culturally and Racially. The Diasporical
Definition is Based Upon an Appreciation that the Caribbean is a Plural Society with Unique
Benefits and Challenges.
In Depth:
Geographical Definition: The Caribbean Lies in the Latitudes of 2oN to 24oN. The Southerly part
of the Caribbean Begins in South America with Suriname on the Mainland and the Northerly
part of the Caribbean Ends in Turks and Caicos.
One of the Primary Features of the Geographic Caribbean is the Archipelagic Nature of the
Islands. An Archipelago is a Chain of Islands that is Closely Related at a Subterranean Level.
The Archipelago of the Caribbean Stretches between 2 Continents: The North and South
American Continent. The Archipelago of the Caribbean has a Unique Geological Foundation
that is not Consistent for all Caribbean Territories. The Geographical Caribbean must also
include the Isthmus of Panama.
The Weather Patterns is also a Factor of the Location of the Caribbean Territories. Generally,
the Caribbean is said to enjoy a Tropical Type Climate because we are in a Tropical Region
lying between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. Even though the Majority Enjoy Tropical
Climate, the South American Countries enjoy an Equatorial Climate.
Rainfall therefore differs, which Impacts the Flora and Fauna. The Majority of the Caribbean
Region has: Dry and Wet Seasons. The Dry Season is from January to May and the Wet
Season is from June to December.
The Caribbean is Governed by One Prevailing Wind System: The North Eastern Trade Winds.
The Trade Winds give Rise to the Hurricane Season. Torrential Rains occur as an effect of
these deadly Hurricanes.
The Caribbean is thus Susceptible to similar Meteorological Hazards. A Hazard is the term
given to a Naturally Occurring Event that Proposes a Potential to cause Damage. A Disaster is
when the Hazard has Impacted upon the Society. Temperatures Range from Low Twenties to
Mid Thirties. Rainfalls Vary by Size of Territory, Highlands, Vegetation and Season.
One Distinct Feature of the Geographical Definition is the Body of Water that is Contained by
the Archipelago and the Isthmus of Panama: The Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean should be
every area that the Caribbean Sea touches but this is not so (Eg. Barbados, Turks and Caicos).

Historical Definition: The Most Complete Definition. It Truly Engages all Countries we Consider
Caribbean since the Islands share a Common History. History has Impacted the Past and still is
Impacting on us today, thus, the Events Range from Pre-Amerindian to Current.
Migration of Amerindians into the Caribbean took place starting at the South American
Mainland, from the Isthmus of Panama and Florida. Historically, the Caribbean was Populated
by Migration, and this still Continues on Today since People are Constantly Moving Into / Out of
the Caribbean in Seek of Enhanced Opportunities.
Overtime, several Migratory Movements have been Noted: European, Forced African Migration,
East Indian and Chinese coming to provide labour. Also, there would have been several Labour
Organizations:
⦁ Repartimiento (Amerindian).
⦁ Encomienda (Amerindian).
⦁ Slavery (African).
⦁ Indentureship (Chinese, East Indian, Whites).
All these Labour Systems were Triggered by European Imperialism. In order for the Europeans
to Gain Control of the New Land, European Policies and Politics had to be Superimposed.
Therefore, the Historical Definition is an "Umbrella" of the Political and Diasporic Definitions.
Political Definition: Formal Politics Entered the Caribbean in 1492 with the Spanish Coming. The
Discovery of New Lands Triggered a Wave of Exploration until 1502.
These Expeditions led to Ownership of the New World (Canada to Chile) Territory. The
Europeans came with an Attitude of "Ownership.". The Intentions of the Europeans were to
Exploit the New World. Their Policies therefore became Exploitative.
The Goal of the Europeans was to take from the New World to make them Wealthier. The
Exploitations that began in the 15th Century became a Legacy that lasts even until this day. The
Tremendous Amount of Wealth being extracted from the New World led to other European
Nations fighting for the New World.
They began to Challenge Spain for this Wealth. By the end of 1503, there were 4 European
Countries (Spain, England, Holland, Portugal) Fighting to get a Foothold in the New World.
European Politics and Policies thus entered the New World. Policies made Governance real; to
bring Change.
One of the 1st major policies regarding the Caribbean is the "Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494". This
Referenced the Roman Catholic Nations of Europe: Spain and Portugal. At that time, the
Roman Catholic Church was the Powerhouse. The Treaty States that the Pope came in to
Resolve Problems with Spain and Portugal. The Pope Agreed that the Wealth should be Shared
between Spain and Portugal.
He drew an Imaginary Line 2,193 kilometres to the West of the Cape Verde Islands, gave
Portugal the Land to the East of this Line, and gave Spain the land to the West of this Line. This
Treaty was Signed at Tordesillas, which is how the Treaty got its Name. This is why Brazil is
Portuguese (2nd Formal Political Power in the Caribbean: Brazil).
Repartimiento Labour System and Encomienda became Policies Crafted by European People
to Pursue Wealth.
Repartimiento: This is Translated to "The Requirement" in English. It was a Superimposed
Agreement Crafted by the King of Spain which Required Amerindians to Work for him as his
Subjects.
This Labour Policy caused: Exploitation, Repression and Inhumanity. The Repartimiento lead to
Genocide of the Amerindians. There was no Emphasis on Taking Care of the Amerindians
(Since they were "Extra" {Originally, the Spanish Searched for Wealth and then Found them as
well} and thus Easily Replaceable)
1492 🡪 Discovery of the New World.
1494 🡪 Tordesillas
1512 🡪 Laws of Burgos
The Laws of Burgos Stated that the Ill-Treatment of the Amerindians would no Longer Occur.
The Laws of Burgos was a Policy that came into Effect since the Repartimiento nearly Killed all
the Amerindians. Bartolomew De Las Casas spoke to the King of Spain and the Repartimiento
ended.
Encomienda: This is a Spanish Labour Policy that came after the Repartimiento in 1512. It
Differed from the Repartimientoi Theory; not Practice. The Enconiendero (Creator of the
Encomienda) was Responsible for Turning Amerindians to the "One True Faith." It was a
Continued Exploitation.
The Spanish Monarch Decided that the Native Population should be Divided amongst
Spaniards, who had the Right to Extract from them Forms of Tribute: Produce, Gold or Personal
Service. In Return, the Spaniards would Guarantee Religious Instruction in the Roman Catholic
Faith.
In Reality, the Amerindians were Treated as Slaves and put to Work in the Mines. They Quickly
Died from Hunger, Overwork, Harsh Punishments, European Diseases and Suicide. The
System of Production was a "Get Rich-Quick" Scheme where Resources were taken from a
Conquered People By Forced Labour and sent to Spain to Increase Spain's Power and Prestige
in Europe.
The Encomienda Lasted only a Few Years. In 1518, the Asiento Marked the Permission by the
King of Spain to Bring in African People to Work in the Caribbean. In 1518, the Africans were
the 3rd Set of People in the New World.
In the Course of European Labour Policies, the Labour Vacuum Triggered the Importation of
New People. The Africans were the First to come in. After they were Emancipated in 1830s,
another Vacuum Began: The East Indians.
The Interlopers: European Nations (except Portugal) became Jealous of Spain's "Get Rich
Scheme." Thus, a new Challenge Arose to Spain's Ownership of the New World.
An Interloper is a Person who Interferes in the Affairs of Others.
The Interlopers (England, France, Holland) Challenged Spain and hence, European Politics and
Animosities Entered the New World. Warfare in the Caribbean Occurred and Territories
Changed Hands; Leading to Political Turmoil.
Because of the Interlopers, there have been Several "Parents" of the Nations, ie, Changing
Hands of the Territories (Eg. Trinidad 🡪 From Spanish to French to English, Until it Settled
Down Today). We are Justified in Saying that there is a Diversity of Political Structures Present
in the Caribbean.
Eg. There are Political Democracies and even Colonies such as Montserrat.
British Territories: Westminster Whitehall Parliamentary Democracy.
French: Departements.
Breakdown of Political Affiliations:
Country.
Caribbean Islands Associated with the Country.
Netherlands Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (ABC Islands)
Suriname, St. Eustatius.

French Martinique, Haiti, French Guyana, Guadeloupe.

England Cayman Islands, Jamaica, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, British Virgin Islands,
Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, St. Lucia, St Vincent
and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Belize.
Spain Cuba, Dominican Republic.

United States Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands.

What Began 500 Years ago in Political Control, still Continues today. Even though there are
Independent Countries / Republics (Eg. Trinidad and Tobago), we are still Controlled by
European Politics.
Social and Cultural Dynamics are Influenced by European Social and Cultural Norms.
Therefore, we were Controlled Politically by things such as European Politics, Religions and
Languages.
The Political Systems such as British Democracy, French Departements and Associated States
(Puerto Rico) Displayed that we have Borrowed Forms of Government from them.
The Interlopers became Formalized in the New World when Spain Conceded Its Monopoly. In
1605, a Political Treaty called the "Treaty Of London" Stated that Spain gave up their Privileges
to the New World.
However, Spain Held on to the South American Territories and the Greater Antilles (Jamaica,
Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico). Spain wanted the Greater Antilles because they contained
Resources: Gold and Silver namely.
Diasporic Definition: "Diaspora" Implies the Movement of People. With this, there is Inevitable
Movement of Social and Cultural Elements from One Place to Another. The Caribbean had
several Migratory Movements from South Africa, Europe and Asia and this led to a Racially
Diverse Reality in the Caribbean today, Known as "Cultural Plurality".
Cultural Pluralism is a term Associated with the Cultural Diversity Resulting from European
Colonizations when Different Groups were Brought Together either Forcibly or Under Contract.
In a Plural Society, There are Two or More Ethnic Groups who Share the Same Space and
Interact Regularly.
Racial Diversity Leads to even more Pluralisation through Hybridization. It is True to say that in
a Post Emancipation Context, there has been a Greater Level of Outward Diasporic Movement.
Diaspora Deals with Movement in and out of a Country. Previous to all of the Labour Systems,
there have been African, Chinese and East Indians Diaspora. Today, there is only an Outward
Moving Diaspora. This is because when they Leave the Caribbean, they are no Longer "African,
Chinese, East Indian" but they have Created their own Identity as "Caribbean People".
Geological Definition: The Geological basis of the Caribbean expresses great diversity as there
are several factors responsible for the formation of Caribbean territories.
The Caribbean is comprised of mainland, continental territories, volcanic islands, coral islands
and uplift islands. The Caribbean can be broken up into parts or regions using a geographical
basis.
In the Caribbean, there are certain groups created due to Geological Action, which may coincide
with Political Factors. Eg. The Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Netherlands Antilles, South
American territories, Central American territories, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos 🡪 All have
different geological action.
The Greater Antilles are estimated to be older than the Lesser Antilles (Greater Antilles 🡪 60-90
million years old, Lesser Antilles 🡪 40 million years old). Age is too far apart to be the same
thing. The Greater Antilles were formed out of Tectonic Movements (Folding and Faulting) on a
scale more than the Lesser Antilles.
Plate Tectonic Theory: The Earth is made up of several layers that differ in temperature and
viscosity. At the centre, there is a super hot core of metal that gradually cools and forms an
outward layer which is firm and cool. Plate Tectonics suggests the crustal shell is broken up in
several places and allow movements due to internal convection currents. Movements involve
plates moving in relation to each other, resulting in different plate margins:
Convergent: Plates move in opposite direction and cause Destruction.
Divergent: Plates move away from each other and are Constructive.
Transform: Plates Slip past each other.
The Caribbean Plate is an Oceanic Plate. It is bound on all sides by much larger, older and
denser plates. Due to the number of neighbouring plates, the Caribbean lies in a very active
area. This can be catastrophic in human society. The Caribbean is thus susceptible to Earth
Activity, Volcanic Eruption and Tsunamis.
The Lesser Antilles consist of Inner and Outer Arcs of islands that coincide with the Plate
Boundaries. The Inner Arc is Volcanic in nature and the Outer Arc is Limestone in nature.
Because there are two different Geological Bases, the Geological Nature will be different.
The Inner Arc possess Volcanic Features such as Dormant and Active Volcanoes, Sharp Relief,
High Mountains, Rich Black Volcanic Soil, Little or no Continental Shelf and Primary or
Secondary Volcanic Features.
The Geological Basis is important for Social and Cultural affiliations. Eg. Due to the Volcanic
Nature of some islands, there is Volcanic Tourism. Hot Springs and Sulphur Springs form part of
Health Tourism in Guyana. The Pitch Lake in Trinidad contains sulphur which aids in treat
arthritis.
The Outer Arc of Islands is more westerly, hence, there was a different geological origin. The
Outer Arc of Islands is Emergent Islands: They came out of the Sea over 10 million years ago
due to convergence of American Plates.
Because of the slow emergence, it facilitated the formation of Coral Islands on underwater
Plateaus. The Tectonic Nature of the Caribbean has resulted in the formation of Volcanic and
Limestone features. This is exclusively for the Lesser Antilles.
The Caribbean has several active volcanic sites and earth movements that occur in the Greater
Antilles.
Major Earthquakes in the Caribbean:
⦁ Fort Royal: Old Capital of Jamaica destroyed in 1602.
⦁ Kingston: 1907.
⦁ Kingston: 1957.
⦁ Haiti: 2010.
Earthquakes are centered on Greater Antilles in the Northern part of the Caribbean. The Kick
em' Jenny volcano threatened recently. Hence, the Caribbean Plate is a very active plate and it
is surrounded by four major, denser tectonic plates.
The Dominican Passage separates the Leeward Islands (French) from the Windward Islands
(English). The Dominican Passage is a virtual, linguistic and political division. "Leeward: and
"Windward" have nothing to do with "Winds".
There are two submarine geological structures that mark the Caribbean Plate: The Caiman
Trough and the Puerto Rico Trench. The Puerto Rico Trench is estimated to be 8400 metres
deep due to folding.
The deep waters attract special fish since they prefer these territories. Sport Fishing begins and
this attracts Tourism while other people benefit from the creation of jobs.

Module 1, Specific Objective 2

The Historical Process
Migratory Movements and Settlement Patters from Pre-Colombian Times:
There are several different major migrations that took place over time. To best examine this,
one should look at large periods of time.
Pre Columbian: This is before Christopher Columbus. The Caribbean is said to be populated
due to movement from South America and Central America.
The New World came to be populated due to movements of the Asiatic (Asian) People from
Bering Land Bridge. The first people to populate the Americas were believed to have migrated
across the Bering Land Bridge while tracking large animal herds. The first Americans migrated
into North America from Asia more than fourteen to twenty thousand years ago via an overland
route across the frozen Land Bridge. The bridge formed ice due to long periods of icy weather.
This puts a pre-dominant characteristic on the New World. Migration thus became a pattern.
The oldest known remains in the Caribbean were found in Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad
(Banwarie Man). He was about 7000 years old.
The first group of people found was called the Ciboney and they primarily existed in the Lesser
Antilles. The next known migration was the Tainos (Note: Arawak is the language.) and the last
group of Amerindians was the Kalinagos (Caribs). Their movement was from around 1000 BC.
The Tainos primarily inhabited the Greater Antilles and the Caribs inhabited the Lesser Antilles.
When the Europeans first came, they met the Tainos. The large concentration of Tainos in the
Greater Antilles meant more labour for Europeans.
The Caribs were "war like" in nature. The Caribbean was hence named after the "Caribs". The
Tainos people were able to achieve a high level of cementary living in contrast to the Caribs
who were still moving.
The Tinos had a very Dependable Advanced Scientific Agricultural Practice. One of their main
crops was the cassava. The Kalinagos were very fierce people and often times exploited
Tainos. They would capture Tainos people for sacrifice (Eating them for Ceremonial Purposes).
The Kalinagos became a major part of European history because they resisted European
Oppression much more than the Tainos. The Caribs introduced a sense of Resistance,
Resilience and Rebellion into the Caribbean Socio-Cultural Spectrum. This lasts even till this
day.

The Amerindians suffered under Europeans and this then led to Genocide of the Amerindians at
the hands of the Europeans. The Amerindians would have succumbed due to one way or the
other:
⦁ Diseases brought by Europeans: Amerindians were initially isolated from diseases ravaging
Europe as they were no Influenza in the New World. After interaction with the Europeans, some
Amerindians died due to STDs, and Air Borne Diseases. These diseases wrecked havoc on the
Amerindians.

0. Wars of European Conquest: Amerindians defended their homes. The Europeans,

however, had advanced metal, guns and gunpowder. The Amerindians were totally annihilated
and they died.

0. War Animals: Eg. Dogs, Horses let loose on Amerindians. The military might of the
Europeans far exceeded that of the Amerindians.

0. Destruction of Food Supplies: Corns and Potatoes were destroyed by the Europeans
and the Amerindians starved to death.

0. Slavery in the Mines: Repartimiento or Encomienda.

1492: This year signalled a turning point in history. It is the year of "Discovery". There was a
Superimposition of a Eurocentric / Ethnocentric Attitude of Ownership, Domination and
Exploitation upon the Caribbean since the Caribbean was described as being inferior.
The New World opened up avenues for European Wealth Exploitation. Europeans look upon
the New World with the attitude of Ownership. This becomes a Pattern / Legacy that goes on in
the Caribbean today. In the Pursuit of Wealth, Labour Systems (Eg. Repartimiento,
Encomienda) become necessary.
The 3rd major movement into the Caribbean was the African Forced Movement preceded by the
Europeans and Amerindians, in the year 1518. More and more Ethnicities created a Plural
Society and this becomes a Legacy. There were more European Nations in the Caribbean.
New Political Powers and new Races meant that the Social and Cultural Reality of the
Caribbean began and remains in a Diversified Manner.
African Slavery firstly existed in Brazil. The Portuguese brought the first major Plantation type
Crop: Sugar Cane. Although Brazil isn't a Caribbean country, Slavery and Agriculture became a
Paradigm in the Caribbean.
Spain used their Slaves for Mining while the French, British and Dutch used their Slaves for
Agriculture.
1807: In this year, there was the creation of the Abolition Act. This ensured closure of the Slave
Trade, meaning, no more African Slaves were brought. However, it does not mean the End of
Slavery. The Current Slaves, as well as Children of those Slaves, remained Slaves.
1834: The Apprenticeship Program started. This was considered the Transition Phrase from
Slavery to Freedom. Elements of both Freedom and Slavery were contained. The Apprentice
had to work 40 hours of the week for the Master and the Master pays him in return. This, to the
Africans, was a Perpetuation of Atrocities as harsh Working Conditions and terrible Personal
Treatment didn't change. The Apprenticeship program was the beginning of the end of Slavery.
1838: The Passage of the Emancipation Act was signed. This is the freedom of African Slaves.
For the 2nd time, a Labour Vacuum was created for the New World. There were Two Types of
Movements taking place: African People moving out while Chinese People were moving in.
Chinese were the first Asians, followed by East Indians.
Because they were Emancipated, Africans began to move away from the Plantations. They
sought opportunities in places such as Brazil, Panama, Venezuela, Cuba and Guyana (Larger
places with more land).
Additionally, the Africans, after Emancipation, were seeking land to hide from the Europeans.
They started a Self-Sufficient Type Living; creating a new group in the Caribbean called the
Peasantry. The Africans resisted European control.
The Coco Penòl comes to fill a labour vacuum left by the Africans in the Cocoa fields. These
people were typically "Red" 🡪 A mixture of White and African.
6000 – 4000 B.C. 🡪 Amerindians into the Caribbean.
1492 🡪 Europeans into the Caribbean.
1518 🡪 Africans moved into the Caribbean by force.
1838 🡪 Africans out of the Caribbean (1st Outward Caribbean diaspora).
1838 🡪 Chinese Indentureship into the Caribbean.
1838 🡪 Coco Penòl from Venezuela into the Caribbean.
1845 🡪 East Indians into the Caribbean.
There are Sociological Impacts (How People Think, Live, Operate) across the Caribbean due to
Movements into, out of or between Caribbean Countries. Because the Europeans had the
reigns of Power Overtime, they would have influenced the Social, Institutional and Cultural
Norms and Frameworks.
Social Institutions, which comprises of Culture, are the big ideas that people use to structure
their lives. Because of European Social Institutional and Cultural Norms, Cultural Imperialism
was formed. Due to the White Man's Power and Ability to Dominate and Oppress, his Culture
and Habits become perceived as "Superior". As the saying goes, "What is White is Right, What
is Black is Blank."
The number of Inputs into the Caribbean creates many Variables that are still being worked out:
Socially and Culturally.
Sociological Phenomena Operating in the Caribbean Today:
Sociological Phenomena Definition

Cultural Imperialism The practice whereby a Dominant Culture (usually a Technology Superior
Group) attempts to promote their own Culture and Belief over that of Another (Usually a Country
with Fewer Resources).

Hybridization

Creolization

Transculturalation

Interculturation

Syncretism The Fusion of two or more groups of People or Cultural Practices to produce a
New Entity with Elements of each of the Parent Influences.
Eg. Mixed Ethnic Groupings.

The Meeting and Mixing of Cultures to produce something new out of the Fusion.

Cultural Change involving the Whole Society, sometimes due to Political Upheavals. The steady
import of enslaved Africans into the Caribbean drastically altered all aspects of Society and
Culture.

The Cultural Mixing that occurs in a Plural Society where Ethnic Groups may live with Limited
Mixing yet elements of their Cultures become Incorporated into each other's way of Life.

The Mixing of Cultural Practices from different Ethnic Groups to create a Hybrid or a different
Entity Fusing Aspects of the Original Practices. Eg. Musing, Culinary Arts, Religion.

Cultural Pluralism

Cultural Diversity Different Cultural or Racial Groups in a Society mixing only to a certain
extent, with limited Social and Cultural Integration.

Different Ethnic Traditions (Evident in Race, Language, Religion, Customs, Family Practices)
found in one Society or Religion.
Cultural Erasure Practices that have died out or are dying out.

Enculturation
The process of Socialization that Enable (or coerce) us to learn the ways of life of a
Cultural Group.

Assimilation The Absorption of a Cultural Group into the Norms and Values of a Dominant
Group through Acculturation.

Acculturation is the imposition of a dominant's group way of life on another group.

Socialization The Process whereby Members learn to be Human; they learn the Rules that
Society has devised for Living and Interacting in Society.

Social Stratification /
Social Mobility Social Stratification is the ranking of Social Groups according to Wealth, Status
and Prestige.

Social Mobility is the Movement of an Individual or a Group from one Socio-Economic Class to
another, usually higher up in the System of Social Stratification.

Class Consciousness and Classism; Colour Consciousness.

Classism is the Belief or Attitudes that relegate Persons to Limited Options or Portray
them Negatively because of their Socio-Economic Class.
Socio-Economic and Political Models being Hybridized.

Social Institutions

Social Organizations A set of Valued Ideas and Beliefs which varies from one Society to
another and from which Members create their Social Organizations.

Arrangements that Society makes to carry out its Basic Functions and which are based on the
Ideas and Beliefs of its Social Institutions. Eg. The ideas a society has about Religion may be
reflected in Organizations such as Churches.

Material Culture

Non-Material / Symbolic Culture

The Objects that a Group produces and which differ significantly from the Material
Culture of other groups. Eg. Clothing, Art, Tech. Products.

The Ideas, Beliefs, Values, Assumptions and Behaviours of a People.

Race Politics
 The Practice of Politicians exploiting the issue of Race to forward an Agenda.

Formation of Minorities: Sub-Cultures and Alienated Groups

A Minority Group is a group, usually an Ethnic Group, that may or may not be
Numerically Inferior to a more Dominant Group, which Limits their Access to Education,
Employment, Land and other Rights.

They have no Political Power and their Values and Traditions are Marginal to the Society.

Subculture is a smaller Group within the Mainstream who is Distinguished by Characteristics

and Values that set them apart.

Class, Gender, Political Affiliation, Sexual Orientation, Religious Minority and Age are the bases
for kinds of Subculture.

The previous Phenomena couldn't exist without Migration. There are Legacies of European
Intervention and currently pose Development Challenges today.
Movement out of the Caribbean:
This has always been stimulated by the Desire for Better Opportunities. The 1st movement out
of the Caribbean was by the Africans in 1838. After 1838, there have been several other
Movements out of the Caribbean such as: Building of Panama Canal (1900 Onward), World
War One (1915 – 1920) and World War Two (1939 – 1945). In more recent times, such as the
1980s and 1990s to the more present day, people have been Seeking Opportunities in the
Metropolitan Nations.
1838 and the Peasantry became Significant; as this signals the beginning of the Movement
towards Independence. This Movement lasted for more than 100 years.
1838 witnesses the Importation of Chinese Labourers. They went to Larger Territories as
Africans would have been moving away from Plantations and since the Smaller Territories have
little place for settlement. Chinese Labour lasted from 1838 onward but there was a Major Shift
to East Indians in 1845 because Chinese weren't able to cope with the Rigors of Plantation
Work.
During the Outward Movement Time, Caribbean People were starting Diasporic communities
wherever they went. Consider the post Cuban Revolution. This trigged a Diasporic community
as large numbers of Cubans were moving into Miami in 1959. This created a Clearly Defined
Sub-Cultural Identity.
Slavery and Plantation:
Slavery was meant to fill the Labour Vacuum caused by the Genocide of the Amerindians.
African Diaspora followed to fill the space. The Amerindians had the Repartimiento and
Encomienda Labour Systems while the Africans had the Slavery Labour System and Agriculture
Business Model.
Slavery advances the Imperialistic Thrust so Europeans can make as much Money as possible.
Slavery and the Plantation System were part of the Capitalist Economic Structure. Capitalism is
an Economic Way of thinking to get as much money as possible. Slavery becomes a Unique
Way of Increasing the Profit Margin.
Labour is Bought (until Death) instead of Regular Payment for Services. As an Economic
Structure, Capitalism prospered. African Slavery and Oppression is a Perpetuation of what was
started by the Amerindians. It is a Continuation of Domination.
African Slavery began in 1518 in the New World. With Slavery, there is further Pluralisation of
the Socio-Cultural Caribbean since there is importation of Material and Non-Material Culture.
Diversity of Culture has a Long Lasting Effect that lasts today. African Culture has Impacted
more than any other Culture, besides European Culture.
There was need for the Removal of African Identity (Cultural Erasure) for Domination; else the
Africans may have Rebelled. The European went about Brainwashing African people and
slowly, but surely, and in its place, putting in their own Pseudo Norms and Values.
There is now Cultural Supplantation. This leads to the Creation of many Identity Problems in the
African People; leading to Hybridization. The Africans were Herded; there were no Socialization
and no Opportunity for Individuality. This was Dehumanization.
The Plantation existed in the Southern part of America all the way down to Argentina. Via the
Plantation, New Crops (Eg. Sugar Cane, Cotton, Oranges) became a Cultural Spectrum that
goes on till this day. Some Crops become Synonymous with their country. Eg. Cuba has
tobacco, Trinidad has World Famous Cocoa.
Crops became part of the Caribbean Peoples' Identity. Plantations became important for the
Economies. The Plantation was based upon a clearly defined Structure of Hierarchy and Rank.
The Pyramid Structure of the Plantation:

The Plantation Structure becomes a Rigidly Divided Economic / Business Structure, hence,
Divisions between Groups. This is known as Social Stratification. Social Mobility and Social
Stratification are Directly Intertwined. The factors listed above become a major part of the
Caribbean with the Plantation.
Education becomes the major Social Mobility and Social Stratification factor due to
Competitiveness. A Plethora of Social problems and Divisions then started. Classism’s are the
form of classes based on certain variables.
The Plantation Ideology and Pre-Occupation of the Caribbean still permeates in the Caribbean
Society today in terms of Treatment of People. The Plantocracy is also proposed to exist in
Political Structures today.
Social Stratification is Regulated and Policed within the Plantation Structure with no Group
encouraged to ride beyond their Station. The Plantation is Restricted to Upward Social Mobility.
Slavery and Plantation introduced Colour Consciousness. There is a Preference for White
people while Dark Pigmented Skin is associated with Inferiority, and Unattractiveness.
There is already a Pre-Established Way of Judging People. Many Sociological Phenomena
become part of our Identity due to the Plantations:
⦁ Social Stratification.
⦁ Pluralization of Society.
⦁ Addition of Material and Non-Material Elements.
⦁ Cultural Diversity.
⦁ Cultural Imperialism.
⦁ Colour Consciousness or Pigmentocracy.
⦁ Culture Erasure.
⦁ Social and Cultural Tension.
⦁ Fear of Authority.
⦁ Mis / Dis Trust of Power.
⦁ Hybridization and Syncretism.
⦁ Enculturation.
⦁ Acculturation.
⦁ Assimilation.
⦁ Social Mobility.
People of Colour were branded with Inferiority. They spent their lives trying to get away from
that Stigma. People are always seeking to improve Social Mobility and this Influences Diaspora.
Easily Observed Legacies of the Plantation in the Caribbean Today:
⦁ Patterns of Settlements and Patterns of Towns: Laid out according to Plantations.

0. Monocrop Agriculture: Many Caribbean countries depend on this for the Gross National
Product (G.N.P.). Eg. Sugar Cane earns about 60% of Guyana`s G.N.P.

0. Multi-Ethnic / Multi-Racial Societies: Due to Importations of Labour from Different Parts

of the World.

0. Division of Societies: Europeans invented the Divide and Conquer Strategy. Groups
were always weary of each other. It is the same for Mis / Dis Trust.

0. Racial and Cultural Intolerance.

0. Cultural Imperialism: Eg. Everything European is Superior while everything Black is

Inferior. There are Two Dimensions: Psychological and Economic.

0. European Social Institutions: Eg. Language – There is no Language which is seen as

Standard that is Caribbean. Dress Code, Political and Legal Structures, Education and
Language are all European in Nature. The Plantation and Capitalism are responsible for
Economic Underdevelopment. The Plantation takes the Wealth from the Caribbean and carries
it to the Europeans.

0. Social Stratification: Distinct and Numerous Divisions, Sub-Divisions, Classes and

Groups. The same Pyramid Structure exists today, except it has been Expanded.
0. Hybridization.
Post Emancipation:
There is no longer Importation of Africans in the Caribbean. However, the Labour of Africans
remains an Important Commodity. In the Post-Emancipation era, there are lots of Issues
occurring at the same time:
⦁ Formation of Peasantry.
⦁ Indentureship.
⦁ Wage and Labour Upheavals.
⦁ Riots and Political Disturbance.
Indentureship: This is not restricted to only Eastern People (Chinese and East Indians). Even
during African Slavery, there was Indentureship. Indentureship was a Program of Labour that
existed in the New World and Europe.
It can be described as a Policy where a Person signs a Contract; Selling his Labour for a Period
of Time, at the end of which, he is Paid.
At the end of Slavery, a Labour Vacuum was left and East Indians and Chinese came to fill this.
During 1838 - 1845, a large amount of Chinese came from Guangdong Province in Southern
China.
The Chinese went mainly to the larger Caribbean Islands (Eg. Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago,
Belize, Suriname, Greater Antilles) since those are the areas where the African Labourers
Abandoned and fled to the Jungles. This began the Peasantry (Evolution).
Chinese came from Singapore, Malaysia, and Java. This signals the 4th major Diasporic
movement into the Caribbean. In every new Labour Group, Socio - Cultural Pluralisation
becomes as Material and Non-Material elements are brought.
African Labourers were moving away from the Plantation and leaving certain Territories in
search of better Opportunities in the Region. During the Post-Emancipation era, they went to
Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela. They sought places with Large Scale Projects (Eg. Panama)
and places with Better Wages / Land (Eg. Cuba). This was the 1st Outward Diasporic
Movement.
Three Reasons why Africans left the Caribbean:
⦁ They couldn't tolerate the Ongoing Oppressive Labour System.
⦁ They were Restricted from Owning Land.
⦁ Large Territories were offering Better Wages.
Later on, Indentured Labourers came from India. Just like the Chinese, East Indians brought
Material and Non-Material Elements to add to the Socio-Cultural Spectrum in the Caribbean.
Like every other Group, the Indentures had their Impact on the Caribbean Reality of today.
This resulted in a Chinese and East Indian Presence. These Persons would have an Impact on
the Cultural Ideologies of today. Additionally, Hybridization added to the Socio - Cultural
Spectrum. This led to the Caribbean being characterized as being a Hybrid-Socio-Cultural
Reality.
Evolution of the Peasantry:
The Peasantry was Important in the Socio-Cultural Evolution of the Caribbean. It represents a
Transition group between the Plantation and Independence. The Peasantry becomes a Catalyst
towards Independence. This embodies an Aggressive Desire for Freedom.
The Treatment of the Liberated African Slaves was a Perpetuation of Inhumanity and Injustice.
So, they Abandoned. Africans, even after Emancipation, Maintained a level of Mis / Dis trust.
Africans initiated an Attitude of Distrust for the Social Institutions of Europe.
They realized that the Law and Justice suited the Europeans. They saw how Christianity was
meant to Brainwash them. The European Social Institutions were meant to be Exploitative and
Oppressive. Because of the African Peasantry, an attitude of Resistance and Resilience
develops within them that still occur today.
The Peasantry has to seek Opportunities to achieve Economic Independence, ie, they have to
make their own Money. They entered into Entrepreneurial Activities such as Sole Trading and
Selling their Labour for a Wage while Working for Companies.
Sole Trading Activities include a Broad Spectrum: Bakery, Carpenters, Fast Food Businesses.
Many Africans worked as Handymen, or even working in the Docks. They sold their Labour as
they recognized that their Labour has Worth. They didn’t want to go back to the Plantations as it
was Associated with Oppression. The African Women would be Sewing, Washing Laundry and
even partaking in Culinary Action.
Many Africans went to the Outskirts of Towns and Squatted. Eg. In Trinidad: Sealots, Belmont,
San Juan, Laventille, Betham are all squatting areas that occurred in a Post-Emancipation era.
Because of the end of Indentureship, East Indians found the largest estates in places such as
Siparia and Tunapuna.
The Africans found ways to Pool their Resources to form Economic Institutions. Eg. Susu
(Savings and Loans) aka Partner (In Jamaica) and Box (In Guyana and Barbados). This allows
Africans to Circumvent European Institutions, ie, they become Independent of the Banks. This
becomes the Basis of Resistance and Rebellion.
Susu becomes Important in the Acquisition of Land. That carried a little bit of Trickery, since the
Europeans didn’t want to sell lands to Africans (They didn’t want Africans owning anything). So,
the Africans used the Church as a Vessel to undergo Negotiations.
In a Post-Emancipation era, Africans moved away from Christianity. However, Christianity was a
means of owning Land, so, they moved back to Organized Christian religion. The Church also
benefitted as it was fulfilling the Main Objective of Spreading the Gospel.
The Africans got the White Missionaries to buy the land for them and then the Church re-
distributed the land to Africans who paid. Eg. Rio Claro, Mayaro, San Juan, Maracas Valley.
The Church was happy to get a Congregation. The Susu allowed the Africans to get Personal
Independence from European Power and Authority.
The Peasantry becomes Responsible for Culture Creation. The Peasantry formed Communities
based upon Values: Trust and Cooperation. These are known as the "Peasant Values" or the
"Long-Time Values." The Peasants are associated with the Hinterlands.
The Hinterlands were places that were Cheap to Buy (Eg. Forests, Swamps). During the early
19th century, United States of America was experiencing the Internal Civil War. Africans Slaves
in the US were Promised Liberty if they fought for the North.
They were Promised: Land and Properties. These were known as the "Buffalo Soldiers".
However, they were exported out of the US to, for example, Trinidad and Tobago. They formed
Company Villages such as in Moruga.
Peasants created the Language: The Creole, and the Creative Arts: The Steel Pan. The Steel
Pan was an Effort to Regain part of the Africans Historical Legacy. It was part of Hybridization
and Creolization. The Steel Pan became part of the Rebellion in the Caribbean.

Positive Contributions of the Peasantry:

⦁ Culture Creation: The Peasantry is a transition from Plantation to Caribbean Free Society.
This Group would be tasked with Culture Creation and creating new Interactions, Norms and
Beliefs between Peoples.

0. Hybridization of Religion: Africans lost the Majority their Religion when the Europeans
Enslaved them. The Europeans took the Fight off the African men when they Removed
Religious Activities to a large extent. Religion is seen as a Source of Strength. Additionally, it is
a Congregational Activity which allowed a lot of Africans to Gather and Interact.

The Europeans Supplanted Christianity as a form of Psychological Control. Christianity was only
provided and depicted in ways and means that allowed Europeans to suit their Long term
Objective of Control.

Even so, the Africans held on to aspects of their West African Beliefs in secret and they still
practiced their Beliefs in secret. This means that when there was Emancipation, the Africans
were allowed to practice their Religion. However, much was lost overtime.

When they practiced it again, their practices got mixed with Christianity and other Norms. Eg.
Spiritual Shouter Baptists practiced their Religion with Loud Singing, Dancing and "Catching of
the Spirit". Orisha is another African Religion present in Tobago while there is Rastafarianism in
Jamaica, Santeria in Cuba and Brazil and Shango Baptist in Grenada.

Hybrid Religion becomes a Basis for Resistance and Resilience since the Europeans couldn't
control and predict the African Religion. Those who control Religion, control the People.
Religion is used as the Africans Antagonize the European Community. The Africans would not
bow to the Europeans.

The European Christianity is docile while the Spiritual Shouter Baptist religion is noisier. The
Europeans condemned this. The Africans had to resist Stereotypization, as well as Physical,
and Psychological Opposition to their Religion.

0. Beginning of Political Consciousness: The Africans wanted to Escape Oppression, Live

in Freedom and Live in the Jungles; rather than to Work for a Wage while belonging to someone
else and treated as Slaves.
Overtime, the Peasants would have formed Groups which had their Seeds in Labour
Organizations. The Peasantry, because of Overwhelming Support, would have become a Voice
of Resistance. Africans would have had an Understanding of not wanting to be Controlled by
Europeans; which is a Political Stance.
0. Formation of Society: There is a Desire to get Freedom; which is shared among
Africans. There are Pockets where Families get Together and form a Community; which steadily
grows Overtime.
The Communities were based upon an Understanding and shared Cultural Interaction. They
face Common Challenges, have Common Aspirations and this forms a basis for Co-Operation.
0. Peasant Agriculture / Subsistence Type Farming: This Type of Farming is where a
Person lives off a Small Piece of Land and Plants food for Himself / Family. If there are any
Extras, there are Sold.
Peasant Farming became part of the Cultural Identity of the Caribbean. Peasant Agriculture is
primarily important in the Lesser Antilles and Guyana, etc... It formed a Basis for Livelihood and
allowed for Economic Enfranchisement. Eg. The Susu allows for Pooling Resources and
forming a Basis of Resistance.
0. Music: There were mainly Calypso and Reggae.
The Calypso began out of the African Work Song. To keep Rhythm and make Work seem less,
the Africans sang Work Songs. The Calypsos utilized these Work Songs but a Change in the
Lyrical Content occurred.
The Calypso became the Basis for Verbal Assault among the European Power Structures, ie,
the Calypsonian uses his Craft to Rebel, Ridicule, and Antagonize the European Powers.
Kaiso is a Real Social Commentrary where the Calypsonian uses his Knowledge of Language
to "bad talk" Someone. The Lyrics of Kaiso have always been Scathing those who own Power.
Up to this day, Kaiso is still practiced.
Calypso has moved into "Party" Context while the Kaiso is left to the older Calypsonians.
Reggae has the same Origins in the African Work Song. The Music and Intention is similar to
Kaiso; to show Authority Figures where they are going wrong and show how people are being
Oppressed. Africans created song as a Basis of Coping and Resisting Oppression. The lyrics of
the Calypso and Reggae were similar.
The Maroon Society stands out as a Sub-Cultural Identity in Jamaica. The Maroon Society was
formed by "Run Away" Slaves, hence, the Basis for the Maroon Society is Rebelliance. They
created Rastafarianism and Formed / Evolved the Reggae Music.
The Cockpit Country was made up of Limestone. Because of Limestone features such as Caves
and Caverns, the Cockpit Country produced Protection for some People.
The Runaway Slaves kept more of their African Identity than those who remained on the
Plantation. The Africans who would have remained on the Plantations have been Assimilated
into the European Identity whereas Residents of the Cockpit Country kept their Culture. They
Evolved separately from the rest of Jamaica and became an Epitomisation of people to not be
Other's Property.

Negative Impacts of the Peasantry:

⦁ Culture of Squatting: The Peasant doesn’t own land. Squatting becomes part of the
Settlement Pattern. Squatting was Prevalent outside of the Urban Areas; whether it be Trinidad and
Port of Spain or Jamaica and Kingston. There has always been a Concentration of African People.
These areas have been Tenured.
These areas would be Stereotypically poor. They may be Associated with Uncertain Activities.
When these places, Eg. Laventille / Beetham, were Formed, Residents had to find Jobs and
when they couldn’t, Criminality was formed. Squatting is a Problem for Private Land Owners
and the Government.
0. Cultural Dependency: The Squatter's Beliefs that things were owed to them Increased
Problems. This goes hand in hand with Historical Exploitation; as People Lack Initiative.

0. Negative Agricultural Practices: Peasant Farming can take place anywhere. Slash and
Burn and Shifting Agriculture are Negative Aspects. This is where Large Areas of Land are Cut
Down, used Fertility for about 5 Years and then never used again.

0. Formation of Gangs, Violence, Criminality: Burglary, Prostitution, Drugs were means to

"get by". These still occur today. The Culture of Resistance served for the Basis of Caribbean.
We resisted European Oppression but Lawlessness still occurs today.
Culture of Resistance and Resilience:
This is a Historical Feature that began with the Amerindians as they dealt with European
Oppression. This started the Resistance and Resilience. There are both: Active and Passive
Resistance. Active Resistance requires Participation while Passive Resistance takes steps to do
nothing.
Active Resistance include: Suicide, Infanticide, Homicide, Maroonage (Bush Negros in Guyana
and Maroon Society in Jamaica), Revolt and Rebellion
Passive Resistance include: Pretending Illness, Playing Ignorant, Making Music, Economic
Structures (Eg. Susu), Pooling Labour, Shared Responsibilities (Eg. Neighbours looking out for
each other), Creating of Trade Unions / Labour Organizations, and the Development of Anti-
colonial Sentiments.
The Peasantry is a vital aspect of the Socio - Cultural, socio - economic and Socio - Political
part of the Caribbean Identity today.

Examples of Revolt and Rebellion in the Caribbean History:

⦁ Arena Uprising of 1699: "Arena Massacre" The Amerindians Slaves / Labour were quelled by
Spanish Forces. This was the 1st Uprising in the Caribbean.

0. The Haitian Rebellion: Haitai was called "St. Domingue" and this Rebellion took place
from: 1791 – 1803.

0. Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 in Jamaica.

0. Hoosay Riots of 1884: St Madeline, Trinidad.

0. Labour Riots of 1937: Fyzabad, Trinidad.

0. Cuban Revolution of 1959.

Factors Affecting the Movement towards Independence: After 1838, there was much turmoil in
the Caribbean:
⦁ Actions of the Peasantries.
⦁ Abandoning of the Plantations.
⦁ Impact of Early Education Systems.
⦁ High Levels of Unemployment.
⦁ Lack of Opportunities.
⦁ Impact of Early Education Systems: The Europeans have newly Emancipated Africans
education.
⦁ Formation of Trade Unions and Trade Unrest.
⦁ Anti-Colonial Sentiments.
⦁ Lack of Expenditure by Caribbean Governments.
⦁ Formation of Political Parties (1930s).
⦁ Diminished Importance of Agriculture: Due to Less Profits.
⦁ Impact of WW1.
⦁ Social and Political Lobbying.
⦁ Impact of WW2.
⦁ Failure of Federation.
⦁ Universal Adult Suffrage (1944).
People were becoming Literate and this provided a Basis for Logical Argument against
European Colonisations.

Steps towards Independence:

One of the 1st moves in the British West Indies was the Acquisition of a viable Political Model.
This was an important step in the British Granting Independence since a Stable Structure to
govern oneself was necessary. To achieve this, the British went through a process of
Decolonization.
The British Government Incrementally gave Power over to Local Government. 1944 marks a
huge stepping stone to Internal Self - Government. This is predicated upon the idea that the
British Supervise the Transition from Colony to Independent Nation. However, the British were
first interested in Federation as opposed to Independence.
1944: i. Internal Self-Government.
ii. Federation Ideology.
iii. Independence.
The Federation was supposed to be an Umbrella Government Institution. This means that there
would be a Collective System where all British Colonies would Govern themselves, ie, all
Territories would participate with same Laws, Language, etc..
After the Federation failed, there was a Movement towards Independence. This came at a
Chaotic Time during the after effects of WW1, a Global Depression and WW2. There were
Shortages of Goods, Hunger, Government and Private Workers not being paid their Salary,
thus, causing a Labour Riot.
The 1940s – 1950s was an Era of Massive Anti-Colonial Action and Anti-Colonial Sentiments.
People were organizing themselves into Groups and this gave rise to Seminal Political Parties.
Labour Trade Unions go hand in hand with Seminal Political Parties and Political Ideas found
confrontation with Colonialism.
There was a Growing Black Intelligentsia, meaning, Caribbean People can now recognize
themselves Internationally. Because of this, Caribbean nations believed that they were
Academically Equipped to deal with Independence. 100 years after Emancipation, the "Black"
People were Equipped enough to push for Independence.
In the Post-Emancipated era, Emancipated Africans were introduced to Education. 1838 started
the Education Process and in 1944, there were enough Educated Caribbean People to strive for
Independence. A Growing Anti-Colonial Sentiment 🡪 People rather Suffer and Govern
themselves.
During 1944, European Nations were directing their Money towards the War and neglected the
Caribbean, hence, Money was Scarce.
In the Caribbean, there are many Political Structures (Refer to Political Definition). Many Ex-
English territories are Democracies. Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana are Republics. All French
Territories are not necessarily Colonies or Independent; They are part of France. Puerto Rico
has the Associated States.
All these Political Structures were Borrowed or Given from European Nations to Caribbean
Nations.
In the Caribbean, all Caribbean Nations, even though we have Different Models, are impacted
by:
⦁ Legacies of Conquest: The Genocide of Amerindians. They were Beat Up and Exploited by
the Spanish.

0. The Division of the Plantation System: Those who were Fair held power.

0. Stratification: This started in the Plantations. Eg. In Trinidad, there are Clear Divisions in
African and Indian parties; the Plantation Perpetuates Division.
0. Plural Society: Governing for all becomes a Problem. A Leader will always be
Challenged since whatever Decision is made, is Challenged by a Portion of the Population.

0. Persistent External Influence: Even though we are Politically Independent from USA and
UK, we are Economically Dependent since the US and UK have Economic Power.
Important Events / Institutions on our way toward Independence represent a transition from one
thing to another. The Process towards Independence started from the Abolition of Slavery
(1833). This is because the Thought of Slavery entered and as such, Resistance and Resilience
started.
In 1838, the Emancipation Act allowed the Movement towards Independence. This occurred
from 1833 – 1962. It was a Long, Drawn Out, Bloody Exercise. In the Caribbean, the 1st
Organized Political Structure was: The Old Representative System.
There would have been a Governor appointed by the King / Queen. The Governor had to be
White and had to be Wealthy, have a Well-Known Family name or had "Connections" to be
chosen to Represent the King / Queen. He had the Power to Govern the Plantation Economy.
The Governor's Role was to promote Economic Stability. The Old Representative System was
directed towards White or Plantation Interest.
The Crown Colony Rule occurred after. The Local People were participating in Government. A
Locally born Governor was chosen and hence, Locally Born Legislative (Local People helped
crafted Policies). However, these Governors still reported to the King / Queen. There was a
Movement from White Government to Black Government.
Internal Self Government followed; co-incidental with Adult Suffrage of 1944. Local Persons
formed Political Parties. The Locals created Policies to govern themselves; instead of using the
Queen's Policies. This gave transition to the Federation Ideology; which only lasted a few years
until 1956.

Pre – Requisites for Independence:

For Independence, the Imperial Nation required that certain things were in place. The British
action in ensuring these things were in place is important for passing on a Viable and Political
Model and to make sure "things don't fall flat":
⦁ Organized Political Structure with Viable Democratic Processes: Creation of Party Politics.

0. Drafting of a Constitution that Governs the Running of the Governmental Structure.

0. Acquisition of a Military: A Nation couldn't depend on the Metropolitan Country to fight

their Wars.

0. Self – Efficiency in Food Production.

0. Display a Positive Balance of Payments: This is the Difference between National Income
and National Expenditure. A Positive Balance of Payments appears when the Income is more
than the Expenditure.

0. The 1st Governmental Structure, The Federation, Failed.

Reasons why the Federation Failed:
⦁ Distance and Communication: There were no Cell Phones and there were Unreliable
Landlines. Hence, there was no Collective Decision Making.

0. Lack of Coordinating Development: Some Nations were Wealthier and thus Advanced
and Developed faster than Others.

0. Parochialism and Xenophobia: Parochialism is the feeling of Contempt of People of

other Nationalities whereas Xenophobia is the Fear of Strangers.

0. Personality Conflicts: There were many Strong Leaders; each a Leader of his own
Nation. In the Federation, they had to put away their views and take orders from one man. This
didn't work well with everyone.

0. Monetisation of Economies: In order to have a Common Currency, each Nation had to

be Theoretically Monetized else Inflation would have occurred.

0. Migration Challenges: People from the Small Islands began to Storm the Wealthier,
Larger Nations due to a lack of Opportunities and hence a search for Better Opportunities. Eg.
Some People came in Trinidad to work in the Oil and Gas Industry.
Module 1, Specific Objective 3
Characteristics of Society and Culture:
The concept of Society and Culture can be studied from Two Major Perspectives:
⦁ Culture of Country or Group.
⦁ The Individual.
Society and Culture, as well as the Physical and Social Environment, play major Roles in
Shaping an Individual into who he becomes. This gives Values, Habits and Ambitions to
someone. Every individual is Enculturated or Socialised into the Norms, Values and Behaviours
of his Environment / Society.
Society and Culture can be used Interchangeably, although they have Different Meanings. One
of the Key Features of Culture, therefore Society, is that it is Self – Perpetuating. In other words,
the Teachings passed on to One Generation will be Passed on to the Successive Generations.
Cultures, Attitudes and Values are Self – Perpetuating.
Society and Culture are regarded as being Dynamic; constantly Evolving. Habits, Norms,
Values and Ways of Thinking slowly change. This is called Cultural Relativism. Even though
Culture is always Changing, there is a Thread of Values that Connect each Generation.
Society can be explored / defined as:
⦁ Geographical Perspective of Society: Geographically, Society depends upon a Collection of
People sharing a Defined Territorial Space. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago surrounded by Clearly
Defined Water Boundaries.

People living in these Areas develop Certain Traits. Eg. They develop a Psychological
Attachment to the Place: a Feeling of Belongingness, Identity, Inclusive. These Feelings are
shared by Everyone in the Territorial Place. This is called a Shared Common Values Systems
and it produces a feeling of Citizenship within a Space.

Culture is Intangible; a set of Feelings, Values, Attitudes, that may be Unique to your
Geographical Area. Every Society may have different Culture.

Culture, while it depends on Geographical Society for Creation, it doesn't depend on Society for
Perpetuation. Eg. The Large Cuban Society in Florida, Haitian Society in Florida, West Indian
Society in New York, London.

0. Society Cultural: Sociological Society depends upon a Collectivity that is based upon a
Consensus of Ideas, Beliefs, Values, Principles, Morals and Behaviours that is acceptable to the
Group.

The Consensus depends on Citizenship as Everyone develops Same Ideas, Beliefs, Values,
Principles, Morals and Behaviour. This is regarded as Shared Common Purpose; Everyone
thinking the Same.

The Sociological Aspect of Society stresses that they must be Social Interaction of People in the
Group. This Interaction is possible as people share the Same Set of Ideas. This is known as
Non – Material Culture.

When Individuals share the same Ideological System, it allows for the formation of Social
Groups. The development of Cultural Activities is based upon the values that occur.
In any Society, there are Large groups of Ideas. These Ideas become the Programming of an
Individual; where the Person 🡪 Hardware and Ideas 🡪 Software. These Large Groups of Ideas
are Social Institutional Ideologies. Eg. Education, Family, Religion, Politics, Economics, Justice
Systems.
Social Institutions help People in Society:
⦁ To Organize their Lives.
⦁ It allows a Platform for Persons to Interact.
⦁ It allows Commonalities among Individuals.
⦁ It provides for the Development of Consensuses.
⦁ It can reduce Division among Individuals.
Social Institutions help to add Purpose to our Lives and these are based upon Norms and
Values. Four Social Institutions are:
⦁ Family.
⦁ Education System.
⦁ Justice System.
⦁ Religion.
Social Institutions are Intangible; they exist only in the Realm of Ideas. Eg. Education is an Idea.
Social Institutions are the most Cherished Ideas in Society. Some Social Institutions evoke even
greater levels of Emotional and Psychological Attachment than others.
Social Institutions become Internalised; they Inform Behaviour. Because Social Institutions are
passed on from One generation to Another, Culture may be regarded as Learnt Behaviour.
Culture can only develop when a Group in Society agree that a Social Institution is important.
Society provides the Framework upon which Ideas, Culture and Interactions are produced.
Culture is dependent upon the passing of values to the next generation.

Socialisation: There are 2 kinds of Socialisation:

⦁ Primary.
⦁ Secondary.
Socialisation is Essential to the Perpetuation of Society.
⦁ Primary Socialisation: This occurs when a Child is very Young. It is often considered as
Personal / Family Oriented Values.

0. Secondary Socialisation: This is associated with Formal Schooling; where an Individual

is made aware of the Values that are Important to HIS Society whereas in Primary Socialisation,
he learns Values Important to Society.
Primary and Secondary Socialisation Coincide and Cause Conflict sometimes.
Roles: A Role is a set of Behaviours / Characteristics associated with a Particular Status.
A Role dictates what is considered Acceptable and Unacceptable Conduct.
A Role is part of Culture Creation. It may said to be dependent on Roles and vice – versa.
A Role is a Formula by which a Person Conducts or Lives his Life. If he is Straying from the
Formula, it may result in Sanctions. A Role allows Interaction between Members who Share the
same Social Institutions. Roles allow for Social Institutions, Working Values and thus become
part of one's Culture.
Roles Evolve and we see Cultural Relativism. Cultural Relativism is the principle that an
individual Human's Beliefs and Activities should be Understood by others in terms of that
Individual's own Culture. Culture may be divided into 2 broad Sub – Divisions.
⦁ Material Culture: These are the Tangible Aspects of People's Customs and Traditions. Eg.
Architecture, Food, Food Preparation Techniques, Economic Organizations, Forms Of Technology
Unique to them, Games, Musical Instruments, and Music. Material Culture is all the things that one
can interact with; even Religious Customs and Language.

0. Non – Material Culture: The Intangible Aspects that are Shared by a People. Eg.
Attitudes, Ambitions, Folk Lore (Stories), Religion.
Culture may be known in several different ways:
⦁ A Pattern of Behaviour that is Learnt.
⦁ A Way of Life.
⦁ Festivals and Customs.
⦁ Tradition.
⦁ A Person's Outlook on Life.
⦁ Behaviour.
Gender Practices:
Gender Practices is the Stereotypes created based on Gender. It is People's ways of Thinking
about Gender Issues. These Gendered Practices are part of Cultural Identity.
In the Caribbean Society, there is an Androcentric Preoccupation, ie, there is a Preference for
all Things Male: "It is a Man's World." This creates a Perception that Women / All Things
Female are Inferior. A Gender Gap is formed that permeates all things in Society that may lead
to Tension / Conflict / Negative Effects.
Women are Alienated and Ostracized from being represented in Society. This Negative Attitude
towards Women is as old as Time itself and was inherited from the Original Cultures of the East
Indian, Africans and Chinese. These Attitudes are even found in Religious Books. Eg. In the
Bible, a woman's role is the house – worker.
Women's Roles and Possibility of Potential is thus Restricted. Gender Practices are Deeply
Entrenched in our Social and Cultural ways of Thinking. Masculinity is Highly Prized and
Promoted in the Caribbean. Having said that, there is a High Level of Intolerance for Men who
do not display Masculine Properties. These Men are seen as less than Masculine.
Girls are Traditionally Restricted to certain Types of Behaviours. Women / Girls are Deprived of
Opportunity. There is Inequity in Society. Women's Human Rights are taken away and the rest
of Society agrees with this. It can be then said, that, Gender Practices contribute to
Dehumanization.
Gender Practices become a Developmental Challenge since our Cultural Attitude inhibits what
we can obtain as Caribbean Nations. Essentially, our Gender Practices is another example of
Social Stratification.
A Social Injustice Challenge arises. In the Caribbean Reality, there are several Sociological
Concepts that have become part of our Socio – Cultural Identity / Reality:
⦁ Assimilation: This is when a Group has been totally absorbed into a larger Group; where a
Subculture is Lost in the Super - Culture. Assimilation is dependent on Cultural Imperialism. Eg.
African and East Indian ways of life was lost and European Norms and Values were put in its Place.
Assimilation implies Cultural Erasure and Re – Socialization based on the Dominant Culture, Norms
and Values.

0. Cultural Imperialism: This is the situation where the Imperial Nation's Norms, Values and
Social Institutional Framework are seen as Superior to One's own Norms and Values.
Assimilation therefore becomes easier.

0. Hybridization: Cultural Hybridization is the situation where there is Merging of Cultural

Forms whereas Racial Hybridization is the Internal Relationships between two different Races,
thus, creating a New Species of Human. Racial Hybridization is a feature of Caribbean Society
and Results in:
a. Mestizo: Amerindian + European.
b. Mulatto: African + European.
c. Dougla: African + East Indian.

There are varieties of Culture and Races, so, Hybridization results in a Plural Society.

1. Cultural Erasure: This would have taken place during Re – Socialization.

Module 1, Specific Objective 4

Identity and Social Formation:
Identity can only be formed when one factors in the Tremendous Number of Inputs in the
Formation of Culture Creation. The Identity of the Caribbean is characterized by Hybridity. The
Caribbean is a combination of Cultures; making us Culturally Unique where we stand out in the
rest of the World.
The Hybrid and Cultural Inputs that went into the Formation of Societies is the most Defining
Feature of the Caribbean. While the Caribbean may be Defined in different ways, the most
Definitive Definition that works for all Caribbean Nations is Cultural in Nature.
While every Caribbean Nation does have its Cultural Twists (Eg. Accents), the Core Features of
Cultural Identity are Shared. However, because of the Nature of the Caribbean being Islands,
and therefore Insulated, Caribbean Society tends toward a more Separated View rather than a
Cohesive View.
In a way, this Insulated View pose Challenges for the Caribbean even today; especially when
we consider out Platforms for Development have Failed. Eg. Federations.
The Challenge that faces the Caribbean is Changing our Perception from Insularity to one of
Acceptance to the Commonalities of our Evolution. The following are the Core, Shared
Characteristics of our Social Evolution that are due to our History. There are also Input Factors
in the Creation of a Caribbean Identity and Characteristics of Caribbean Society.
⦁ Discovery.
⦁ Genocide.
⦁ Slavery.
⦁ The Plantation.
⦁ Mono – Crop Agriculture.
⦁ Enculturation.
⦁ Acculturation.
⦁ Assimilation.
⦁ Hybridization / Syncretism.
⦁ Eurocentrism / Ethnocentrism.
⦁ Cultural Imperialism.
⦁ Emancipation.
⦁ Development of the Peasantry.
⦁ Indentureship.
⦁ Plural Society and Cultural Diversity.
⦁ Colonialism.
⦁ Dependency.
⦁ Social and Economic Underdevelopment.
⦁ Social Stratification and Social Mobility.
⦁ Cultural Retention.
⦁ Cultural Erasure.
⦁ Cultural Renewal.
⦁ Creation of Minorities.
⦁ Impacts of Globalisation.
Cultural Retention: A Conscious Effort by a Minority or Subculture Group to hold on to Elements
of its Unique Cultural Identity. Eg. Chinese from the Indentureship Period still speak Tangerine
to each other.
Cultural Renewal: An Active Effort to Recapture or Promote a Unique Cultural Form. This is
usually Applicable where a Cultural Form or Norm is at Risk of being Erased and its Purpose is
to Remind Future Generations of the Legacies of the Past. Eg. Tobago Heritage Festival.
Minorities and Subcultures:
Both Minorities and Subcultures are closely related and are based on the fact that there is
Exclusion of Groups in Society. This is formed when these Groups find a place to exist. A
Minority can only exist if they have been Accommodated and not Wiped Out completely.
Eg. Hybrid Religions: Shouter Baptist (TnT), Myal (Jamaica), Santaria (Cuba). Subcultures and
Minorities may exist in Cultural Groups. Eg. The Maroons and Rastafarianism (Jamaica).
These have become a Reality because of the Caribbean's Past. The Caribbean has become
Hybrid and Plural with many Socio – Logical Issues still at work. Thus, the Caribbean has not
reached the Maximum of the Evolution. Since Culture is Dynamic, Globalisation and Impact of
Foreign Cultural Ideologies are placing Challenges on the Caribbean Cultural and Social
Reality.
The Process of Hybridization (Syncretism) is Continuous. In the Caribbean, one of the most
Important Concepts that Impacted on the Cultural Reality is the Plantation.
The Plantation:
The Plantation is the Most Recognizable Institution that Impacted on the Socio – Cultural
Reality.
The Plantation becomes a Reality due to a Labour Vacuum created by the Death of the
Amerindians. Previous to this, there was Amerindian and European Plurality. Then, came the
Africans which created Racial Complexity.
The Plantation is based upon a Rigid System of Social Stratification. The System is divided
upon certain Principles. Race and Colour becomes part of Social Stratification. Colour of Skin
introduces: Pigmentocracy; allowing Social Upward Mobility. Wealth, Money and Property were
equal to Power.
Pigmentocracy 🡪 Persons of Fairer Complexion enjoyed More Prestige and Wielded More
Power in Society.

Social Stratification and Social Mobility Factors / Agents:

⦁ Race and Colour of Skin.
⦁ Pigmentocracy: Hybrid 🡪 Colour Consciousness.
⦁ Wealth + Money + Property = Power.
⦁ Education: This is a facilitator to get out of an Oppressive Past.
⦁ Position / Authority.
While the following factors are Specific for Plantation, they have been expanded:
⦁ Age.
⦁ Gender.
⦁ Sexual Orientation.
⦁ Political Affiliation.
⦁ Religion.
These form Divisions in Society. Social Stratification must Vie for a Space in which to exist or be
Erased out of Existence.
Edward Kannau Brathwaite: He was a World Famous Barbadian Scholar (Sociologist) who did
Research in Jamaica. He observed that on the Plantation, with the Africans, there would have
been Tremendous Pressure to Enculturate and Erase Identity and Assimilate them into a
Pseudo – European Identity or a Creole Identity.
According to Edward, the Emphasis of the Europeans was to Use Culture to Brainwash and
Control the Africans. However, Edward regarded that During Enculturation, Africans used Active
and Passive Resistance.
A Passive Method of Rebellion is Hybridization. It means that the Africans would make a show
of the following of the European Ways, but, in truth, he would follow African Cultural Identity.
Overtime, the Line Separating the European and African Culture is Blurred. Thus, a Creole
Society is Formed.
The Creole is Unique and stands out on its own. Creolization is a process that will occur when
there is more than one Culture Group. Once a Cultural Identity has been Influenced by another,
but not completely Assimilated, they would be Creolized.
All Groups have been Modified from their Original Culture. Every Group experienced Social
Change and Creolization to some extent. Anyway along the Timeline of Change, Creolization
occurs.

Creolization implies Cultural Erasure and Enculturation. Change can lead to a person losing his
Identity entirely. A Creole is therefore a State of Reality that is an Incorporation of Socio -
Logical Aspects of different Cultures.
Africans: They came into the Caribbean from West Africa. Creolization and Hybridization has
led to Syncretic or Hybrid forms of Religion, Language, Food, Dress and Ways of Thinking.
There were Higher Levels of Hybridization in Africans since they were Resilient.
Language has a large amount of Creolization. Over time, in the Caribbean, the Patois
developed which created a Unique, Lexical, Hybrid Background. Eg. In St. Lucia, the Patois
(Combination of French, Spanish and English) is a 1st Language.
East Indians: They were slowly Absorbed into a Pre – Dominant Cultural Setting. The
Amerindians were Creolized from: Amerindian to Pseaudo – Amerindian (They were the 1st set
of People to be Creolized).
Thus, East Indians were brought into an already Creolized Society and were put under Pressure
to Adjust. East Indians Adopted Elements of an already Creolized Society. The East Indian is a
sub – Culture. They came in 1845 into an already Eurocentric and Ethnocentric Society.
The Rapid Conversion to Christianity is seen as a Social Mobility Tool for Upward Mobility. East
Indians primarily settled in Belize, Grenada, Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname.
Ethnocentrism: The Belief that One's Culture and Group is Superior to Others.
Eurocentrism: The Belief that One's Culture and Group is Inferior to the Europeans'.
Both are linked directly to Cultural Imperialism.
Chinese: They illustrated a Divergence from Other Groups in the Caribbean. They were small in
number and preferred Large Caribbean Territories such as Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad,
Hispanola and Cuba. The Chinese Resisted Creolization; resisted being Culturally altered. They
held on to their Culture more than any other Group.
Africans, East Indians, Amerindians: Loss of Cultural Elements, Cultural Erasure and
Assimilation.
Chinese: Cultural Retention, Maintain Belief Systems and Cultural Practices.
In the Caribbean, it may be considered that Creolization was Adopted. The Europeans could
have Superimposed themselves but the Other Groups Looked at their Own Culture with
Inferiority / Scorn. Creolization is part of becoming more Socially Stable.

In the Caribbean, Social Stratification has been present in the Past. There are several Groups
that have existed then and still exist today:
⦁ Plantocracy: Plantocracy refers to the Influence Wielded by Planters in the Society as
Effectively the Ruling Class. It is present in Haiti and Jamaica. There is Inequity in Ownership and
Wealth. Locally Born White People in Jamaica have their own Political Party. Open Violence even
occurs.

1. Bourgeoisie: Bourgeoisie are People who Own Huge Amounts of Wealth and Power.
They could have been Black as well. Bourgeoisie and Plantocracy are the Groups that Own
Society and they Make the Rules to Serve Them.

1. Intelligentsia: Intelligentsia are the Educated People in Society. They are NOT Restricted
to a Colour. There was an Important Black Intelligentsia in the Post – Emancipation Society. A
few Blacks were Educated. They pushed for Internal Self Governance and then Independence.
Eg. Dr. Eric Williams, Sir Ellis Clarke, Noor Hassanali.

Intelligent People had to hold Leadership Positions. The Intelligentsia has Morphed Society to
become what it is today. They are still Legacies. Education is Important for Social Mobility and
Social Stratification.

1. The Middle Class: This is a Strata of People that has come into being in Recent Times.
These are people that Strive for Social Mobility by trying to get certain Management Jobs, for
example. They try to Become like the Bourgeoisie Class while Pushing Away the Lower Class.

The Middle Class has Jobs, Occupation, Education and Wealth. There is an Attitude of
Contempt. In Trinidad, Middle Classes are Associated with Certain Areas. Eg. San Fernando,
Palmiste.

1. Working Class: The People are Characterised by Minimum Levels of Education, Little
Wealth and Low Status Jobs (Physical and Redundant Jobs for Little Money). These are
Equated to the Largest Portion of Society. Society is a Modern Day Version of the Plantation.
The Working Class is Defined by Certain Geographical Areas and they also Pose Greatest
Development Challenges for Governments.
1. Underclass: These are Equated to the Dis – Enfranchised, Powerless, Voiceless,
Ostracized Groups in Society. They are a Minority Group for two Reasons: They are Small in
Number and Their Rights are Neglected by those in Society. Eg. Disabled, Homeless, Old and
Young People.
These Elements of Stratification Persist in the Caribbean today due to the Introduction of
Stratification by the European Plantation. However, another type of Stratification was brought by
the East Indians.
The Caste System was an Eastern Social Stratification System. The Caste System, like
Caribbean Social Stratification, is based on certain Commonalities.
However, The Caste System Didn't Allow Mobility. Similar to the Plantation, People in the Caste
System Can't Leave their Caste. They are Born Into It and have to Stay Into It. They Can't Rebel
against it.
The Caste System is built into Hinduism; over 5000 years ago. Observers realised that the
Generation Long Division created by the Caste System encouraged People to Convert to Islam;
as there were no Caste Systems present in that Religion.
The Caste System has certain Names:
Brahmins (First)

Dalits or Chamar Class (Last)

Each Class is given Certain Commonalities and Functions. Eg. The Brahmins are primarilty the
Religious Practitioners (Eg. Pundits). The Chamar Class was Restricted from any kind of
Ownership, Education and Mobility. Most of the East Indians that came to the Caribbean was of
Chamar Class but to avoid Absolute Alienation, they Changed Names.
There is Injustice in the Caste System and the Plantation. Colour / Class are the Basis that
Divides Society: Caste System and The Plantation introduce Classism. The Class in which
someone is present in the Caste System is Hereditary while the Plantation is based on a
number of factors.
After Emancipation, when the Plantation System ended, Social Stratification Factors now
became Social Mobility Factors. Social Stratification Factors are:
⦁ Race.
⦁ Colour.
⦁ Wealth.
⦁ Occupation.
⦁ Religion.
⦁ Education.
⦁ Political Affiliation.
⦁ Gender.
⦁ Age.
⦁ Status / Position.
Social Stratification and Mobility are nearly indifferent. Social Mobility is where a person uses
the factors listed above to be Seen in a more Favourable Light in Society. There are both:
Upward and Downward Social Mobility Factors.
Eg. A Person, such as Dwight Yorke, may marry someone of a Perceived Superior Race to be
seen more Favourable in Society. Eg. In Jamaica, Black Women marry White Men so that they
children will have better Opportunities. There is a Eurocentric Occupation.
The European Religion, Christianity, has much Violence and Brutality and has therefore become
the Religion of the Destroyer. Christianity has become a Social Mobility Factor to those who
want better Opportunities.
In Politics, it is beneficial to be Affiliated with One Party over the Other due to Race or who is in
Power.
Via Education, a Person may achieve Occupational Mobility and Wealth. As such, Education
has a lot of Value and Emphasis in Society. Education therefore creates further Strata. It is
Empowering and also causes Division.
Plural Society: This is where Many Religions and Races Exist in One Place. There are many
Variables at work at the same time.
Positives of Cultural Diversity:
⦁ Tolerance: This is the Ability to Endure. Tolerance gives our Society a Characteristic of
Compassion; an Acceptance of Differences among People. This Perspective gives a Positive
International Perception. Accommodation Results out of Tolerance.

Accommodation is important because it implies that Every Creed and Race has a Space to
Exist; Every Race and Religion is given a Place to be Represented and Visible. In the
Caribbean, Tolerance is Illustrated in many Activities; especially those Social Significant
Activities.

Eg. Integrating Carnival in the School Curriculum. Knowledge Promotes Appreciation and
therefore Tolerance.

1. Hybridization: This is the Creation of New Forms; as Synthesis is Prevalent.

Hybridization can be seen in every aspect of the Caribbean. Eg. Race, Food, Music, Language

Racial Hybridization causes Division while Hybridization in Food (Eg. Doubles, Roti) , Music
(Eg. Reggae, Calypso), Language (Mixed Words such as: Jumbie, Chunkie) makes our Culture
Richer and brings Positive International Attention.

1. Creativity: In the Caribbean, all nations have Creative Festival Events. Eg. Carnival. Due
to several Cultural, Social and Racial Inputs, a more Creative Artist is Created. Eg. Calypsonian.
More Creativity attracts Positive International Attention. Eg. Two Famous Masked Men: Peter
Minshall and Brian McFarlene.

Trade Opportunities, Investment Opportunities and Tourism are therefore Positive Results that
occur. Eg. In 2014, Trinidad and Tobago had $800 Million US Dollars generated in Carnival.
Negative of Cultural Diversity:
⦁ Intolerance: This can be based on any number of Variables (Eg. Race, Politics). Intolerance
shows us to be an Unaccepting Society; shows us to be a Group that Alienates Persons that are
Different. It becomes an International Stain on Perception.

Intolerance Manifests into Tension and even Violence. Eg. Open Violence in Jamaica,
Discrimination against Old, LGBT. This creates a Negative International Picture. It causes
International Observers to Withdraw Aid. It causes them to Deny our Trade.

Political Instability results in Developmental Challenges. Eg. Only in 1996 was the Shouter
Baptist Community given a day of Recognition. Since Emancipation, they were Treated as
Outsiders.

Because of Minoritization of Groups, People's Human Rights were taken away; leading to Social
Injustice Infringements.

Module 1, Specific Objective 5

Impact of Geographical Phenomena:
This examines the Relationship between Physical Environment and Human Cultural
Perceptions (Values and Belief Systems); how Man is Impacted by his Environment and vice
versa.
Human Ecology implies that there is a Man – Land Relationship. It can also be based on
Historical Precedent. In this regard, we examine the Legacies of History, Settlement,
Agriculture, as well as the Impact of Natural Disaster.
Geological Hazards:
⦁ Tsunamis.
⦁ Volcanoes.
⦁ Earthquake.
⦁ Landslips / Volcanoes.
Meteorological Hazards:
⦁ Torrential Rains.
⦁ Droughts.
⦁ Hurricanes.
⦁ Flooding.
⦁ Tidal Flooding.
⦁ Astronomical Tide.
⦁ Impacts of Wind.
⦁ Erosion.
Any kind of Natural Disaster will have Economic, Social, Cultural and Political Impacts.
Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters:
⦁ Infrastructural Damage: There is Unforeseen Cost of Rebuilding. Since Money has to be
allocated to this, Other Areas become Neglected. There is an Opportunity Cost of Re – Building.
There can be Loss of Essential Services which causes a Negative Impact on Quality of Human Life.
Eg. If the Hospitals are Destroyed, where would the Sick go?

The Nation experiences Stagnant Development. There is no Money to redirect to Buildings. The
Nation is Unable to Pay Existing Loans or Access Future Loans. Because of no Loan
Repayment, the country can be Blacklisted as a "Poor Risk". A "Grace Period" implies that
Interest has Stopped.

With Damage to Infrastructure, you can Lose Important Industries (Major Income Generators)
such as Tourism and Agriculture.
Eg. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan destroyed Grenada's Tourism Infrastructure. People will go
elsewhere for Tourism. If a Place gets a Bad Reputation, it is Difficult to Re - Gain its
Reputation.

Hurricane Ivan destroyed the "Marinas"- Facilities of Yacts, etc.. It means that Grenada Lost a
Niche Tourism Market.

Hurricane Ivan destroyed Jamaica's Nutmeg Trees (Their Largest Export). Nutmeg takes 5
years to bear and 40 years for Maturity. This placed Jamaica in a Negative Economic Position,
until the Crop is back again.

In 2010, Tropical Storm Tomas destroyed St. Lucia's and St. Vincent's Banana Crops. However,
Bananas only take 1 year to produce fruit.

There can be Loss of Industries Regarding Eco – Tourism Industries. Eg. Destroying Beaches.
Eco – Tourism is the most common Tourist Attraction.

The Primary Attractions are: Sun, Sea and Sand. These Settings may be gone in the Event of a
Natural Disaster.
There is Difficulty in some Countries: Unemployment 🡪 Heavy Dependence on Government
Produced Services and Goods. The Damage to the Agriculture Sector may lead to Starvation
and other Crises.

Haiti, because of Human Action, has created its own Soil Loss. Their fuel is Wood. Due to large
Scale Deforestation, Soil Erosion and Flooding is now common. The Western Ocean of Haiti is
now Red due to Soil Pollution.
Social, Cultural and Psychological Impacts of Natural Disasters:
⦁ Death: Loss of Manpower 🡪 Less Work Done 🡪 Longer Time to Rebuild. This affects the
Psychological / Emotional Impact of Survivors. They will suffer Trauma and become Broken,
Vegetables and cause PTSD, thus, becoming less Productive.

1. Loss of Employment / Industry: Loss of Services 🡪 Decrease of Quality of Life of

People. Amenities that One is normally Accustomed with may now be Absent.

1. Inconvenience of a Post – Disaster Life: Loss of Routine. Humans enjoy Routine and
base their Lives upon Routines.

1. Depression: With the Destruction of the Environment, there is a Feeling of

Hopelessness. This can be an Emotional Strain on People; causing them to Suicide.

1. Long Term Effects: Long Term Resultant Disasters can take a Psychological Turn. Eg.
Disease after Flood. People may Continue Dying and this Prolongs the Emotional Strain.

1. Diseases: With an Outbreak of Diseases, there is Loss of Productivity (Can be Caused

by PTSD).

1. Social Dislocation / Social Displacement: People have lost what makes up their Identity
or at least part of it. Eg. In Jamaica, after the Earthquake in Fort Royale, they had to relocate
the entire Capital (Fort Royale was the previous Capital). Additionally, in 1970, a Relocation of
most of Belmopan to Belize City. Surprisingly, in 1995, Montserrat had to be Evacuated.
Political Impacts of Natural Disasters:
⦁ Destabilization of the Political Structure: Political Impacts Revolve around Political Stability
of the Affected Nation. In a case of a Natural Disaster, People will look toward the Government for
Assistance. If the Government cannot attend to the Critical Needs of a Population (Eg. Food, Shelter,
Medical Assistance), Rapid Disapproval and Unpopularity of that Government can occur.
In the Minds of the People, the Government will be seen as Negative or Unwilling. This can lead
to a Population Unleashing their Anger on the Government; leading to a Destabilization of the
Political Structure of that Nation. Eg. Cuba.

When this happens, everything crumbles. Political De - Stability Nullify Law and Order. If there
is No Political Head, Policing will not function and this can lead to Rampant Criminality and
Unlawfulness.

Eg. In Haiti 🡪 Rampant and Widespread Crime. People Organized themselves into Gangs and
Attack People in Hospitals, Orphanages to Pillage Food, Water and Medications.

1. Reduced Development: A Nation needs a Political Head to Advance Developmental

Plans of a Nation. A Government is Tasked with certain Responsibilities; using Tax for the
Benefit of everyone.

If there is Destabilization, the Development will be Stagnated (Best Case Scenario) and
Retrograde (Worst Case Scenario). Retrograde is where a Nation Reverts to an Earlier and
Inferior Position.

If there is No Political Structure, Rebuilding Nations will be Stagnated and there will be no Co –
ordination of Efforts to Stabilize the Nation. If there isn't a Political Head, Aid from UN, Red
Cross and Friendly Governments, for example, there will be no aid since these bodies will have
no one to correspond with.

With any kind of Political Instability, there will be Loss of Investor Confidence. Loss of FDI
(Foreign Direct Investment). With Withdrawal of Investors, there is Economic Crisis. Eg.
Unemployment.
Tourism will go into Hibernation when there is Political Instability. This is because no one will go
to a place without Law and Order for a vacation. Tourism is a Fickle Industry; it is hard to
Regain the Population's Confidence after it is lost.
Disaster vs. Hazard:
Hazard: Presents Potential for Danger to the Well – Being of Society.
Disaster: When a Natural or Human Induced Phenomena Acts on Society.
Plate Tectonics:
Volcanic Activity: This is an Ever - Present Hazard Reality in the Caribbean. It can Manifest into
a Disaster. Eg. Montserrat 1995. Several of the Islands in the Eastern Caribbean are Volcanic in
Nature. They sit on the Margin of the Plate Boundary. Some are Active (Eg. Soufriere Hills in
Guadeloupe, Kick em Jenny, Grenada) and Dormant (Eg. Pitons in St. Lucia).
The Threat of Volcanic Activity is an Important Political, Economic and Social Reality. The 1st
Recorded Eruption was in Montserrat, 1939. Volcanic Activity, just like Earthquakes, is
Unpredictable. In the Caribbean, there have been several Incidents of Volcanic Related
Disasters:
⦁ 1718: Soufriere Volcano, St. Vincent.
1. 1902: Soufriere Volcano, St. Vincent. There were 1600 deaths and $200 Million US
Dollars in Damage to Agriculture and Infrastructure.

1. 1995: Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat. There were 20 deaths and $500 Million US
Dollars in Damages. There was also a Total Social Relocation.
The Tectonic Setting of the Caribbean means that with the 5 Neighbouring Tectonic Plates, the
Likelihood of Tectonic Activity is Multiplied by 5. The American Plates are Continental Plates,
large in Size and thus Stable. The Caribbean Plate is Oceanic. Much of the Caribbean Plate is
Water, thus, factoring Tsunamis.
Type of Tectonic Plate Scenarios:
Steps That Occur for a Volcanic Eruption / Features of a Volcanic Eruption:
⦁ Ejection of Material (Rock, Stone, Debris): This Volcanic Eruption may contain Hot or Cold
Debris. Cold Materials become Projectiles causing Death, Infrastructural Damage. Hot Materials
cause Fire and Possibility of Igniting.

1. Pyroclastic Ejection: The Expulsion of Large Quantities of Gas, Dust and Ash. The gas is
Super Hot. Because the Gas is in tremendous quantities, it goes up and flows down the side of
the volcano, causing Pyroclastic Flow. It Vaporizes anything it comes in contact with, causing
Death, Infrastructure Damages, Agricultural Damages. The Sulphur Gas produced is very Toxic.

1. Lava Flow: There is Magmatic Magma flowing over the Caldera resulting in Loss.

1. Ash Fall: Much of the Debris goes Up in the Sky and Falls Back. Much of the Lighter
Material Falls Down and causes Damage. Eg: In Montserrat, There were 12 metres of Ash.

1. Acid Rain: This occurs due to Rapid Rise of a lot of Gas. It reaches Thousands of Feet
in Minutes. It mixes with Atmospheric Gases and Water and falls back as Sulphuric Acid on
Earth. It is Corrosive and can Damage Metallic Structures. The rain will Mobilize the Ashes,
creating Volcanic Slurry (A Thick Mud).

The Tremendous Volcanic Slurry moves down the Sides of a Volcano Destroying Stuff. The
Rain Implies the Loss of Agriculture and Vegetation. There is Damage to Aquatic Ecologies.
The ph of Water is Altered Dramatically.
Tsunamis and Tidal Waves / Seismic Sea Wave
Eg. India (2004); Japan (2011)
A Tsunami can be Triggered by only a few kinds of activities since the Energy required to
Trigger this is Tremendous. Tsunamis Displace a lot of Water Rapidly.
Under-Water Eruptions/ Explosions or sudden Tectonic shifts (sea floor changes rapidly):
A tsunami becomes Dangerous as it approaches Continental Shelf. The Ripple Effect is
increased closer to the Shelf (when it becomes dangerous) as compared to Deep Sea.
Tsunamis can travel far distances (x1000km). Eg: In Japan 2004, the Tsunami impacted
Australia, Madagaskar, New Zeland. They travel at rapid speeds; almost 310-375 miles per
hour/500-600 kmh.
Tsunamis will leave scope for very little warning time. It can be sudden and leave tremendous
losses. The impact is same for any natural disaster.
⦁ Coastal Region: Much of the Development of Caribbean territories is Centered on the
Coastline, including countries from Tobago to St Kitts / Nevis. These areas are very Mountainous
therefore the Coastline has the most amounts of Densely Populated Societies.

1. Eco-Tourism: Sun, Sea, Sand, Sex. There is loss of entire Eco-Tourism Industry.
Infrastructure and Environment will be Damaged.

Environment:
⦁ Salt Water Intrusion: This is Inevitable along the Coast. It is Normal and many Plants Cope
(Eg. Mangroves, Coconut). When they Intrude Inland, Plants with No Protection / Adaptation will
Die. In the Short Term, Salt Water Damage Arable Land (at least until rain falls) and hence leaves a
Nation in Food Dependency. It may impact upon Potable Water.

Salt Water Intrusion occur mostly Above Grounds (Eg: Dams) and may be Cleansed by
Machinery but it would be Expensive and may NOT be Readily Available. The Fresh Water
Ecology may be Altered. When One Food Link is Disrupted, everything else Changes causing a
Ripple Effect. Animals will be sent into a Chaos.

1. Introduction of New Species: Tsunamis may bring Animal Species from the Sea and that
can Contaminate Fresh Water and Ecology. There is Threat of Diseases. Tsunami Impact is
Similar to that of Astronomical Tides and Tidal Floodings. Tsunamis are Rare (never in
Caribbean record). However, Astronomical Tides and Tidal Flooding are More Common.

Eg. Trinidad and Tobago – Mayaro, 2014. Eg: In Guyana, Some Parts are below Sea Level.
Astronomical Tides caused Guyana to Buy Infrastructure. Eg. Georgetown Sea Walls to Protect
the Atlantic coast. Sea Walls at Mosquito Creek in Trinidad are used as Protection when Seas
get Agitated by Astronomical Tide.
Hurricanes / Typhoons / Willie Wille
This is an Important Meteorological Event in the Tropical Region.
A Hurricane is Formed by a Unique Coincidence of Factors. It Begins as a Low Pressure
System (Convection). With the Presence of a Large Volume of Water, this Low Pressure
System Grows in Scale due to Available Water Vapour.
The Atlantic Western Hurricane Belt has its Origin in Africa, Spanning form the Equator to
Tropic of Cancer. Hurricanes can Impact from Venezuela/Guyana to Boston.
A Hurricane requires an Oceanic Temperature of at Least 26o and an Ocean of Diameter: 400
km. A Hurricane may have a span of 150 to 1000 km. Hurricanes can Achieve Wind Speeds of
150kmh on the Outside, With Stronger Gusts at the Eye of the Hurricane. The Hurricane
Derives its name from Amerindian Vocabulary and the Mayan God of Storm: Hun Raken. There
are several recorded hurricanes in the Caribbean:
⦁ 1780: From Tobago to Cuba; resulting in 20000 deaths. The Destructive Potential of a
Hurricane is Manifold because High Winds Speeds results in Flying Debris and Damage to
Infrastructure. Then, there is Torrential Rain, Flooding, Inundation of Landscapes. There is Tidal
Flooding due to High Winds, when Seas get Agitated. There are serious Impacts resulting from
Tsunamis.
Eg. Hurricane Sandy in 2012: In NY, A Storm Surge resulted in Tremendous Infrastructural
Damage. Subways and Tunnels were Flooded Out. The Wind Damage has cost Caribbean
Nations Immensely. Eg. Hurricane Ivan 2004 Damaged Nutmeg Plantation and Hurricane
Tomas in 2010 destroyed Banana Plantations in St Lucia, St Vincent .
Recent Hurricanes:
⦁ 1964: Hurricane Flora in Tobago destroyed Cocoa Industry and Agriculture generally.
⦁ 1970: Hurricane Hattie in Belize resulted in the movement of Belmopan to Belize City.
⦁ 2004: Hurricane Ivan damaged more than 90% of Grenadian homes. The Grenadians did
NOT Utilize Good Construction Techniques since the majority of them are Squatters.
⦁ 2005: Hurricane Katrina Wrecked Havoc on Turks and Caicos and Bahamas.
⦁ 2012: Hurricane Sandy: Puerto Rico, Florida, Cuba, Eastern Sea Board.
Torrential Rain
There is No Singular Cause. It is so essentially Rainfall that Exceeds the Drainage Capacity of
the Land. It is Associated with the Movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
The ITCZ is a Belt of Low Pressure that Follows the Sun. It Allows the Creation of Several Major
Meteorological Events.
Torrential Rain is Normal in some places. Eg. The South American Territories (due to its
Equatorial Geographical Location). But Torrential Rainfall can impact on any nation. Eg. In
2014, Dominica (Volcano Island), there were Widespread Floodings. There was Middle Course
Flooding in the River (Normally Lower / Upper Course).
Rivers Changed Directions. Eg. In several Consecutive Years, from 2009-2013 in Trinidad and
Tobago, Diego Martin was Flooded Out. In Haiti, their Problem is Worsened due to Removal of
Agriculture.
Flooding will result in Loss of Livelihood, Infrastructural Damage, as well as Diseases. Flooding,
just like Landslide, can be Exaggerated due to Human Activity as it Worsens National Disasters.
Because of Human Activity, there is Ecological Disasters such as Deforestation and Hillside
Deconstruction, Poor Agricultural Practices (Slash and Burn / Shifting Cultivation).
In Grenada and Haiti:
⦁ Poverty.
⦁ Lack of Education.
⦁ Negligence (Poor Environmental Attitude).
⦁ Poor Garbage Disposal.
⦁ Alteration of Landscape for Building or Agricultural.
⦁ Earth Works and a Culture of Indifference.
These factors worsen or cause damage. Eg. Trinidadians have a Negative Attitude towards the
Environment.
There is a Culture of Dependency that Exaggerates the Negatives of Disaster. It means We
Depend on Government to Act. The Cultural Dependency means that We Show No Safeguard
in Defending Ourselves and it Shows our Unwillingness to Help National Initiatives (Eg. Clean
Up Campaigns)
Storm Surge
This is Equated to Tidal Flooding. There are Similar Effects to Tsunami. It is a By-Product of
High Winds and Driving Waves. Storm Surge can be associated with Significant Meteorological
Events. Much of the Development of Caribbean Territories is on the Coast so there is much
Damage.
Soil and Conservation
Historically, the Soil has been Economically, Socially, Culturally and Diasporically Important.
The Soil Agriculture is Directly Linked to a Caribbean Identity and Caribbean Development.
Every Caribbean Nation exports some kind of Agricultural Product. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago
has 0.03 % on Agricultural Exports on GDP but Guyana, St Lucia has up to 40% on GDP.
Soil Stability is an Important Part in the Sustainability of Caribbean Development. Sustainability
means Development Pursued Overtime, ie, Soil Stability is Important for the Future of
Caribbean Societies. The Loss of Arable Land is of Grave Concern for the Caribbean. Any
Impact on Soil will have Impact on the Economy and Identity of Caribbean People and their
Quality of Life.
With Negative Impact on Food Security, People such as Farmers (or Anyone who is Directly or
Indirectly Impacted on Agriculture) will be Dependent. There is Ripple Effect on Society. Quality
of Life will Change. Due to Demand and Supply, Inflation on Food, Higher Food Import Bill and
Price of Food will mean Less Access to Food; Causing a Slowly Weakening Population.
Faming Gangs and Crime Reigns when Society Destabilizes. Shortages can Lead to Crime.
Due to Failure of Agriculture / Loss of Soil, the Creation of Dust Bowl (Land Exposed to
Elements of Weather and then Breeze take Soil Away) will occur. This is negative.
Challenges Facing Soil Conservation:
There are Natural and Man-Induced Challenges (Since Man Altered the Environment and faces
Soil Instability). Any Challenge in Soil has a Negative Impact on Mankind. There will be Social,
Economical and Development Challenges.
Natural Challenges:
⦁ Wind / Rain.

1. Vegetation.

1. Soil Erosion: Some level of Erosion is Inevitable. Soil Erosion occurs due to mainly:
Overland Flow and Street Wash / Sheet Erosion.
Overland Flow occurs when Water Flows over the Surface of the Ground. Sheet Wash / Sheet
Erosion is the Uniform Removal of Top Soil by the Forces of Raindrops and Overland Flow. It is
an Effective Erosive Process because it can cover Large Areas of Sloping Land and go
Unnoticed for Quite Some Time.
These Processes are Exaggerated due to Human Action: Clearing of Vegetation, Over-Grazing,
Land Clearing for Development and Agriculture. The Soil will be more Easily Removed if the
Landscape is Removed in anyway. Vegetation work to Reduce the Impact of Rain Drops.
These Drops are like Missiles and cause Physical Damage to Soil Structure. When these
Missiles Multiply, it becomes Sheet Wash.
Vegetation acts as a Barrier between the Raindrop and Earth. It Slows Impact Speed therefore
Less Erosion. More Gentle Raindrops Remove Less Debris. Because Rain Falls on Trees, there
is Delayed Run-Off and Interception, meaning, The Drainage System will NOT be
Overwhelmed.
Vegetation will keep the Soil Together due to the Function of Roots; especially Surface Roots
that will Trap Surface Run-Off. Without Vegetation, Soil Loss will be Magnified as in Haiti and
Mining Regions in Jamaica, Guyana.
Man – Made Challenges:
Agriculture: Many Agricultural Practices leave the Soil Vulnerable. Eg. Animal Rearing: A Piece
of Soil will be under Grazing Stress. This can form Denudation of Pasture Lands; leaving the
Lands Barren and Fruitless. When this occurs, Exposure to Rains / Winds Elements lead to Soil
Erosion.
Large Scale Monocrop Farming (Eg. Sugar cane) is Dangerous to Soil. Over 100 years, the
Same Crop on the same Soil Leads to Exhaustion of Particular Minerals of the Soil.
The Soil becomes Uneconomical and the Soil Structure Breaks Down over a Long Period of
Time making it Susceptible to Wind / Water Erosion.
Negative Farming Practices such as Slash and Burn Agriculture and Overgrazing are Legacies
of the Peasantry and Part of our Identity.
Poor Ploughing Practices help to Aerate the Soil gives Better Top Soil and Increase Erosion.
Eg: Ploughing Trenches are to be Perpendicular to Direction of Flow of Water.
Slash and Burn is a Widespread Practice to Remove Undergrowth. Burning Increases Fertility
because the Ash is Rich in Minerals, but this Leaves the Land Without Vegetation Cover and
can Encourage Soil Erosion.
Overgrazing is likely to occur when the Number of Animals on a Piece of Land exceeds its
"Carrying Capacity." The likelihoods are that the Animals will Remove all the Vegetation, leaving
the Soil Bare. The Carrying Capacity of a Plot of Land refers to the Maximum Number of
Animals that can Graze without Leaving the Land Bare.
Human Activities (Eg. Building, Land Preparation) require Total Removal of Vegetation. This
Clearing may be Temporary and in Short Term, the Soil is Destabilized and there are Exposed
Elements. When a Building is Built, there is Less Potential of Throughflow in the Soil.
Throughflow is the Sporadic Horizontal Flow of Water within the Soil Layer. It normally takes
Place when the Soil is Completely Saturated with Water. When there are Structures,
Throughflow is Inhibited and this Increases Surface Run Off.
Flooding is Exaggerated with Erosion. Because of Poor and Unregulated Building Practices,
many Floods occur. Eg: North Trinidad (Diego Martin, Port of Spain as the River is Choked with
Debris).
Human Negligence: Human Induced Forest Fires place a Strain on the Ecology.
Negative Attitude to the Soil: People don’t Value the Soil. They Pollute, Remove and Use the
Ecology Irresponsibly.
Soil Conservation: This carries a Range of Activities in Maintaining Environmental Equilibrium.
This heavily depends on Changing our Attitude to the Soil; becoming Aware of Importance of
Soil.
⦁ Afforestation: This is the Planting of Trees where they weren't any Previously. Eg. Planting
of Coconuts in East and South Coast in Trinidad.

1. Reforestation: This is the Planting of Trees in Areas where they were Previously
Removed.

Reforestation takes place on the Hillsides in the Northern Range of Trinidad. Guyana's Previous
President, Bharat Jagdeo, was Nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. He wanted to make the
Forest and Lumber Industry Economically Stable. He implemented a Policy: Cut Down One
Tree; Plant Two More. There was one drawback of this: The Trees being Cut Down in Guyana
were more than 1000 Years Old.

The Goal of Afforestation and Reforestation is to use fast Growing Trees to Produce a Dense
Network of Roots to Bind the Soil Together and Produce a Substantial Amount of Organic
Material to Help in the Production of More Soil.

1. Constructive Farming Practices:

a. Crop Rotation: Each Crop Depletes the Soil of certain Minerals so if Different Crops are
Planted in Succession rather than the Same Crop Continuously, the Depleted Minerals will
Regenerate Naturally. Thus, Arable Value is Retained Longer.

⦁ Inter - Cropping: This suggests Many Crops will be Utilized Simultaneously. It means the
Soil will Not be Exposed for a Long Time. The farmers Maximizes Yield while Maintaining Surface
Coverage. Additionally, he Reduces Risk from Disease and Natural Elements.

⦁ Fallowing: This is when the Land is Deliberately Unutilized. The land is hence Left for a
Period of Time until Vegetation grows back. There is a Rejuvenation of the Mineral Content of the
Soil.
⦁ Green Belting: This is where Large Trees are Planted Around Arable Land. It is utilized in
North America and Serves Two Main Functions: The Large Trees act as Wind Breaks (Protecting
from Wind Erosion) and the Roots Hold the Soil Together while not Inhibiting Use of Top Soil.
Green Belting is used for large Areas of Land.

⦁ Terracing: There is Effort by Man to Reduce the Gradient of a Slope. Eg. Building Small
Walls, Ridges and Channels around Sloping Land helps to Prevent Rainfall from Running Freely
Downslope and Reduces the Chances of Soil being Removed. It creates more User Friendly Land
Spaces. Eg. China.

⦁ Contour Ploughing: Tilling Land around Hill Slopes along the Height of Contours breaks
up the Natural Channels and Grooves in the Soil which may Channel Water directly Downslope.

⦁ Paddocking in Animal Rearing: The Process of Establishing Stalls for Livestock on a Farm.
Paddocks are Designed to Ensure Short-Duration Grazing followed by an Appropriate (related to
Species, Soil Type and Weather Conditions) Rest Period for Re-Growth and Stand Maintenance.
Conservation Strategies: These are Confined to Human Interaction with the Soil.
⦁ Creation of Legislation.
⦁ Education.
Legislation: Creation of Policies that will be Re-Enforced by Penalties, ie, the Government must
Create Legislation that Soil must Not be Removed in North Trinidad, for example. Legislation
must be followed by Repercussions. Eg. Policing, Fines, Jail Terms.
Government Aid / Education to those Persons most Involved with Soil. Eg. Giving Technical
Advice to Farmers such as Best Practices in Farming, Subsidization to Farmers, Hydroponic
Farming (It requires Huge Amount of Income). The Government may Create Forest Reserves
with No Alteration to the Landscape Allowed. It Safeguards the Soil and Ecosystem.
Education: Education about Soil Vulnerabilities can be an Important Agent in Changing
Negative Attitudes and Practices to the Soil. The Soil is Fragile and Important to the Caribbean.
Soil is the Basis for All Groups being here (European, African, Chinese, East Indian came for
Agriculture and Mining) and Soil has led to Farming; allowing the Development of the
Peasantry. Soil indirectly allows for Development of Community, Development of Economic
Entrepreneurship and Economic Enfranchisement.
The Soil can be seen as the Basis of Resistance and Resilience. Soil is the Basis of Cultural
Identity for Caribbean territories. Eg. Jamaica 🡪 Coffee, Grenada 🡪 Spice, Guyana 🡪 Rum,
Sugar Cane. Soil is a Major Contributor to the GNP. Many Caribbean Territories can get
Significant Cash (up to 40%).
Because of Soil Fertility, there is Increase in Employment Opportunities. Because of the Soil,
the Church and Christianity became a Possibility. (To access Land Legally for Africans) Eg. In
Haiti: The Haitian Revolution (1791- 1803) The Europeans and their Social Institutions were
Pushed Out, therefore, the Church was not wanted. This is why they aren't many Christians in
Haiti.
The Soil / Land becomes a means of Diasporic Dynamics (Settlements). During Indentureship,
the East Indians were the last one of the Land. According to the Contract, Either: Money and
Passage to India OR Money and Land in Trinidad and Tobago. Eg. In Guyana and Trinidad, the
East Indians owned many Arable Lands.
Sea Impact on Human Ecology: It is an Important Part of Human Landscape, thus, Inevitably
becomes part of our Cultural Identity and Impacts Human Ecology. Man develops a
Relationship with the Sea.
⦁ It was due to the Sea that Caribbean Territories become Populated (Amerindians and
Canoes).

1. The Voyages of Discovery were Facilitated by the Sea and North East Trade Winds.

1. The Sea facilitated the Triangular Trade and Importation of Different Groups from
Different Places. The Sea is Responsible for Cultural Pluralism.

1. The sea facilitated Movement of Goods. The Wealth of the Caribbean has been Moved
Out. Overtime, the Sea has become Important to different Groups in more ways than one. The
Amerindians used the Seas as Sustenance. The Peasantry used to Sea to Generate
Employment Opportunities. The Peasants went to the Coastline to be Free from Harassment /
Persecution from Europeans.

1. The Sea has facilitated a Human Ecological Response to the Sea Fishing. Fishing can
be Recognized as a means of Achieving Self-Efficiency, a Basis of Resistance and Resilience.
Fishing is the Basis of Formation of Communities. Eg. Sea lots, Caroni, Pointe-a-Pierre, Caroni,
Cedros, Mayaro. Therefore it brought People together. Fishing became Part of the Identity of
different people from different Villages.

Fishing is a Contributor to GNP. Eg. Belize and Guyana use Sea as a Basis of Income
Generation. Belize has a Coral Reef coinciding with the Gulf Stream, allowing Active Fishery
Industries. Guyana, due to Gigantic Rivers, Specialize in the Shrimp Industry.

Fishery is the Basis of International Recognition in Caribbean Territories. Eg. Jamaica, Grenada
and Tobago has Sponsors of Sport Fishing,. In 2012, Mercedes sponsored the Tournament in
Tobago.
1. The Sea constitutes a Major Part of our Tourism Magnet; Principally, Eco-Tourism.
Because of the Sea, Caribbean Nations that are Devoid of Mineral Resources are able to Make
Money; they Rely on the Sea. Eg. Barbados is a Developed Nation (First World) since They Met
Certain Requirements.

1. Fishing and the Sea has Woven its way into the Christian Ideology and it has been
Transposed to the Caribbean Environment. Eg. St Peter’s Day: In many Fishing Villages, it has
been Practice to Bless the Boat.
Coral Reefs:
The Coral Reefs have an Important Economic, Cultural and Environmental Place in Society.
Coral Reefs have been formed over 10 000 years; through Tectonic Movement, Optimum
Temperature and Water. Coral Reefs have been Historically Relevant since the Amerindians
utilized them in several ways:
⦁ Protected Coastline: A Fringe / Barrier Reef allows the Coastline to be Calm; permitting
Amerindian Settlement and Colonisation. The Reefs Shrinks Tidal Energy. This Reduces the
Likelihood of Erosion on the Coastline; acting as a Natural Preventative Method to Protect Against
Natural Phenomena such as Tsunamis, Tidal Waves.

1. Basis of Food: The "Rainforest of the Ocean" is a Habitat for Species of Edible Food
such as Fish, Turtles, etc...The Amerindians Developed Unique Fishing Techniques. Eg. The
use of Remora Fish to Bait and Catch Turtles; Cyanide Poisoning in Tidal Pools to catch Fish.
Today, the Coral Reef has Social, Cultural, Economic, Ecological (Physical) and Scientific
Importance. From a Developmental Point of View, Coastline Conservation helps to Sustain
Physical and Infrastructural Development. Eg. Tourism Sector 🡪 Focused on Eco – Tourism
(Sun, Sea, Sand, Sex). Any Means to Preserve the Tourism Magnet is Economical.
From an Economic Perspective, the Coral Reef provides many Avenues for Income Generation:
⦁ Employment.
⦁ Income.
⦁ Taxation.
These add to the Economic Well Being of a Nation. There are many Levels of Employment
Generated due to the Coral Reefs (Upstream and Downstream Employment).
The Multiplier Effect is an Economic Theory that suggests that Money Spent once, will be Spent
over and over again. Each time Money is spent, it will Add Value, Create Employment and
Opportunities. The Multiplier Effect will be Stimulated by the Coral Reefs.
Tourism Introduces Service Oriented Occupations such as Sight Seeing, Boat Operations,
Beach Recreational Activities, Resorts, Hotels, Rental, Jet-Skiing and Fishing Industries. The
Coral Reef is the Basis of Economic Activity.
Every Person that is Employed, is one less Person that the Government has to Attend to,
meaning, the Government can now Redirect its Limited Resources to Improving the Quality of
Life Indicators (Eg. Education, Healthcare).
The Coral Reef is part of the International Cultural Identity. It is Associated with the Landscape
and the People. Belize stands out as one of the most successful Nations using the Coral Reef
as a Source of National Income. Belize possesses the 2nd Longest Barrier Reef in the World.
Several Countries in the Caribbean utilize the Reef as Part of the Aesthetic of the Nations.
Scientific Importance of the Coral Reefs: There are Ambivalent Effects of Studying the Coral
Reefs. Since Coral Reefs are affected by Minute Temperature Changes, Scientists can Study
the Impact of Global Warming but at the same time, they Study how the Reefs Die.
Threats Facing Coral Reefs:
Coral is Composed of Millions of Tiny Organisms called Polyps. Polyps Secrete Calcium and
Form an Exoskeleton Shell. These are Built up over 1000 years. Due to Chemicals in the Air,
the Exoskeleton Shell turns to Limestone. Even though the Coral is Hard, it is a Biological
Organism. It must have Access to Light for Photosynthesis.
The Coral is an animal that sucks in Phytoplankton. The Phytoplankton and the Coral Polyps
have a Mutualism Relationship; the Phytoplankton excretes Waste and the Polyps use the
Waste to Effectively Photosynthesize and Grow.
Coral Reefs are Sensitive to Water Clarity, Salinity, Temperature and pH. Humans are
Responsible for the Destruction of the Reefs.
Direct Threats:
⦁ Theft: The Beauty of the Reef is its Own Worst Enemy. Due to its Natural Aesthetic
Wonder, people go to Observe them. Then, they Break Corals for Souvenirs. Additionally, Sight
Seeing also results in Humans Walking on Corals and Damage from Boat Anchors.

A Coral Pillar is Several Metres Tall but only the Few Inches on Top is Alive. Tourists break the
Ones most Accessible to them (at the Top). A Growing Industry has Emerged for Selling Coral.
These Corals are of a Variety of Sizes, Shapes and Colours. Craftsmen go after the All Kinds of
Corals but Seek the Most Attractive Ones more than Others, thus, some Species are under
more Threat.

Eg. Jewellery, Furniture. The Making of Souvenirs is Ironic; the Basis of the Craftsmen
Employment is Slowly Depleting as they Take Corals to Manipulate and Sell. It is noteworthy to
know that it takes 100 years for 3cm of Coral to Grow.

1. Harvesting of Sand: Coral Sand consists of Calcium and is Highly Prized (Eg. In
Landscaping) due to its Natural White State. The Longer it is in the Sun, the Whiter it gets.

Harvesting the Sand Alters the Equilibrium of the Coastline. One Change in the Sea will Lead to
a Compensation Elsewhere. This can result in Changes in the Coastline. As a Consequence,
there will be Total Loss of Coastline Ecology or Money Paid to Repair.

1. Invasive Species: Due to Global Trade, there are New Species Introduced to the
Caribbean, They are brought in Ballast Water. Ships Entering and Exiting the Caribbean
Deposit Ballast Water.
The Red Anemone is an example of an Invasive Species that Originated in Japan. It Eats and
Digests the Polyps Present in the Coral Reefs. Another Example is the Venomous Lion Fish.
Invasive Species mean that there are No Natural Predators.

1. Construction: Because of Building and Construction on the Coastline, there has been an
Altercation of the Coast. Construction on the Coastline has become a Norm in the Tourism
Industry. Eg. In Tobago, Coco Reef, has 3 and 4 Star Hotels that are Near the Ocean.
Indirect Threats:
⦁ Pollution: Physical Garbage (Bottles, Cans, Clothes) get into Coral Reefs and Reduce
Sunlight Penetration and Water Exchange Capabilities of Corals. Bivalves exchange Water for
Oxygen. If the Environment becomes too Congested, it leads to Eutrophication or Suffocation.

Water Pollution 🡪 Organic Matter (Eg. Kitchen Waste) and Human Waste introduces
Nitrogenous Compounds. There is Large Amounts of Human Waste Deposited on the Coast.

Chemical Wastes Impact the Coastline. The Manufacturing Industries Inject Nitrogenous
Compounds in the Waterways. Eg. The Stink Smell of the Beetham Mangrove. The Injection of
Chemical Wastes lead to Algae Bloom.

Algae Bloom is where Naturally Found Algae is given the Ability to Grow Rapidly and Bloom
Spores. When this occurs, the Water Turns Red and Cuts Out all Sunlight while Consuming all
Oxygen. Chemical Runoff will lead to Chemical Imbalance of the Coastal Waters. There is
Damage to Corals. Coral Thinning 🡪 Due to the Change in pH, Coral Skeleton is Growing
Thinner.

1. Runoff from the Land: Rain falls and Run into the Sea. The Water is Murky (Contains
Debris, Sand). This poses an Indirect Threat since it Reduces the Clarity of Water.

Due to Human Activities (Eg. Construction), there is Destabilization of Soil, therefore, more
Erosion and More Deposition into Coastal Environment. The Coastal Marine Environment is
Covered with Debris, resulting in Reduced Sunlight Penetration.

1. Fishing: Fishing has been a Tradition since the Amerindian Time. Fishing is a main part
of every Caribbean Nation's Identity. While the Coral Reef provides Habitat, Fishing (Including
Dropping of Anchors and Rolling of Boats) Damage the Corals. There is Breakage in Corals.

These Boats (with Powerful Engines) Stir up Debris; creating Unclarity in Water. Boats
Introduce Petroleum Products and By - Products directly into the Environment. Constant
Introduction over a Period of Time will Impact the Marine Ecosystem (Including Coral Reefs).
Some types of Fishing are more Dangerous than Others. Trawler Fishing is an example of these
that Damage Ecosystems. This presents Indiscriminate Capture of all Species of Fish; from
Highly Prized to Protected and Unwanted Species. There is obvious Breakage of the Fragile
Coral Organisms.

Marine Aquaria is Specialised and Fish can sometimes cost $100 US. There is Over –
Exploitation of Particular Species. Certain Fish are at Risk due to Overfishing.

This provides Income and Employment but will have an Impact upon the Aquatic Food Chain.
The Overexploitation of One Species can lead to the Collapse of the Ecological System.

1. Sight Seeing and Boating: Dropping of Anchors, Introduction of Petroleum Chemicals.

1. Global Warming: Climate Change doesn't Foresee any Sustainability for the Coral
Reefs. Caribbean Waters vary from 25oC to 28oC. Corals, if exposed to Extended Time of Too
Low or High Temperatures, will Cease to Grow.

1. Removal of Mangrove Forests: This is becoming a more Pronounced Phenomenon due

to Squatting and Development of Private / Public Workers.

There is Lack of Recognition for Importance of Mangroves. For Private Developers, the
Coastline is Important for Manufacturing and an Easy "Pay Day". The Absence of Mangroves
affects the Marine Coastal Environment. Since there is an Opportunity to Dispose of Waste
Easily, more Garbage will get into the Oceans.

Protection of Coral Reefs

The Reef Ought to be a Priority on the Conservation List because of its Importance:
⦁ Economically: Fishing, Tourism, Handycraft.
⦁ Environmentally: Natural Habitat (Eco–Diversity), Natural Water Break, Protection from
Erosion.
⦁ Culturally: Part of People's Ways to Understand the Ocean, Part of their Recreational
Avenues.
In order to Protect the Reef, the Government must Play a Fundamental Role. The Government
of any Country is the only Agency with the Authority / Resources to Institute Change. The
Government must Participate in Ensuring the Sustainability of the Reef.
Caribbean Governments have been Reactive (Only when Something goes Wrong, they Act).
Steps are not taken to Prevent Something until Damage is already done. They need to be
Proactive in order to achieve Sustainability.
Any Government has to recognize the Importance of the Natural Environment. They have two
Tools at its Disposal:
⦁ Legislation.
⦁ Education.
Legislation: Laws to see about Protection of Coastal Environment. Eg. How People Build in the
Northern Range. Most Governments Lack the Potential Will or Ability to Construct Legislation to
Protect the Environment. Eg. How and Where Homes and Manufacturing Firms are Built
(Zoning).
Laws regarding Utilization of Certain Products that can / cannot be used on the Market and
Laws regarding Garbage Disposal should be put into place. Establishing Recycling Laws might
seem Trivial. As an Oil Producing Nation, Trinidad has no Oil Recycling Laws.
Laws regarding Fishing and Tourism need to be created. Re – Enforcement, however, is the
Challenge. A Government needs to Police the Laws; Creating Jail Terms and Fines. Legislation
can take Years to Complete and become Enacted (Support is needed from both Government
and Opposition).
Education: Education regarding the Frailty of the Environment is needed. Education about the
Environmental Awareness; not just the Reef System is needed. Eco – Tourism is Actively
Important in all Caribbean Nations. Eg. Pitch Lake, Reefs.
The Emphasis on Education is to bring about Cultural Change (Change how People View, Think
and Deal With the Reef). The Government also needs to Change the Education Curriculum.
Government Outreach Programs in Education; Stimulating Awareness through Outreach.
Eg. "Save the Reef" Program whereby Schools earn Money for Informative Reef Posters. Eg.
School Essays. Infomercials is where Information is given in a manner Appealing to the
Audience. Public Awareness and Education is Necessary.
Droughts
There are Environmental, Cultural, Social and Political Impacts of Droughts. The Caribbean is
particularly Susceptible to Droughts since most Caribbean Nations are Agrarian in Nature, ie,
we depend heavily on Agriculture for Economic Turnover and Occupation.
Additionally, most Caribbean Nations are Small and Lack Water Storage Capacity. The
Caribbean may have a Clearly Defined Drought Period (Dry Season is an Annual Drought).
Drought impacts upon the Ecology of a Place; the Natural and Agricultural Vegetation will
Diminish.
These effects have Economic and Social Consequences. The Ones who are most Affected are
the Ones who are most Vulnerable, ie, those who are at the lower end of the Socioeconomic
Spectrum (Eg. Poor People, Sustenance Farmers).
Impacts of Droughts:
⦁ Reduced Crop Production or Failure of Entire Crops.

1. Contraction of National Income.

1. Famine.
1. Manufacturing Sector / Industries: Water is an Essential Component in any
Manufacturing Process; leading to Reduced Production. In 2010, in Trinidad and Tobago, to
Facilitate the Continued Refinery of Oil, Harvesting of Water took place in Ponds all over the
Country.

Petrotrin was placed under difficulty to Refine Oil with lack of Water in Ponds. In 2010, there
was a Scarcity so Food Prices rose. There were Food Shortages; so Government had to Import
Food.

1. Civil Unrest: There would be Migration. If the Land is No Longer Productive, People will
move and Trinidad and Tobago will be placed under Refugee Status. Because of Migration,
there will be Social and Cultural Dislocation, Loss of Identity and Post – Dramatic Stress
Syndrome. In 2010, St. Lucia and St. Vincent had to Import Water. Trinidad and Tobago gave
them for free.

1. Diseases and Illnesses: Hygiene might become an Issue. Lack of Hygiene 🡪 Disease.
Water Borne Diseases become Rampant (Eg. Cholera) since People utilize Impure Water.

1. Water Crime: In 2010, People Stole Water: Illegal Connection. People sell Water in the
Black Market. Some Persons Exploit an already Bad Situation.

1. Scope for Corrupt Practice: Persons in Authoritative Positions enjoy Better Standards of
Life. This leads to a Divided Society. In times of Desperation, a Disquiet in the Peace of the
Nation will Evolve. The Majority will not have will the Minority will have Water. There will be a
Breakdown of Law and Order.

1. Fire: This can become a Reality. Everything is already Flammable. Even the Fire Service
won't be able to Cope with this Disaster.

1. Ecological Collapse: All Plants and Animals will Suffer. It may lead to Desertification
(This is where a piece of Land is Stripped of all Vegetation; making the Land lost Forever).

In the mid 1960s, in Central America, there was a Great Depression. This time of Hardship was
Co – Incidental with a Drought in the Centre of America. There was a Dust Bowl; where all Soil
was Removed and left with Dust.
Coping Strategies with Drought:
⦁ Liquidation of Legislation: Promote Conservation of Water; Ensuring what one has lasts. It is
part of the Sustainable Development Paradigm. Legislation can be regarding: Water Usage Laws,
Water Metering, Water Initiatives and Revision of Water Winning Policies.

Water Winning is the Right to Use / Access Water. This means that Government Owns all the
Water. Revision of Water Shed Policies (A Watershed is an area of Natural Catchment
facilitating Percolation). Spending on Reservoirs may be Ideal but it is Expensive and many
Caribbean Nations lack Space.

Money can be Allocated to Desalination Systems. These are Energy Monsters. The
Government can create Serious Consequences for Water Crime (Eg. Fines for Stealing Water).
The creation of Water Police should be Installed.

There is Water Scheduling; Water Equity among People. This is a major effort to create
Tranquility among People. In 2010, the Government of Trinidad used their Parliamentary
Privilege to acquire something in the Public Good, and confiscated a Portion of Blue Waters'
water. Blue Waters used Water from an Aquifer in the Northern Range.

1. Education: Making People aware of Importance of Water. Eg. Sensitization,

Infomercials, etc...

Positives of Natural Disasters:

⦁ Volcanic Ash Deposits: Many Caribbean countries depend on Agriculture for GNP. Some of
these Nations have Volcanoes; with very Rich, Volcanic Soil. Volcanic Ash / Soil leads to
Longevity / Sustainability of Agriculture. Additionally, Volcanic Soil doesn't Exhaust Quickly.

1. International Attention: International Attention can lead to International Aid. Assistance

can come from Several Agencies. Eg. Non – Governmental Organizations (Eg. UN, Red Cross),
Friendly Governments (Eg. USA) and Religious Bodies (Eg. Churches, Temples). A Nation may
become in a Better Position than before the Disaster.

1. Debt Alleviations: All Developing Nations currently has International Loans; from
Governments to Agencies. In a worst case scenario, a Nation might Unable to Pay its Debt. The
Creditors may cancel the Debt (Debt Alleviation).
Eg. Haiti: During the Haitian Revolution, France lost a Huge Amount of Money during the 1803
Insurrection. During the 1803 Insurrection, France required Haiti to pay $60 Million Francs back
to France for their Losses. This Debt was only repaid in the 20th Century.

Because of the 2010 Earthquake in Haiti, Global Attention was Directed towards Haiti. The
World looked at France with Contempt. As such, France became Compelled to Helping Haiti
since International Nations Pressured France.

1. Cohesion within Society: Strata and Barriers in Society may Break Down since Everyone
has the same Struggle.

1. Opportunity for Better Rebuilding / Planning: The Layout of Caribbean Towns are Poorly
Planned and Congested, thus, Ill-Equipped to Accommodate Commercial Needs. Eg. In Belize,
there was a Movement of Capital from Coast to Interior.

1. Opportunity to Revise Laws: Laws such as Building Codes can be Revised. Natural
Disasters illustrates where Society, Culture and Laws have Short Comings. Laws can now be
Derived to Counteract. Eg. Legislation for Agencies may also be Created. Eg. ODPM.

1. Recognition for a Disaster Relief Fund: Natural Disasters encourage the Recognition of
the Importance of Saving Money. (Disaster Relief Fund). Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago: The
Heritage and Relief Fund.

Mitigation Strategies: This can be Unique to a Type of Disaster:

⦁ Proactive Legislation: Anticipation of Worst Case Scenario and Creation of Strategies to
Cope.

1. Oversight and Regulatory Bodies in some Areas of Society: Eg. Land Use, Construction
and Building, Coordinating Agencies such as ODPM, EMA, NEMA.

1. Education: Promotion of Awareness as a Protective Agent. Knowledge can Safeguard a

Nation. Campaigns Spreading Awareness can Reduce Severity of Disaster.
1. Investing of Monitoring Equipment: The Caribbean is Highly Geologically Active thus the
Investment into Seismic Equipment to try to Predict Potential of Disasters should be
Recommended. Nations that aren't Prone to such Disasters are in Possession of such
Equipment but those that are in Dire Need of it, are without. Eg. Haiti. These Equipment are
Expensive depending on their Capabilities.

1. Use of Technology for Pre-Alerting: In Recent Times, The ODPM has made Alliances
with Digicel and Bmobile to SMS Emergence Broadcast Messages in Times of Natural Turmoil.

1. Buying Insurance: Insurance is a Promise to Pay. It is a means of being Indemnified

(Being Restored to a Former Position). Government, as well as Private Companies, buy
Insurance. Through Purchase, there is a Reduction of Dependency, thus, becoming more
Independent.

1. Ensuring Better Land Usage: More Sensible Drainage and Agricultural Practices. Eg. In
a Drought, Nations may Invest in Desalination Plants, do Seismic Surveys to find Aquifers and
Regulation of Water Consumption.

1. Water Monitoring / Water Metering / Construction of New Dams: Dry Seasons don’t
occur suddenly, thus, one knows When to Prepare For and How to Prepare. Eg. Planning and
Sourcing Resources and Money to Construct New Dams.
Factors Influencing Responses to Hazards: These factors are Personal and Physical in Reality.
⦁ Physical Nature of a Place: Some Places are Not Prone to certain Natural Disasters due to
their Physical Nature. Eg. Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana are not Prone to Hurricanes and
Earthquakes. This Influences a Cultural Perception of a Place.

They Tend to Leave It Out of their Thinking. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago seem to be Immune from
Hurricanes, so, People Factor it into their Thinking by Leaving it Out. "God is a Trini". This
Perception is Passed from One Generation to Another.

1. People's Culture of Dependency: Dependency suggests that a Person looks to People in

Power for Everything. This Culture of Dependency is Dangerous as People take no Initiative for
their Self Preservation. As a part of Caribbean Psyche, we leave everything to the Hands of the
Government.
The Culture of Dependency poses a Challenge to People's Level of Preparation and Resulting
Damage that can Occur.
1. People's Level of Awareness / Education: Many People don’t have the Level of
Education to Appreciate the Gravity of an Event. Because they Lack the Education, they don't
Recognize the Dangers of Natural Disasters. Lack of Education / Awareness can be Detrimental
as they aren’t Aware of the Preventative Measures to Safeguard Life and Property.

1. Socio – Economic Status: People's Responses to Natural Disasters are Affected by

Money Available to them. Eg. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan destroyed Grenada. Low Socio –
Economic Standing: Lack of Preparation and No Insurance. Grenadian Homes were Destroyed.
No Money was Spent on Proper Foundations, Food Cans, etc..
Agriculture and Geology:
Agriculture is related to the Nature of the Land. Historically, the Land is Important to the
Evolution of the Caribbean. The Land's Suitability is Directly related to the Crops being
Implemented. The Nature of the Land Influenced the Socio - Cultural and Economic Evolution of
the Caribbean. Eg. The Plantation, Peasantry still Depend on Agriculture for Money.
Some Territories are more Suited to Agriculture than Others. Caribbean Territories became
Specialised in certain Crops. The Nature of the Land Varies among the Caribbean and Dictates
the Agricultural Practices that have Evolved.
Every Caribbean Country has a Cash Crop. Eg. Sugar Cane, Coffee, Rice. This Implies Large
Scale Agriculture. The Large Scale Nature of the Cash Crop Influenced Settlement Patterns,
Levels of Employment and National Income.
Countries such as the Lesser Antilles still depend Heavily upon the Sale of Agricultural Products
for a Large Part of their National Income. Agricultural Dependency Poses a Challenge to
Caribbean Development because:
⦁ Agriculture is not Economically Rewarding.
⦁ Agricultural Jobs are Low Yielding.
⦁ Agriculture is Prone to Diseases.
⦁ Natural Disasters.
Agriculture is Prone to Losses of all kinds. Agriculture also means that much of the Landscape
has been Zoned (Restriction in Terms of Land Use). In the Lesser Antilles, due to the Nature of
their Geology (Eg. Volcanoes, High Mountains), Agriculture becomes the Obvious Choice of
Occupation and Land Use.

Module 1, Specific Objective 6

Impact of Social Institutions on Caribbean People:
Social Institutions are Sets of Important Ideas used to Organize People's Lives. They are
Prescriptive; they Inform about Routines. Social Institutions do Not Exist in the Tangible Realm.
People Place High Value on these Ideas. Some Social Institutions Evoke a High Level of
Sensitivity in People; as some Cling more Strongly to, for example, Religion. They Influence
how People go about their Lives.
For a Social Institution to Exist, a Consensus is Required. Everyone has to Agree on the Social
Institution, therefore, they are Socially Cohesive. Eg. Students from Different Religion
Backgrounds come together in Education.
A Social Institution depends on Socialisation, ie, the next Generation would be Taught certain
Information. A Social Institution Allows for a Value System.
Primary Socialisation Involves Infancy and Early Childhood. It is Associated with the
Indoctrination of Personal Values and these Allow the Individual to Interact with his Immediate
Society, ie, the Family. The Individual learns Religion, Love, Obedience and Sibling Interaction.
He will Learn the Values that Allow him to Understand Roles in the Family.
Secondary Socialisation Involves Formal Schooling (Eg. Pre School, Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary Education) where the Person is Taught Socially Relevant Values that are Important for
a Nation / Society and would make an Individual a Good Citizen. Eg. Patriotism.
These Values can be Taught and Caught the Importance of Sharing through the Hidden
Curriculum (The Lesson in the Lesson: The Moral of the Story). Values can be Caught when an
Individual Observes Behaviour. NOT all Values are Valuable. Eg. Racism.
Social Perspectives: Social Perspectives Produces Guidelines / Theories / Rules by which what
already Exists in Society can be Studied. Each Social Perspective begins with a Basic Outlook /
Theory. Social Perspectives do not Dictate what goes on in Society; it merely Helps to Explain
why Society is the Way it is. Two Social Perspectives are:
⦁ Functionalism: Created by Emile Durkheim. Functionalism sees all Social Institutions as
being Crafted by Society to Promote Cohesion, Harmony and High Levels of Productivity.
Functionalism sees all Social Institutions as Working towards the Greater Good of Society. There is
an Optimistic Outlook.

Functionalism Promotes the Idea of Roles in Society. Therefore, Functionalism depends on

Tradition, ie, Change in Society must Occur very Slowly else Society will Slip into Chaos with
Rapid Change. Functionality regards all Social Institutions as Enabling an Individual to lead a
Happy and Productive Life; helping an Individual to become what Society wants him to be.

1. Marxism / Conflict Perspective: Created by Karl Marx. Communism is Associated with

Karl Marx. He Created a Socio - Political and Socio - Economic Philosophy contained in the
book called "The Communist Manifesto." Marxism sees all Social Institutions as being Created
by the Bourgeoisie Class to Oppress the Proletariat Class / the Masses.

Therefore, Marxism sees all Social Institutions as being based upon Oppression, Conflict and
Control. Cuba Utilizes Communist Policies as part of their Structure. It Explains all Social
Institutions to Maintain their Power Position over another Group.
Social Institutions:
⦁ Family.
⦁ Religion.
⦁ Education.
⦁ Justice System.
Family
Functionalist Perspective: Any Family Structure has a few Main Functions:
a. Reproductive.
b. Socialisation.
c. Economic.
d. Provision of Love, Security, Self Esteem.
The Family is a Major Institution in Society because this is where the Greatest Level of
Socialisation takes Place, ie, Family Teaches Children what it is to be a Member of Society. The
Family is the Basis of Social Cohesion and Harmony. However, this can only Occur if Every
Member of the Family Performs his Role. The Functionalists Recommends the Nuclear Family;
as there is a Tightly Knit, Compact, Efficient Family Structure.
Marxist Perspective: The Family is a Reflection of what Occurs in Society. They see the Society
as Filled with Social and Economic Exploitation. This same Exploitation in Society also Occurs
in Family. Marxists Theorists are Characterized by Dysfunctionality because there would be
Exploitation, Violence and Oppression in the Family.
Marxists see the Breadwinner (Man) as having Economic Power and he will Oppress the
Family. Thus, the Relationship between the Man and Woman is never a Good One. The Man
Oppresses his Family because of Oppression given to him in his Workplace. This is known as
Social Reproduction; where a Mentality continues from One Generation to the Next.
In the Family, there will be a Sexual Division of Labour / Sexual Stereotyping. Eg. Men as
Breadwinners, Women as Housewife (Women as having No Economic Basis). This Agenda
Continues the Economic Polarisation in Society.
Caribbean Reality: The Caribbean Illustrates a Diversity in Family Structure. Like all Social
Institutions, there would be Inputs of Family Structure from all Race Groups in the Caribbean.
Some Family Structures would have more Influence than Others.
All Social Institutions Display a Eurocentric and Ethnocentric Disposition, ie, all of our Social
Institutions have been Affected by the European Ideal. In Social Institutions, Cultural
Imperialism is Operational: We, as an Oppressed People, look towards the European Models as
being Superior to ours. In the Caribbean, the Concept of the Family has Inputs from Several
Race Groups:
⦁ Amerindian: There is a Tribal Society. They Lived in a Group; which was like One Large
Family. They used the Extended Family Structure; Implying that Persons who are Two or Three
Places Removed (Eg. 2nd and 3rd Cousins) may still Live Close Knit. Blood Relations Bound them.

Tribal Society was Lost when Europeans Superimposed all their Social Institutions in 1492.
Everything that occurred after 1492 looked to the European Model as the Appropriate Model.

1. African: Slavery DID NOT Promote Family Structure. Instead, it Attempts to Separate
Men and Women. On the Plantation, Men and Women found Ways to become Intimate. A
Concept called the Visiting Union is Introduced. This leads to Matriarchal Family Structures (The
Women are the Economic and Social Heads of Families) and Male Stereotype 🡪 Machismo.

The Caribbean Society Views Masculinity by how many Women / Children one Possesses. This
leads to Single Parent Homes. After Emancipation, a New Type of Family Structure is Created:
The Common Law Union.
The Common Law DID NOT need a Religious / Legal Framework and this Created a Problem in
Society. Many Children were Born without Proper Management. The Colonial Government
created a Concept called Bastardy to Counter the Common Law Union.

1. East Indian: They came from a Heritage of the Extended Family Structure; People Living
in Close Proximity. The East Indian Retains that Type of Family Structure today. Even though
the East Indian is still getting Married in his Religion, their Children are Considered Bastards
since there is No European Framework (There is Instead Hindus and Muslims).
There is Tremendous Diversity in Family Structure. In Recent Times, the Single Sex Family is
Becoming Accepted in Metropolitan Nations. It is a Matter of Time before Caribbean Nations
Adopt this. Sexual Orientation is being more Stigmatised. Any Discrimination takes away a
Person's Humanity.

Education is regarded as the Most Important Social Institution. Education is Linked with
Empowerment and Social Mobility. Education can be Considered as the Most Basic Aspect of
Socialisation and Values. Formal Education Associated with Schooling fulfills the Secondary
Socialisation Criteria.
Functionalist Perspective: They see Education as being Important for Social Perpetuation;
Every Next Generation will be Aware of what is Important in Society. The Functionalists Believe:
⦁ Education is Passing on Ideas, Values, Norms.
⦁ Education Makes an Individual More Productive in Society, ie, Ready for the World of
Work / Employment.
⦁ Education allows a Person to Enjoy a Better Quality of Life.
⦁ Education can Promote Unification of Society by Promoting Understanding and Tolerance
of Differences.
⦁ Education is a Factor that Promotes Equity in Society because Everyone is Equally Able to
Access Education. Because it is Equally Accessible, the Only Limit an Individual in Education is the
Limit he Sets on Himself.
⦁ Education is a Meritocracy.
⦁ Education is a Social Mobility Agent. So, it Equally Empowers rather than Create
Polarization. Not Everyone will, for example, become a Scientist, but, Every Job is Equally
Important.
⦁ Every Individual can be Educated to his Own Desire.
Marxist Perspective: The Marxists say Education is a Form of Mental Control. They see
Education as a means by which there is a Perpetuation of the Status Quo called "Social
Reproduction." Education is seen as a means of Perpetuating Class Division. The Marxists
Assess Education from the Elements of Education.
The Curriculum Tends to Instil Inferiority in the Masses Class. Education tries to Replace a
Sense of Identity with an Understanding that "You are to be Ruled." Education is Designed to
Ensure the Masses Fail. Eg. Examinations are set to Make People Fail. After Repeated Failure,
They would not Persist.
Education is seen as a Psychological Weapon Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Destroy a
Person's Will.
The Rich will always Prosper at Education since:
⦁ They have all the Requirements. Eg. Children have Necessary Stationery.
⦁ They can Spend all their Time Studying (No Chores).
⦁ They have the Right Nutrition to Eat, Study and Succeed.
⦁ They can Afford Extra Lessons; Maintaining a Competitive Edge.
⦁ If they Fail Examinations, they could always Use Corrupt Means to Advance.
The Children of the Rich will always be the Education Elite and the Poor will always be the
Employees.

Caribbean Reality: Education went through Several Different Phases at Different Times:
⦁ The Plantation: With the Arrival of the Europeans, Christianity as the School Curriculum is
the First Emphasis. In this Early Context, the Marxists Paradigm of Brainwash and Control is
Fulfilled. Eg. Obedience and Acceptance of One's Suffering is Taught.

Christianity is thus Linked to Exploitation. While Africans are Brainwashed by Religious Values,
the Children of the Planter Class are Educated in the Curriculum for them to Maintain their
Riches.

The Church is Associated with the First Teachers. Eg. Priests, Monks. Hence, Christianity and
Education are Inseparable in the Caribbean. The Slaves are NOT Educated or Empowered.
Christianity is given to Learn; rather than Read.

There were a Few Coloured People (Mulatto, Free Men) who Accessed Education. They
became the Black Intelligentsia. They were Able to Send their Children to Education. This also
Created a Class Division. Education becomes Associated with Social Stratification.

On the Plantation, Education belongs to the Professional Class. They have more Power than
the Planter. Education is seen as Something Desirable as it is a Social Mobility and
Empowerment Agent. The Slaves Thought Education was Something Worthy.

1. 1838: Colonial Governments were Mandated to Give the Newly Emancipated Population
the Rudiments of Education and Literacy. Public Education in the BWI Caribbean was Allowed.

The Institution of Colonial Education was Designed by a British Authority for an Oppressed
People, therefore, the Agenda of the Colonial Education System was to Perpetuate the Idea
among Oppressed People that they should be Ruled by the Imperial Power, ie, the Colonial
Education as a means of Brainwashing and Perpetuation of Class Division. Colonial Education
fulfills the Marxists Paradigm.
During the Initial Stages of Education in the Caribbean, Education is Associated with the
Church. The Church became a School. Normally, a Church is next to a School. Education is
Owned by the Church; the Priests and Nuns became the Teachers. This Stereotype lasts till this
day. The Christian Schools are seen as the Superior Schools.

Even during Initial Education, there were Secondary School Opportunities. But, Secondary
Schooling was NOT Free. Education was seen as an Elitist Commodity to be Sold (Only
Accessible by the Wealthy). Hence, Education is a Social Stratification Factor. These
Secondary Schools are the First Schools and are known as the Best Schools.

Different Churches Targeted Different Communities. Eg. The Roman Catholic / Anglican
Churches Targeted the Liberated Africans while the Presbyterian Church Targeted the East
Indians. The Children of Both Races will have to Change Religion to Attend these Schools.
Education was used as a Force.

The Colonial Agenda was still there as Time Passed. People are Brainwashed into Seeing
Europeans as Superior. Colonial Education Dehumanises Society and takes away the Identity
of the Caribbean. The Focus was on a Person becoming Disconnected.

1. Federation (1958): One of the First Acts of the Federation was to Attempt to Make
Education more Relevant to a Caribbean Society. The Federation used Procedures to Create
the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). These were Early Plans; it took a while before CXC
became a Reality.

Colonial Education was Damaging; CXC Addressed Cultural Imperialism. The Decision was
made in 1958 but in 1973, CXC is Inaugurated and the First Exams became a Replacement to
the GCE O' Level Examinations. Overtime, all the GCE Examinations were Replaced by a CXC
Equivalent. The Last GCE O' Level Exam was Written in 2013.

In 2000, CXC Initiated a Plan for an A' Level Equivalent: CAPE. By 2006, all Caribbean
Countries were Required to Offer CAPE as the A' Level Examinations. Education now Promotes
Caribbean Identity and Development. In the Caribbean, today, there is a Heavy Emphasis on
Education as an Empowerment Factor because the Importance is Emphasized to Each New
Generation.

Education Influences Routines; especially to the Young. Education has Allowed a Caribbean
People to be Liberated from Bondage to Labour. In each Passing Generation, Education is
more Important and Accessible.

While Education is a Mobility and Empowerment Agent, Ironically, Education becomes a

Stratification Factor. Education Adds to the Division that already Exists.
Religion: Religious Beliefs are as Old as Mankind Itself. It has always been part of Man's Ways
of Thinking. Religion is a Diverse Concept. Hence, it is Challenging to Define it. All Religions
have certain Common Features:
⦁ There is a Higher Spiritual Entity that Governs Mans' Lives.
⦁ Man, through certain Actions (Rites, Rituals, Ceremonies) may be Able to Gain Favour with
that Spiritual Entity.
⦁ Man uses Religion as a Means of Coping with and Tolerating the Challenges of his Reality.
Eg. Charity, Prayers.
Functionalist Perspective: They Place Extremely High Value on Religion due to its Purpose in
Society. They Value Religion because of its Congregational Nature, ie, it Brings People
Together and Promotes Consensus. Because it is based upon a Shared Values System, it
Promotes Interaction, Cohesion, Co-Operation, "Oneness" of Interaction.
Therefore, Religion can Promote Harmony and Stability of Society. Religion can also Promote
Morality (Knowledge and Understanding of Right and Wrong), and this Promotes Peace. The
Functionalists also say Religion is Based upon Established Ceremony and Practices, Rituals.
Eg. Sunday 🡪 Church. Tradition is Promoted; which Aids in Maintaining Stability in Society.
Marxists Perspective: Marxists Philosophers see Religion as the Most Sensitive Social
Institution because it deals with Mankind's Highest Psychological Need: Spiritual Needs. Marx
says that Religion was Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Instil Fear and Servility.
In this way, Religion Continues the Mindset that keeps the Proletariat Class in Oppression,
therefore, Religion is Associated with Social Reproduction.
Marxists Philosophers say the Masses Class use Religion as an Escape from Oppression.
"Religion is the Opiate / Opium of the Masses." Religion is a Coping Mechanism that never
Helps the Situation because they always Escape the Reality.
Religion causes People to Accept Oppression and keeps People Controllable because it is
Predicated on the Fear of the Unknown. In this Perspective, Religion is an Apparatus of Control.
Caribbean Reality: Religion is a Diverse Institution in the Caribbean because of the Number of
Inputs that have come into the Caribbean Overtime. Enculturation, Retention, Erasure,
Hybridization and Conversion have taken place in the Caribbean.
*Conversion is Associated with the Metropolitan Nation, ie, People Switch from their Original
Religion to Christianity. This Represents Eurocentrism and Ethnocentrism. Even though the
Caribbean has a Plural Religion Society, the Caribbean has an Ethnocentric View on Religion.
There is a Preference for the European Religion (Christianity). Over the 500+ Years in the
Caribbean, Christianity has Entrenched itself into the Ways of Thinking about Every Social
Institution. Christianity, then, has become an Important Social Mobility Factor, and therefore, a
Social Stratification Factor.
Amerindians: Religion Existed among the Amerindians. They had Anthropomorphic Worship 🡪
Divine / Human Characteristics are Endowed in Nature.
Formal European Religion comes into the Caribbean in 1492. Religion and Politics were
Inseparable in the Middle Ages. The Church and State are Interwoven. This has Influenced
Caribbean Evolution ever since.
Even though the Caribbean is a Plural Society, Christianity has Influenced Everyone's Lives.
With the Coming of Christianity, comes the Zeal to Convert. Religion and Sword Arrives in 1492.
Policies began to be Enacted; using Christianity as a Base.
The Encomienda became an Abuse of Christianity when it was Introduced after Repartimiento.
The Encomienda was the 1st Effort to Convert and Gospelise in the Caribbean. The
Encomienda sets a Pattern by which Christianity will be seen in the Caribbean.
Christianity is a Justification of the Genocide and Capitalism. In this Early Stage, the Marxists
View is Fulfilled. Over the Years, there is Cultural and Religious Erasure of the Amerindians.
Eg. Amerindians Celebrate the Santa Rosa Festival in October in Trinidad and Tobago. This is
Clearly Signs of Erasure and Assimilation. Religion is part of the Superstructure of Capitalism.
Slavery is Pivoted upon Christianity. Justification of Enslavement of the Black Man is also
Found in Biblical Text. The African is the Exile Tribe of Israel and he is Supposed to be
Exploited; It is the Just Thing to Do. There is Abuse of Christianity to Advance a Capitalist
Venture.
On the Plantation, the Africans were Prevented from Practicing their West African Religion for
one Purpose: The Europeans don't Understand it, therefore, they Cannot Control it; it is a
Security Risk. There is Cultural Erasure. At the same Time, the Europeans are Beginning to
Supplant Christian Values, Scriptures, and Elements of Biblical Teachings in the Africans.
The Values that are Supplanted are Meant to Promote Docility; to make People Accept their
Fate and Instil Fear. Man Abuses Religion because there is an Inherent Greed.
Edward Kamau Brathwaite Studied the Process of Creolization. He Noticed that Africans made
a Conscious Effort to Retain Elements of his Unique Identity while Enduring Pressure to Change
from the Europeans. Overtime, Elements that were Retained, were being Mixed with the New
Things Taught to them; resulting in Hybridization. Many Hybrids have been Formed:
Jamaica: Myaal, Pocomania, Rastafarianism.
Cuba: Santoria.
Grenada + Trinidad and Tobago: Orisha.
Trinidad and Tobago: Shouter Baptists.
Haiti: Voodoo.
Hybrid Religions are Allowed to Proliferate with Emancipation. Even though the Plantation
comes to an End, Different Kinds of Pressures are Applied to the Hybrid Groups in order for
them to Convert to Christianity and become Controlled, for example, Restriction to Employment,
School and Bastardy.
East Indians come in and Bring Eastern Religious Ideologies (Islam, Hinduism, Zen Buddhism).
There is no Effort to Control them since they are Wage Labour. Thus, East Indian Religions
Survive in the Caribbean. Just as the Hybrid Religions are seen as Inferior, so too are the East
Indian Religions. They are Held in a Very Contemptuous Mindset.
Today, the East Indian Community is Converting to Christianity. Christianity Impacts on our
Lives; even those who aren’t Christian. Eg. Name Choice: "Thomas" to Reflect an Ethnocentric
Ideal; showing European Cultural Imperialism is Succeeding.
Two Major Christian Events Punctuate the Calendar: Easter and Christmas. People Think about
these Events when Planning. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Trinity Cross didn’t Reflect the Plural
Society. Hence, the Nation's Highest Award, was Renamed to "The Order of Trinidad and
Tobago."
Rastafarianism is a Syncretic Religion that has Impacted outside of the Caribbean.
Rastafarianism is an Important Religious Identity because it has been Exported to the
Metropolitan Nations. Rastafarianism is Associated with Certain Characteristics:
⦁ Wearing of Dreads.
⦁ Colour Coding: Red, Green and Gold.
⦁ Reggae and Some of its Derivatives.
⦁ Unique Language and Meanings. Eg. Babylon 🡪 European Oppressors.
⦁ Copious Amount of Weed Use.
⦁ Vegetarianism.
Bob Marley is Perhaps the most Famous Rastafarian; Creating a Stereotype of what a Rasta
Represents.
Rastafarianism has been Adopted by the Adolescent Population as a Basis for Intellectual and
Social Rebellion. Rastafarian Philosophy is Indeed Rebellious by Nature; They See all
Structures Crafted by the Europeans (Babylons) as a Construct meant to Oppress. This
Reflects Marxists Philosophy.
Rastafarianism has been Historically Stereotyped since the Europeans couldn't Control them.
Europeans thus Created a Stereotype and Allowed Society to Condemn them. There is a
Perception that Rastafarians should be Alienated (Eg. All are Bandits, Murderers). This
Perception Continues in Society. There is a Distrust for Rastafarians.
According to Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Rastafarianism was Regarded as a Rebellion Basis
against European Value Systems, Lifestyles and Social Institutions.
The Justice System deals with Social Control. There are Several Smaller Branches of the
Justice System; Each Performing a Different Function:
⦁ The Constitution.
⦁ Protective Services.
⦁ Judiciary.
⦁ Crime and Criminals (If there is no Crime, then there is no Need for Law).
All Justice Systems in the Caribbean are Hybrid. Metropolitan Models were Borrowed and
Adjusted. The Process of Hybridization makes these Models more "Ours." The Model will be
Culturally Inadequate.
Functionalist Perspective: The Law is Nothing Alien to People because they have a National
Understanding of Right and Wrong, ie, Morality. Because of this Built In Sense of Morality, they
have Nothing to Fear from the Law.
The Persons who Need to Fear the Law are those who Don't Wish to Maintain the Social
Contract. Every Individual is given a Choice. When People do Deviant Actions, they Understand
there will be Repercussions.
The Justice System is an Important part of Social Perpetuation for Promoting Stability, Peace,
and Harmony in Society.
Marxists Perspective: The Justice System is Created to Instil Fear and Promote Control and
Social Reproduction in Society. The Justice System Promotes Brutality and Violence upon the
Lower Class in Order to Make Examples so People will be Fearful. Through Examples (Eg.
Beatings), Social Reproduction will be Produced (People Fearful so they won't Commit Crimes).
The Law is Created by the Bourgeoisie Class to Facilitate Bourgeoisie Objectives. The Laws
always seem to Benefit the Elite rather than the Poor, thus, Promoting Bourgeoisie Ideology
rather than Proletariat Ideology. The Law cannot be Trusted, ie, The Law doesn't Provide
Justice.
People who Work in the Law are Corrupt. Corruption is Rampant in the Justice System.
Lawyers, Police, Judges can be Bought and Influenced by those who have Power. The Legal
System is Riddled with Corruption and People don't Trust it. Each New Generation is Taught to
Fear the Justice System, therefore, Social Reproduction is Promoted.
Caribbean Reality: The Justice System in the Caribbean is always in a State of Evolution since,
Principally, we Borrowed European Models. So, the Process of Adaptation is Ongoing.
Caribbean People have an Inherent Distrust for the Law and Justice System.
This can be Evaluated because of a Colonial Legacy. We Tend not to Trust Anything Created
by Europeans. On the Plantation, Justice was given by the Planter Class to Make an Example
and Promote Fear. At this Stage, the Marxists Perspective is Observed.
Justice was Violent on the Plantation. The Overseer, Equivalent to the Police, is Seen with
Distrust. They are Owned by the Bourgeoisie Class and Inflicts Punishment. In the Colonial Era,
all of the Judges were White. There is a Perpetuation that the Justice System was Owned by
the Bourgeoisie Class.
Today, Caribbean People have become more Rebellious due to Power of Media. They Openly
Defy the Law and Justice System since Media can be used to Gain Redress. More and More,
there is a Division between the Law and the People.
Problems Facing the Justice System in the Caribbean:
⦁ Lack of Co – Ordination from the Public: There is an Attitude of Distrust. Lack of
Participation in Maintaining Social Order in Society. Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Law is
Trying to Become more Friendly, when Shows such as Crime Watch and Outreach Programs, are
Becoming Household Names.

1. Corruption: Justice is Never Served since Police and Judges take Bribes.
2. Slow Speed of Justice System: Some Matters take Several Years. A lot of Time and
Money are Being Spent. Several People never get Closure.

1. Staggering Amount of Court Matters: This Slows down the Justice Process.

1. Inefficiencies in Data Storage System: There is a Lack of Technology Use in the Legal
System. All of the Cases are Stored in Physical Files; which can be Easily Misplaced or
Destroyed.

1. Various Types of Crimes being Committed: In Recent Times, the Types of Crime have
Become more Heinous (Eg. Gruesome Body Harm, Dismemberment, Assault). Cyber
Criminality has Emerged. They Cyber Crime Unit in Trinidad and Tobago are Unskilled and Ill –
Equipped. Caribbean Societies are Subject to Cyber Crimes since there is no Safeguard.

1. Fear of Reprisals: People often Times Don’t Report Matters since they are Fearful of
Repercussions. Criminality is Allowed to Prosper. Taboo / Physical / Sexual Violence are Hardly
Ever Reported. Laws and Practices are Backward. Some Criminals, after leaving the Prisons,
aim to get Retribution. There is a High Rate of Recidivism.

1. Lack of Communication between Protective Services: This Results in Lower Efficiency.

Eg. Prisoners Appear in Courts for Matters to be Heard and Prosecuting Officers never Show
Up. After Repeated Failures, the Case is Dismissed.
Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) and Privy Council
The Privy Council is the Highest Appellate Court for all English Associated Territories. It Deals
with Capital, Territorial and Constitutional Matters. The Privy Council is Comprised of English
Law Lords.
The Justice Delivered by the Privy Council might not take into Consideration a Caribbean
Reality, therefore, the Privy Council is Traditionally Alien to Caribbean Legal Systems.
The Privy Council Represents a Neo-Colonial Institution. If we Continue to Depend on the Privy
Council, they will have Power over us to Control our Legislation. It comes to Represent Cultural
Imperialism.
The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) is an Idea that Originated with the Federation but
Becomes a Reality later on. CARICOM Pushes the Need for a Caribbean Court and it was
Inaugurated in 2001. It Intends to Replaces the Privy Council in the Future.
In Addition to Continuing Functions from the Privy Council, the CCJ also Attempts to Become an
Economic, Business and Trade Court. The CCJ becomes a Unique Court to Facilitate the
Operations with CARICOM.
In the Caribbean, however, not all Territories Utilize CCJ.Grenada uses the Eastern Court of
Justice. Larger Caribbean Territories use CCJ (Eg. Barbados, Guyana). Trinidad and Tobago
doesn't Use CCJ since the Legal Minds Suggest the CCJ does not Possess Jurisprudence.
Module 1, Specific Objective 7
Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture in the Region and its Diaspora:
Caribbean Art Forms are Diverse in Nature because of the Number of Inputs that have come
into the Nation Overtime; Resulting in High Levels of Hybridization and Creolization. All of our
Festivals have been Brought by Someone from Elsewhere.
Caribbean Art Forms were Modelled upon the Original Art Forms of Metropolitan Nations. We
call it "Our Own" since we Creolized and Evolved with it. Cultural Art Forms are Wide in
Spectrum. Art can be Broken Up into Several Categories of Human Activities. All these can be
Created by Human Creativity:
⦁ Festival Arts.
⦁ Literary Arts.
⦁ Performing Arts.
⦁ Musical Arts.
⦁ Culinary Practices.
Art Forms are Important in the Caribbean since they Help to Create a Unique Identity; a Global
Image for the Caribbean. Normally, the Caribbean is Politically, Geographically and
Economically Insignificant. Hence, Cultural Products Help to Identify the Caribbean; We are
made Visible to a Global Community.
Also, the Caribbean Art Forms can be Seen to Aid Development because Art is an Exploration
of Human Potential. If Art can be a Vehicle of Empowerment, then there can be Equity. Thus,
Art can play a Role in Developmental Initiatives since it is a Form of Human Empowerment.
Performing Arts is a Creative Activity Requires a Stage for Presentation. Eg. Drama, Music,
Dance. Out of the Caribbean, there has been several Dance Types that have made an Impact
on Metropolitan Countries:
a. Latin Caribbean: Meringue.
b. Cuba: Salsa.
c. Puerto Rico: Tango.
d. Dominica: Mambo, Lumbada.
People from Metropolitan Countries Compete in these Dance Contests. Because of the
Advertisements of the Media, Performing Arts have been Globally Appreciated. The Dance
Competitions are Associated with Huge Budgets, ie, they have Mega – Sponsors and Mega –
Prize Monies.
Dance Types are also Associated with Particular Music. Eg. Up Tempo Spanish Music. These
Culturally Important Activities have brought Positive International Attention on some Caribbean
Nations. Any Means by which the Caribbean can Promote its Visibility is Important.
There are Several Dramatists who Achieved Local and Regional Fame but not International
Recognition. Eg. Errol John. This is because our Drams are Particular to a Caribbean Society.
Visual Arts is a Tangible Aspect of Art that the Caribbean Nations place Less Emphasis on than
the Rest of our Endeavours. This is seen in an Academic Context. Parents tend to hold Art with
a Degree of Contempt. Caribbean Nations Promote Academic Subjects rather than Art.
This is Possibly why Artists never Achieved High Levels of Recognition. We don't see Art as
Merit. A few Artists, Eg. Leroy Clarke, Karen Sylvester, Michel Jean Cazabon. These Artists are
not in a League of Picasso, etc...
Our Attitudes to Caribbean Artistry is Altering Slowly. Eg. Introduction of Visual and Performing
Arts (VAPA) Subjects at all Levels in Caribbean Schools (Even at CAPE Level).
Literary Arts has had a Tremendous Success in the Caribbean since Emancipation. It can be
said that Caribbean Writing is Prolific. Many Caribbean Nations can Boast about Poets /
Novelists who brought Fame to their Nations:
a. Guyana: Wilson Harris.
b. Trinidad and Tobago: Earl Lovelace, VS Naipaul, Sam Selvon.
c. St. Lucia: Derek Walcott.
d. Barbados: George Lamming.
e. Jamaica: Claude Mckay, Roger Mais,
f. Belize: Zee Edgell.
Our Success in Literary Arts has Placed the Caribbean Authors High Up in a Genre called Post
Colonial Literature; where the Emphasis of the Writers was on Oppression and Alienation.
Caribbean Literature has both High and Popular Culture.
Our Writers are Recognized as Best in the World. Derek Walcott and VS Naipaul won Nobel
Prizes in Literature. Metropolitan Universities are now Offering Courses in Caribbean Literature.
The World wants to Know what we have to Say. Our Voice through Literature has brought us
Recognition.
New Philosophy has been Founded in the Caribbean. In Martinique, Aime Cesaire Created a
Philosophy called Negritude. There is also Pan – Africanism 🡪 Socio – Cultural, Economic and
Political Impacts.
Performing and Festival Arts: Every Caribbean Country has a Version of a Major Performing
Arts in its Calendar:
a. Bahamas: Gimistory.
b. Turks and Caicos: Junkuno.
c. Jamaica: Reggae Sun Splash.
d. Barbados: Jazz Festival / Crop Over.
e. Trinidad and Tobago: Carnival, Tobago Jazz Festival. {Hoosay, Ramleela, Phagwa 🡪
Smaller Ethnic Origin).
f. Guyana: Mashramani.
g. St. Vincent: Vincimas Jazz Festival.
h. Suriname: Surifesta.
Functions of Festivals:
⦁ Platforms that Allow Society to come together in Participation or Spectatorship.

1. Provide a Cohesive, Unifying Force for a Plural Society. This Aids in Promoting
Development.

1. Allow People to have an Avenue for Expression.

1. Stimulate Economic Growth across a Wide Spectrum of Society. It is a Catalyst to Up –

Stream and Down – Stream Economic Activities. It Acts as a Stimulus for Creation of
Employment and Sale of Goods and Services.

1. To become a Tourism Magnet; it becomes another thing for Tourists to Add to their
Itinerary.

1. To Give Caribbean Countries a Global Identity, ie, Allows us to have an International

Image.
Many Caribbean Artists have Earned an International Reputation because of the Creativity and
Ingenuity in their Works. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago's Mas Makers:
a. Peter Minshall Designed the Opening and Closing Ceremony of Barcelona's Olympics in
1992.
b. Brian McFarlene was Consulted in the Opening / Closing of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in
South Africa.
In the Caribbean, Governments have Realized the Potential of these Festivals for Economic and
Human Development. For several Countries, Tourism is the Mainstay of the Nation.
Eg. Barbados 🡪 80% of its Population is Directly or Indirectly Employed through Tourism.
Trinidad and Tobago is now becoming Aware of the Value of these Festivals. For the First
Quarter of the 2011 Financial Year, Trinidad and Tobago Earned $80 Million USD from Tourism
alone. This Time Frame is Coincidental with the Build Up and Experiencing of Carnival. For the
Entire Year, Tourism Income was $120 Million USD 🡪 Carnival.
In Order to Promote these Events to become Larger and more Stable, Caribbean Governments
have begun to Participate in, for example, Sponsorship, Prize Money, Providing the Climate to
Promote these Events.
On a Caribbean Level, there has been a Decision to Promote a Regional Cultural Platform. In
1970, the CARIFESTA (Caribbean Festival of Arts which Originated from CARICOM) was
Initiated with Several Objectives:
⦁ It is Built on the Realization that in order to become Unified, there must be Interaction.
⦁ To Preserve / Retain the Cultural Identities of Caribbean Societies 🡪 Ideas will not Die.
⦁ An Opportunity is given for Caribbean Artists to Display their Talents. Arts / Creativity
becomes Alternative Routes for Empowerment.
⦁ To Provide an Opportunity for Collaboration among Caribbean Artists. There is a
Platform for Sharing 🡪 Betterment of the Art itself.
⦁ To Promote Education: It Allows for the next Generation to become Aware of our
Cultural Identity. Social Perpetuation 🡪 To Keep Traditions Alive.
⦁ To Counter Imperialism: Promote Opportunities for our Arts to be Known and Compete
with European Art.
⦁ To become Economically Important to a Caribbean Society 🡪 Part of the Tourism
Magnet.
Music: Caribbean Music becomes Iconic of a Caribbean Identity / Society. Some of our Artists,
for example, Bob Marley and Ras Shorty I, have brought Positive International Reputation to the
Caribbean. Recently, Barbados, Tobago and St. Vincent have begun to see the Potential of a
Concert Type Activity such as a Jazz Festival.
John Legend was Attracted to the 2015 Tobago Jazz Festival 🡪 This appeals to an International
Audience 🡪 Cheaper to See World Class Artists 🡪 More Tourism 🡪 More Employment and
Economic Opportunity. There are even Internationally Reputed Singers such as Rihanna, Nikki
Minaj.
Caribbean Music Types Promote a Caribbean Identity:
a. Reggae: Jamaica.
b. Soca: Trinidad and Tobago.
c. Chutney (East Indian + Soca): Trinidad and Tobago.
Steelpans were Created in Trinidad and Tobago but we didn’t fully Exploit the Versatility of it
(Only seen in Calypso). Our Vision of the Steelpan was Limited. In Japan and Holland, the
Steelpan is Placed in the Philharmonic Industry.
Trinidad and Tobago nearly lost the Steelpan to Japan in the early 2000s since it wasn’t
Patented. They began to Mass Produce it. A new Variation of the Steelpan, the G – Pan, is
being made now.
The Impact of Caribbean Music has been Largely in Urban Areas (Caribbean People tend to
Settle in Cities which Reflect a Cosmopolitan Outlook) where there is a Sizeable Caribbean
Diaspora and it can be Argued that Music has Contributed Hugely to a Phenomenon known as
Transnationalism.
Food Culture has been Elevated to the Level of an Artistry. The Traditional Practices Associated
with Food Culture are:
⦁ Cuisine: Style of Cooking.
⦁ Culinary: Of / Relating to or Used in Cooking or in the Kitchen.
The things we Consider to be Delicacies come out of a History of Hardship as Food Culture is
Reflected from the Historic Origin of the Peasantry. Eg:
a. Barbados: Fish and Chips.
b. Trinidad and Tobago: Bake and Shark.
Food Culture Reflects Intense Hybridization because of the Number of Inputs Overtime. This
Results in New Types of Cuisines and Culinary. Some of these Cuisines have made it into an
International Stage because of Diasporic Movements. Caribbean Foods are Prominent because
of the Large Migrant Population. Eg. Miami 🡪 Cuba, London 🡪 Trinidad and Tobago.
These Caribbean Foods in Metropolitan Nations have led to a Growing Interest in Caribbean
Cooking Styles. There is a Significant Economic Impact. Caribbean Food Shops are part of the
Economic Landscape of Metropolitan Nations. This has led to the Prominence in Cooking
Styles. Eg. The Jamaican Jerk Seasoning has been Adopted by Metropolitan Nations like
Australia.
Many Caribbean Countries Realized how Lucrative Food is with Respect to the Tourism
Product. Anything that can be Added to the Tourism Itinerary can make Tourism Attractive. Eg.
The Turks and Caicos Piloted the Culinary Festival: "The Food, Wine, Spirits," while Tobago
has "Blue Foods" Festival.
Some Metropolitan Countries have Recognized the Uniqueness of the Caribbean Cuisine. Eg.
Birmingham Caribbean Food Festival in the US. It is not only the Diasporic Communities that
made our Food Famous; Media, Television (Eg. Food Networks, Travel Channels), Advertising,
Notable People (Eg. Andrew Zimmern) have made an International Impact.
It is Worth Mentioning that "Food Culture" also Includes Beverages. Eg. The House of El
Dorado from Guyana and the House of Angostura in Trinidad and Tobago. Angostura Bitters is
Recognized as the Distinctive Ingredient that made it so Widely Enjoyed.
Human Development via the Arts: There is a Firm Belief that the Arts and Culture can be used
as an Avenue for Empowerment 🡪 Enrichment of Human Life and Expansion of Choices.
Empowerment is any way to Enable someone to Live a Better Life. There is Higher Levels of
Equity which would Improve Productivity and lead to Sustainability.
Empowerment, for far too long, has Placed Heavy Emphases with Traditional Enablers. Eg. The
Curriculum. We must Recognize that, for example, Cooking and Singing, bring a Level of
Empowerment. Any kind of Talent should be Equally Valuable as an Agent of Empowerment.
There are Two Major Factors in Empowerment:
⦁ Economic Enfranchisement.
⦁ Human / Psychological Satisfaction.
The Creative Arts can Yield Economic and Psychological Benefits in Society. Consider
Economic Enfranchisement. Because of Money Events (Eg. Carnival), a Society can be
Stimulated across a Wide Spectrum of Disciplines because of Potential for Upward and
Downward Industries.
In many Metropolitan Nations, the Artists / Performers are Highly Acclaimed.
This Stereotype is Changing Slowly. Eg. University Degrees in Visual and Performing Arts.
Artistry is now being Academically Qualified. Several of our Artists have become Major Players
in the Economy. Eg. Brian McFarlene had Ideas of Mas Band that Generated $10 Million in
Accrued Transactions.
Any Cultural Activity Stimulates Spending and Employment Generation. Caribbean
Governments have begun to Participate by Donating Prize Money, Sponsorship and Making
these Events more Economically Viable. CARIFESTA has been Launched in an Attempt to
Solidify these Places of Culture and Arts in our Caribbean Identity.
Important Persons: These Persons are Notable for the Works in the Arts / Culture and they have
Helped in the Retention of Caribbean Cultural Identity. Additionally, because of the Work done
by these People, it Helps to Counter the Erosive Force of Cultural Imperialism. They have
Contributed to Making Caribbean Cultural Identity Famous and more Appreciated by the People
themselves.
Professor Rex Nettleford: A Jamaican Scholar whose Area of Focus was in Jamaican Language
and the Sociolinguistic Culture of Jamaica. His Focal Group was on the Rastafari Community.
Therefore, his Works has Parallels with Edward Kamau Brathwaite (He Studied Sociocultural
Identity).
Nettleford, in an Assessment of the Lexicon and Syntax of Rastafari, Hypothesized that
Rastafarians, through his Language Structures, make a Conscious Effort to Rebel Against Total
Assimilation. Rastafarian Language becomes a Revolt against European Ideals.
Rastafarian Culture Encapsulates the Struggle for an Identity of a Caribbean People. Rastafari
is Seen as Something Worthy of Emulation. Nettleford was a Proponent for Pan – Africanism
and Negritude Philosophies. He Sees the Contributions of African People as a Valuable
Addition to Caribbean Identity.
Louise Bennett: Her Area of Interest was Jamaican Creole English. She was also a
Sociolinguistic and a Poem Orator. She would have Seen Merit in the Jamaican Creole. It
Captures the Identity of the Jamaican People. Eg. Folklore, Systems and Patterns of Interaction.
She becomes Internationally Recognized as she took her Talent of Narrating / Orating on a
World Tour. She Appealed to more than a Diasporic Community. Her Clientele will been
Extended to Reach all Persons. She Achieved Socio - Cultural Fame for her Work in the
Metropolitan Nations.
She Created Poetry out of the Jamaican Creole. Her Work became the Precursor to a Multi –
Million Dollar Industry: The Dub and Dancehall Industries. Bennett's Work Added to a Level of
Integrity and Dignity to Something People would have Shown Contempt for.
Berryl McBurnie: She was a Trinidadian Dancer Associated with the Little Carib Theatre. She
Focused her Attention on African Folk Dancing because this Folk Dancing becomes a Legacy of
an African Identity that would have been Hybridized overtime in the Caribbean.
The Folk Dancing Captures the Struggle of a Caribbean People through Dance. McBurnie's
Lobbying was Important since she Focused her Attention on Getting a Venue for the Artistry in
the Caribbean to be Retained. The Little Carib Theatre becomes a Venue to Express.
She Attempted to Integrate East Indian Dance with African Dance. Dance became a Symbol for
Unification / Fusion; Pluralizing our Caribbean Society.
Martin Cater: He was a Guyanese Poet who Uses Poetry as a Vehicle for his Political Views. In
his Poetry, he Speaks against Colonialism, Imperialism, Oppression. He uses Culture as a
Vehicle to Promote Socio – Political Liberation.
Martin would have been Writing at a Time when England was trying to Assert its Political Model
as the Right Model. He was Fighting Against Neo - Colonialism. He had a "Poetry of Protest."
Paule Marhsall: She is a Barbadian who Focused upon the Feelings of Alienation, Oppression
and Cultural Disconnection that becomes part of the Caribbean's Ethos, ie, part of the Way we
Think. She Focused upon the Current Generation, who Gravitated towards a European Norm
rather than a Caribbean Identity. Her Literary Work Explores Cultural Imperialism.
Festivals in the Diaspora: With a Movement of People, comes a Movement of Cultural Identity.
The Diaspora is Large, therefore, there is a High Level of Inclusion and Participation by West
Indian People. Festivals of a Carnival Nature have Moved into Metropolitan Nations:
⦁ Notting Hill Carnival in London: This began as a One Time Event to Show Appreciation
for a West Indian Community. In 1965, it is Recognized as an Important Economic and Cultural
Activity. Since 1965, the Notting Hill Carnival became the Major Internal Cultural Festival and is a
Major Tourism Event in the European Union.

It Allows Caribbean Talent to get an International Platform and Allows Artists (Eg. Panists, Soca
Workers, Mas Makers) to get more than a One Time Employment. Eg. Machel Montano on a
World Tour. Our Artistry becomes Employable on a Global Scale; which means Income
Generation and Employment for Caribbean People; as well as Spreading of Caribbean Identity.

It is Unquestionable about the Economic Benefits of these Activities. There is an Increased

Number of Disorderly Behaviour (Eg. People Forming into Gangs based on Football Rivalries).

1. CARIBANA in Toronto: (Same Impacts as Notting Hill Carnival). The Diasporic

Community in Canada is Smaller. While it is a West Indian Type Carnival Activity, it is not in a
Scale of the Labour Day. The CARIBANA began in 1967 as a One Time Event. Overtime, it has
become a part of the Identity of Canadian People.

1. West Indian Day Parade / Labour Day in New York: This is Regarded as the Best Known
Carnival Outside of the Caribbean. It is a Major Employment Generator and Economic Stimulus.
It Allows Caribbean Artists to become Employed; Earning a Foreign Income. It Establishes Pride
in Caribbean Identity and it is Participated by Man Caribbean Nationals who go to New York to
Play Mas.
Module 1, Specific Objective 8
Caribbean Global Interaction:
Caribbean Global Interaction began in 1492; with the Europeans Influencing us ever since.
Historically, the Caribbean has been Socially, Diasporically, Politically and Economically
Impacted but Overtime, the Caribbean has also Impacted Metropolitan Nations. The Caribbean
has Influenced the Metropolitan Nations into what they are today.
The Caribbean was the Basis of European Economic Exploitation 🡪 Using Several Systems of
Production to Advance a Capitalist Venture (Eg. Repartimiento, Encomienda, Slavery,
Indentureship). For the Caribbean to be Useful to the Europeans, several Factors of Production
must be Available:
a. Land.
b. Labour.
c. Capital.
d. Enterprise / Skill / Management.
The Europeans Impacted on us Socially, Diasporically and Politically because of Economics.
The Europeans come and Discover Land and Labour Force (2 Factors) but has to Bring Capital
and Skill. For a Period, Amerindian Labour Existed but in 1518, Europeans Import Labour.
It has become a Precedent that may be referred to as a Culture of Dependency. This can be
Modified into Different Variations:
a. Economies of Dependencies.
b. Cultural Imperialism.
Even though there is Exchange / Interaction between the Caribbean and the Rest of the World,
it is Obvious that the Metropolitan Nations Enjoy a more Favourable Outcome from this
Exchange. Because of Cultural Imperialism, Caribbean Nationals have a "Taste" for Foreign
Goods.
We have a Preference for all Things Metropolitan. This Reflects a Particular Consumption
Pattern that is Culturally Imperialistic. It means the Caribbean Experiences an Outflow of Money
because of how we Purchase Goods.
It is also Fair to say because of a Historical Paradigm, Caribbean Nationals Idolizes a Foreign /
Metropolitan Lifestyle. We look at International Lifestyles as what we want for Ourselves. This
Influences People to see their Own Lifestyle / Land as Inferior with a Level of Contempt.
Caribbean Influences on Metropolitan Nations:
There have been a few Groups to Impact Metropolitan Nations more than others. The Impacts
of these Groups can be Generalized to Encompass all Caribbean's People Impacts.
Caribbean People have Affected Metropolitan Nations because of Migration into Metropolitan
Nations.
There are no Caribbean Nations that are not Represented in Areas such as Canada and New
York 🡪 There are Points of Destination. Due to a Concentration of Migrant Population in Miami /
Florida, the US has Significantly Affected them:
Introduction: They Affected Florida Economically and Socially / Culturally. Because of a Cuban
Population, there is a Demographic Change; changing Miami's Racial Spectrum from
Europeans to Hispanics.
Economic Impacts: Cubans have Displaced the Americans as they Overrun Towns. While not
Flattering to know, the Infiltration of People of Dark Complexion Leads to Real Estate Prices
Decreasing. There is a Loss of Investment. The Area Degenerates into a Slum. The Property
Values Drops and the City Stops Attending to Maintenance.
The Type of Businesses is also Influenced. Eg. The Cuban Presence set up Grocery Shops.
Cuban Cultural Identity is Paid for. Because of Cuban Presence, there is Need to Reach Out to
them, ie, Use of Spanish TV and Radio.
Socio – Cultural Impacts: This Caused Southern USA to have Racial Tension / Stereotyping and
further Segregation of Society 🡪 Leading to Creation of Racist Generalizations. Eg. Hispanics
being called "Spics." These Names become part of Gang Culture. The Mexicans / Haitians /
Jamaicans move into Miami and Start Gang Warfare.
The Large Concentration of Cubans resulted in Spanish being the 2nd Language of Miami. The
Majority of Residents in Miami Speak Spanish 🡪 Policies for Employment in Miami have
Changed. Eg. One has to be Bilingual.
Education Policies have also Changed. Eg. Teachers have to be Bilingual and the
Implementation of Cuban History in the Curriculum.
Impact of Cuba in USA:
Economic Impacts: The Lowering of the Minimum Wage. The Migrants are Willing to Work for
Less. Caribbean People will not Think in the Equivalent Dollar but will Think in Aversions to
Local Dollar. This Leads to Employees Favouring Migrant Labour. Because Migrant Labour is
Given 1st Preference for Jobs, there is Animosity and Antagonism between Local and Migrant
Workers.
Racism is Catalyzed via Employment Issues. This Causes a Greater Amount of Judicial and
Taxation Problems. Because of the Antagonism, Nations Spend more to Police Miami. The
Migrant Labour are not Registered, therefore, there is Taxation Evasion; leading to USA being
Deprived of a Tax Income.
Social / Cultural Impacts: Cubans in Miami Create Problems for Managing Migration into the
USA. In 1959, there was a Cuban Revolution (Fidel Castro took over the Cuban Government by
Force of Arms, ie, Communism). Right away, Anyone who wants to leave Cuba may do so
Freely. This has Triggered Mass Migration out of Cuba to Miami (Political Refugees).
According to the UN Charter of Human Rights, Every Individual who is Seeking Political Asylum
must be given Asylum in a Friendly Nation. When Cuban Refugees Stormed Miami in 1959,
there becomes an Overwhelming Strain on USA's Social Services as well as the Creation of Job
Crises.
In response to this, USA Constructed Polices. Eg. The "Wet Foot, Dry Foot" Policy. This Policy
Seeks to Restrict the Number of Cubans who become USA Citizens (This is Applicable in Sea
and Land). On Land, one will go through a Process of Naturalization. This Policy has Restricted
the Migration but has Affected Economically. The USA must now Invest a lot in Policing and
Patrolling.
Political Impacts: Cubans become a Lobby Group. They Lobbied the USA to Change a Trade
Policy, "Trade Embargoes." USA made this when they Realized Cuba is a Communist. Cubans
also Lobbied to Change Polices regarding Cubans.
Many Cubans have Attained Levels of Power. Overtime, they have been Slowly Accepted into
Society.
Cuba has been Recognized as a Major "Swing Vote" Population. Cubans in such Large
Numbers can Influence the Outcome of Elections. Politicians have tried to Win them over.
During the Last Two Elections, Obama Manipulated the Population to Win Presidency. In 2011,
he Revised the Laws regarding Cubans as follows:
⦁ Remittances: Money that is Earned in One Place but Spent in Another (Money that is Sent
Back Home). This is Important Lifeline for Caribbean People. In the USA, it was Limited to $3000
USD Annually but Obama Increased the Ceiling to $10 000 USD.

Obama knows that by Increasing this Ceiling, the Government can Tax this Extra Money.

The Known Remittances that go to Cuba is $1 Billion USD, therefore, there is much that is
Unknown. Remittances Policies mean that the Cuban American Labourer has more Freedom in
Society because he can Supply his Home with Money.

1. Visitation: Previous to 2011's Reassessment of Cuban Americans, Cubans could only

Return Home Once in 3 Years. But now, they can Return Home Twice Annually. They can also
Bring their Families to the USA.

So, the USA Revised their Trade Policies regarding Movement of Goods in Cuba. In 2013,
American Goods entered Cuba for the 1st Time in 70 Years (Eg. Microwave Ovens), ie, it was a
Start of a Better Relationship.
Metropolitan Impacts upon Caribbean Society:
⦁ Social / Cultural.
⦁ Economic.
⦁ Political.
⦁ Diasporic.
The most Obvious Impacts are Economic in Nature because there are still Impacting us Today.
Economic Impacts are Considered Historically Relevant because it Leads to the Age of
Globalisation. Trade Impacts begin with Repartimiento and Continue with Globalisation.
In 1492, Europeans Introduced Christianity and Politics. From a Social, Cultural and Political
Aspect, we have been and still are Impacted. European Action has Created Legacies of Cultural
Imperialism. European Trade and Economic Policies have led to Economic Strangulation of the
Caribbean.
The Labour Policies of the Past (Eg. Repartimiento, Encomienda, Slavery, Indentureship) were
Exploitative in Nature and Led to the Monetization and Repatriation of Caribbean Wealth. This
Led to Underdevelopment. Even though a Nation has Wealth, Nothing has been Invested into
Increasing State of Living and Services of a Nation.
Today, Central Global Trade and Finance Economics (Eg. Global Money Matters) are
Controlled by The World Bank, The World Trade Organization (WTO), IMF (International
Monetary Fund).
These Institutions were Controlled by the Global 8 (USA, Japan, Canada, etc...) But now, they
are Controlled by the Global 20. These Agencies are Elitist in Nature (High Levels of
Technology, Wealth and Development).
They Craft Policies for 3rd World Nations. This Creates Neo – Marxism, Neo – Colonialism and
Neo – Imperialism. This Creates a Pattern. In 1492, the Caribbean was Politically Owned but
Now, we are Economically Owned.
One such Policy is the Lomè Agreement. This is a Trade Relationship between African,
Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Nations with the European Union (EU). This is Relevant to the
Banana Producing Nations in the West Indies (WINBAN).
There is a Preferential Trading Agreement (PTA). This is Preferential because the ACP Nations
Enjoyed Privileges under the Lomè such as:
a. Priority Access to Markets.
b. No Quotas / Limits on Quantities of Products Sold.
c. Guaranteed Best International Prices on Goods.
This means that the West Indian Banana Producers can Enjoy Economic Stability. WINBAN
Nations Estimated their Budgets on Tonnes of Bananas. However, in 2008, the WTO Shut
Down the Lomè Agreement; Plunging WINBAN Nations into Economic Uncertainty.
The Lomè Agreement can be Considered a Guilt Driven Action. The EU Nations were
Responsible for the Exploitation of the ACP Nations in the Past. Now, they Created these
Policies to Aid them.
Eastern Caribbean Nations (Eg. Grenada) must now Find Ways to Diversify their Economies.
Because of a Decision by the WTO, there is 500 Years of Cultural Upheaval. There is Chaos in
Small Island Economies.
Metropolitan Protectionism: This is a Concept where an Economy Seeks to Protect its Market
from External Competition / Intruders. Metropolitan Nations Flood Developing Nations with their
Goods.
However, they do not Reciprocate the Open Market to Ensure Stability of their Own Industries.
Protectionism is any Strategy (Eg. Taxation or Advertising) that Reduces Intrusion into the
Market. Protectionism Preserves their Own at our Detriment:
Eg. In the 1970s, Trinidad and Tobago Launched the Iron and Steel Company ISCOTT; which is
now ANSA McAL. Trinidad and Tobago were able to Produce Steel more Cheaply than any
other Nation in the World since Natural Gas was Abundant and Free.
Locally Produced Steel had a Price Advantage. Trinidad and Tobago tried to Infiltrate the USA
Market, but Failed; since USA Launched an Advertising Campaign which Gathered Pity and
Support from its People; Resulting in Americans Choosing their Local Producers.
Metropolitan Countries Control all the Access to Capital in the World (Eg. The WTO). Therefore,
Developing Nations (Eg. Caribbean) must Wait on the Favour of the Metropolitan Countries to
Trade with them.
Eg. In the 1990s, CARICOM was Attempting to Break into NAFTA. They were Told that
CARICOM has Nothing they want. The Caribbean doesn’t Enjoy any Niche Markets; the World
is Producing Cheaper Alternatives.
Political Influences: In 1492, Caribbean Political Evolution was Directly Linked to European
Decision Making. The Politics of the Caribbean Reflects the Direction Europe wants to take us
in. The Control that was Present in the 16th Century is still Present in the 21st Century. It
becomes a Legacy of Colonial Action. All Caribbean Nations Utilize some Types of European,
Hybrid Political Models.
Eg. For the BWI: Westminster White Hall, Colony (Bahamas, Montserrat, Cayman Islands),
Annexed Territory Status (Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, Martinique).
Certain Political Models (Eg. Democracy) Promotes a Greater Level of Stability Compared to
Others (Eg. Communism) or even the Situation in Haiti (No Political Model can be Identified).
It may be said that the Political Model, in Addition to a Long Period of Colonization by the
Metropolitan Country, has Allowed a Level of Stability.
Even though we have become Politically Independent, the Policies Crafted by the Metropolitan
Nations or Multilateral Organizations (WTO, IMF, World Bank) still Impact upon Caribbean
Politics. Overtime, many Metropolitan Nations made Policies that have Impacted upon us.
Eg. In the 1980s, the USA Recognized that the Caribbean was a Transhipment Point for
Narcotics that Entered in the USA from the Narco Economies of South America. So, the USA
Initiated Policies to Intervene. One Policy is the "Ship Rider" Agreement. This was supposed to
Allow the USA Jurisdictional Authority (Eg. Power of Arrest) in Trinidad and Tobago and
Jamaica.
The Jurisdictional Authority is Problematic; as One is Giving Away his Freedom. Jamaica
Accepted their Terms but Trinidad and Tobago Denied. Then, USA Blacklisted / Denied Trinidad
and Tobago them Trade. So, Trinidad and Tobago Decided to Accept the Offer. If they didn’t
Accept, it would have Meant a Breakdown in Trinidad and Tobago's Economic Stability.
The Caribbean can also be seen to Suffer because of Metropolitan Policies. Eg. The Cuban
Revolution in 1959. This Led to Cuba being Economically Suffocated through Trade Embargos.
Cuba going Communist Angered USA and they Stopped Trading. (Similar to Haiti and France in
the 16th Century).
Consumption Patterns: This can be Summarised as "A Taste for Foreign Goods," and can be
Described as Cultural Imperialism (An Idea that Metropolitan Goods are Better than Local
Goods). This has an Economic Impact; Leads to an Outflow of Money from the Caribbean into
the Metropolitan Economy.
This is Understandable since the Majority of our Daily Goods come from a Metropolitan Nation
(Eg. Toothpaste). Nearly Everything Consumed is Manufactured in Metropolitan Countries. By
our Buying Habits, through our Taste, we Serve to Perpetuate Underdevelopment. We Employ
the Foreign Business Men through the Detriment of our Local Entrepreneurs.
The Caribbean has been a Consumer Market. Initially, we Bought Everything we Needed and
Exported Raw Materials (Eg. Brown Sugar, White Rice, Natural Gas, Crude Oil). The
Metropolitan Nations Buys them, Processes them and Sell them back at Higher Prices.
Metropolitan Nations still Control our Economy. This Consumption Pattern has a Far Reaching
Impact upon Caribbean Societies. Eg. In 2016, Trinidad and Tobago is on the Verge of a
Recession. It means many Caribbean Countries will Increase Taxes on Imported Goods. This
will Cause Social Disruption.
Many Goods that the Metropolitan Nations Export are Dangerous. Eg. Light Up Shoes were
Discontinued in USA because of the Poisonous Mercury Switch Present. They Withdrew them
from the USA Shelves and sent them to be Sold in 3rd World Nations. This is Described as
Dumping: 2nd Class Goods Sold on Markets that have Lenient Laws.
Tourism: The Caribbean Benefits Tremendously from Metropolitan Visitors. Our Primary Market
to Push Tourism is England, USA and Canada. Without Tourism, some Countries (Eg.
Barbados 🡪 80% of its Workers are Employed Directly and Indirectly through Tourism) will Slip
into an Economic Decline. Clearly, Tourism is a Major Economic Pillar.
Metropolitan Culture is also Imported. Tourism can Lead to the Alteration of a Local Culture and
Economy. Eg. Cultural Hybrid. Tourism may Cause Social Stratification and Inflation.
Caribbean People Impact upon Metropolitan Tourism as well. We Idolize a Metropolitan
Vacation. Through Tourism, Caribbean People Outflow Cash to the Metropolitan Countries.

Education: Historically, the Caribbean has always been Influenced by European Education
Standards. Eg. Dependence upon an English Examining Body, Colonial Education as part of
System of Control. Cultural Imperialism of Education Continues today. Caribbean People Idolize
Metropolitan Education as the "Best."
Caribbean People still Gravitate towards Metropolitan Universities because they are Perceived
as Higher Status. Many Caribbean People Opt to Pursue SATs in Conjunction with CSEC,
CAPE to Expand their Educational Opportunities. Indirectly, Caribbean People Create a
Negative Stereotype on their Local Universities.
If the Brightest Seek Education Outside of the Caribbean, it would Perpetuate the Negative
Attitude towards our Educational System. It is True to Say that CXC has Several Internal
Problems that do not Inspire Confidence from Caribbean Nationals.
CXC is Attempting to become more Standardised and Expand their Curriculum Offered; to make
Caribbean Education more Applicable to Every Human Need (To Convince People not to
Migrate to Study).
Up to the late 1990s, UWI wasn’t Offering any Courses in Marine Engineering. This Proves that
whether there was a Lack of Resources, Professional Qualification or Planning, there are
Several Shortcomings in our University Education.
Sport: All our Major Sporting Activities have been Imported from Metropolitan Countries. While
they Impacted our Sporting Culture, Caribbean Athletes have Impacted on their Sports Reality,
ie, many Caribbean Players have gone on to be Internationally Famous: They Break Records
and Set Standards.
Cricket: This comes into the Caribbean via the Plantation. Overtime (After Emancipation),
Cricket moves away from being a Bourgeoisie Game and was Liberalised to Incorporate
Africans and East Indians.
The Formation of the Federation led to the Creation of the WICB (West Indies Cricket Board);
which is Tasked with Selecting and Managing the WICT (West Indies Cricket Team). The WICB
was meant to be a Platform for Regional Unification.
From its Inception, Cricket became a Global Force because it was soon a Means of Redress.
So, the WI soon Rose to Global Supremacy. Overtime, in the late 1980s, WI Cricket Declined.
Up to Now, WI Cricket has Diminished in its Global Standings.
Many Players have Broken Records and Currently Sit in Global Standings; becoming Legends
of the Game. In the Newest Version of the Game, WI is Ranked Highly. Batsmen and Bowlers
are among the Top Picks because of their Talent. Their Success has Brought Recognition and
some Level of Reputation to the Caribbean (Eg. Pollard, Narine). T20 has much to Owe to Alan
Stanford.
Track and Field: This can be Considered as the "Original" Sports. Track and Field is Governed
by the IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federations). Since the 1970s, Track and
Field has been Dominated by Jamaican and Bahamas Athletes. They Brought Recognition to
the Caribbean.
One Event that Stood Out is the 100m Sprint (Fastest Man in the Planet). The Caribbean has
been Constantly Represented since the 1970s. This means the Caribbean Region has
Developed a Reputation for Creating Fine Athletes.
This Reputation went through the Ceiling with the Tremendous Success of Usain Bolt and
Keshorn Walcott. Kirani James won the 400m Hurdle Race; bringing a Level of Respect to
Grenada and Allowing a Positive Global Image.
Soccer: This has always been a Sport Associated with Europe; all Major Teams and
Competitions are European in Nature. They have always been Elitist in Controlling Football. It is
a more Popular Sport among the Youths; compared to Cricket. The Best Publicized Sporting
Event is the FIFA World Cup, thus, it Attracts the Most Attention.
Caribbean Players Idolize European Teams. It is a Dream of all Caribbean Players to
Participate at the European Level. Caribbean Regional League Football has Started but it is in
no way Equivalent to the European Level.
As a Result, most of the Best Players take their Talents to Metropolitan Countries. It Leads to
Loss of Skill for the Caribbean; Comparable to Brain Drain in Education. Many Athletes may
Appear in 2nd and 3rd Division Games. Even though it is Good Football, it is not Televised.
This Creates Employment for Caribbean Players but they don't make International Headlines.
Dwight Yorke is the most Famous Footballer of the Caribbean since he Played for the Best
Football Team at the Time (Manchester United: 1999). He made the World Stop and Pay
Attention to him.
Basketball: This is Associated with Metropolitan USA. It comes to the Caribbean during World
War Two by USA Service Men at their Naval Bases in Strategic Locations in the Caribbean (Eg.
Chaguaramas). In the Caribbean, Basketball Emulates USA Culture. Basketball is Associated
with certain Social Ills, such as the Drug Trade and Organized Crimes.
In many Caribbean Countries, that Stereotype is also True. Eg. One Pair of Sneakers Hanged
on Utility Lines has been Iconographied to Symbolized "Drugs Sold Here." It is a Copycat
Culture. Basketball Tends to Remain an Inner – City Game and was seen as a Vehicle to
Promote the Betterment of Communities.
Eg. In 2011, Trinidad and Tobago Launched the "Hoops of Life." Shaquille O'Neal was Brought
in to Promote the Event. The Caribbean has not Produced any Significant Names in the
Basketball World. We are still Buyers of Culture: Eg. Brands, Kits, Movies, etc...
Religion: Ethnocentrism is the Dominant Mindset. Eg. Christianity has taken Root as the
Dominant Religious Majority. Christianity can be Perceived as the Superstructure of Society.
Rastafarianism has been Exported and a Lesser Known, Hybrid Religion: Voodoo has Impacted
the USA Movie Culture.
Module 2, Specific Objective 1
Concepts and Indicators of Development:
The Concept of Development has Undergone Change Overtime. Up until the 1970s, the Focus
of Society was on a Concept called Economic Development. However, this had Inherent
Shortcomings, ie, it didn’t Focus upon Human Development.
More Recently, because of Environmental Impact upon the Global Environment, the Concept of
Development had to Change again to include Environmental Concerns and making the World's
Resources Last; to Produce a new Concept of Development called Sustainable Development.
The Concept of Development Evolved to include Different Kinds of Development to Reflect what
was Important at that Time. Each Type of Development Builds upon the Preceding One.
Economic Development 🡪 Human Development 🡪 Sustainable Development.
Economic Development Focuses upon the Material Growth; the Dollar Value Increase from One
Period to the Next. Previous to 1970s, the Focus was on the Amount of Money a Nation made
during a Period of Time. Growth / Development would have been Augmentation of Cash
Overtime.
Even though Economic Development has given way overtime, Economic Indicators are still
Important even today. Economic Development had a Significant Drawback: Economic
Development Displayed Nothing about the Quality of Life Enjoyed by Society, ie, Nothing about
their Health, Happiness, Lifestyle, etc...Economic Development is about Maximization of Profit
and is Self – Defeating.
Human Development Builds Upon the Concept of Economic Development. It attempts to
Diversify the Focus of Economic Development to Include Human Concerns. Economic
Development is still Important but it is now going to be Multifaceted.
Amartya Sen and Mahbub Ul Haq are Nobel Prize Winners for their Work in Human Well Being
and Human Development / Indicators. They Proposed:
⦁ Without Factoring the Quality of Human Life and Without Focusing on Well Being of
People, there can be NO Development.
⦁ True Development can only occur when there is an Expansion of Human Choice; when
there are Greater Opportunities for the Empowering of a People and Opportunities for People to
Maximise their Human Potential.
While they proposed Unique Human Elements to Development, there is still need for Money.
They Created Human Development Indicators / Human Development Index (HDI) which
constitutes part of Human Development Paradigm (HDP). True Development can only be
Assessed through Material and Non – Material Elements.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a Statistical Tool used to Measure a Country's Overall
Achievement in its Social and Economic Dimensions, ie, the Health of People, their Level of
Education Attainment and their Standard of Living.
Sustainable Development suggests that the Environment in which we Live in is Non -
Renewable. The Environment has to be taken care of. Any Development must find a Unique
Equilibrium.
There Cannot be Impacts to the Environment which are Not Calculated in our Developmental
Thrust, ie, Use of our Resources becomes the Focal Point of Sustainable Development.
Sustainable Development is Development that Meets the Needs of the Present Without
Compromising the Ability of Future Generations to Meet their Own Needs. Sustainable
Development is Driven by a Concept called Conservationism.
Sustainable Development finds an Equilibrium between Money, Human Well Being and the
Environment, that is Practical and can be Maintained. It goes further than Human Development
in its Strife for Equity, Respect and Dignity of Human Life.
Sustainable Development seeks to Ensure that Future Generations will be Catered For. It arose
from Recognition that if Human Society Continues along the Path set Pre 1970s, we will
Ultimately Consume Ourselves.
Sustainable Development, while Practical for Already Developed Nations (Due to Vast Stores of
Wealth, Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing and All Necessary 1st World Infrastructure),
3rd World or Developing Nations face all the Challenges of Development. (Opposite to those
Listed Above).
The Caribbean consists of 3rd World Nations whose Resources have already been Exploited
and Depleted. Eg. Gold Repatriated to Spain.
In order for 3rd World Nations to ever Embark upon Sustainable Development Paradigm, we
need a Paradigm Shift in the way that Development is Pursued in the Caribbean.
Challenges Facing Caribbean Development / Developing Nations:
⦁ Historical Capitalism: This Reflects the several Systems of Production. Eg. Repartimiento,
Encomienda, Plantation, Indentureship. One European Nation After Another has Successfully,
Continuously, Purposefully Exploited the Caribbean's Wealth.

0. Historical Precedent of Neglect for Human Dignity: Our Societies (Eg. Guyana, Cuba,
Trinidad and Tobago) have been Built Upon the Exploitation of Human Beings. In today's
Society, there is a Phenomenon called Social Injustice; where Human Rights are not
Respected. Whenever one Person is not Treated with Respect or Equitable Treatment, there
can be NO Development.

0. Lack of Resources: In order to Achieve Development, there must be an Income. Many

Caribbean Countries Lack a Basis to Build an Economic Platform (Except Trinidad and
Tobago). The Lack of Resources can be Linked to the Historical Aspects of Exploitation.

Minerals in the Ground are also Considered Resources (Including those Necessary for Plant
Growth). Our Resources have been Monetized and Stolen.

0. Legacies of the Plantation: This deals with Two Major Issues: Productivity and
Empowerment.

Productivity: A Person's Willingness to put out Labour / Effort. The Plantation Society created a
Poor Work Ethic. This means that as a Caribbean People, we use Opportunities to Avoid Work
rather than Contribute Positively (Least Work for Same Pay).

Empowerment: For People to Contribute Positively in Society, People must be Empowered.

Traditionally, Legacies of the Plantation Inhibits these Factors due to Social Stratification
Divisions that Divide and Rule to Regulate Society.

Classism Disrupts rather than Unify Society. Social Justice aims to Achieve Perfect Equity.
There is Social Justice Breaches: Some Groups are Deprived of their Human Rights as it is
Embedded in our Ideology.
Lack of Money: Much of the Caribbean's Wealth has been Repatriated 🡪 A 3rd World to
Metropolitan Movement of Money. The Europeans stole from the Caribbean, thus, the
Caribbean suffers from Economic Crises.

Lack of Education: Opportunities given to Caribbean People is Minimal since they Lack
Knowledge. Thus, Caribbean People only Attract Labour Based Jobs, ie, Income and Quality of
Life are Small. This is Associated with Lack of Empowerment Opportunities.

0. Heavy Dependence upon Traditional Industry: Traditional Industries are Primary

Industries (Eg. Agriculture, Extraction Industries). They are a Major part of Employment. These
Jobs are Low Yielding. Since the only Jobs Available are low Yielding Jobs, there is an
Unwillingness among People to Advance themselves.

These Traditional Industries make up a Significant part of the GNP. It is often times a Poor Use
of Land and Labour Resources. Traditional Industries may be Susceptible to Disease, Natural
Disasters, ie, Losses can be easily Incurred because of the Heavy Dependence on these types
of Industries. Eg. Grenada 🡪 Loss of Nutmeg Farms.

0. Internal Problems in Certain Societies: This Echoes Social Stratification. Eg. Guyana 🡪
Alienation / Exclusion of the Amerindians. They are Inhibited from Contributing to Development.
They are seen as Inferior. Thus, Growth in Society becomes Limited / Stagnated / Arrested.

0. Negative Social Attitudes of Society: Exclusion of People due to Race, Religion. Social
Attitudes to the Environment are Self – Destructive. It is Short Sighted to think Resources on our
Planet are Inexhaustible.

0. Lack of Opportunity for the Masses: Eg. Lack of Healthcare, Education, Empowerment
Opportunities.

0. Lack of Proper Government Planning / Abuse of Government Resources: A Government

is given the Responsibility of using National Wealth to Meet the Developmental Objectives of
the Nation. If they don’t Plan, the Money is going to be Expended.

Abuse of Resources, Corruption, Theft, Misappropriate Use of Money in High Places 🡪 Lack of
Good Governance.
0. Inequitable Distribution of Income: Ideally, Equity is not just a Personal Attitude but it is
part of the Government Agenda. A Government is Mandated to find Equity for the People. Eg.
Creating more Educational Opportunities or giving People more National Wealth.

They should Promote Equity of Income Generation. However, in the Caribbean, Socioeconomic
Polarisation exists: There are Obscenely Wealthy People and then Poverty Stricken People.
While some People enjoy High Quality of Life and have Access to Human Development
Factors, the Majority of People are Disenfranchised.

0. Attitudes to Minority Groups: A Social Injustice Breach 🡪 Poor Attitudes to People who
are Different. Intolerance to Sub Culture Groups 🡪 Exclusion of Groups, therefore,
Dehumanization of Groups. If one Person is Dehumanized, there is no Development.
In Overview, the Caribbean has to Change Social, Economic and even Industrial Attitudes to
make these more Compliant with the Sustainable Development Paradigm. In order to become
more Geared towards Sustainability, all Caribbean Nations need to Address certain Problem
Areas.

Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and Sustainable Development Paradigm (SDP)

The MDG was Created by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as part of the
Paradigm for Achieving Sustainable Development in Developing Nations. It is Goals / Objectives
for 3rd World Nations. These are Prescribed from Global Planners. Even though these are
Ideals, they can't always be Implemented due to Lack of Resources in a Nation, hence, they
must be taken with a certain degree of Flexibility.
⦁ Reduction of Poverty.
⦁ Increase in Literacy.
⦁ Stabilizing the Growth Rate of the Economy.
⦁ Providing Opportunities for the Empowerment of the Masses.
⦁ Creating Opportunities for Social, Political and Economic Inclusion of Disenfranchised
Groups.
⦁ Promoting Equitable Distribution of Income.
⦁ Stabilizing Employment Levels: People should have Sustainability of Employment. Some jobs
may be Seasonal due to Weather, etc...
⦁ Stability of the Political Process / System: Eg. Haiti has the worst track Record for
Development in the Western Hemisphere.
⦁ Dealing with Issues Uniquely Relevant to Women and Children: Protection of Weaker
People in Society. This is not Limited to Men Exploiting Women but also to Women in Work
Place, Maternity, etc... One Developmental Problem is that there is an Androcentric World. Men
have no Tolerance for Women's Problems.
⦁ Reduction of Diseases: Eg. Communicable and Non – Communicable Diseases.
⦁ Promoting Socioeconomic Equity: Methods to Ensure those who are at Risk Enjoy some
Level of Economic Well Being.
⦁ Promoting Environmental Conservation.
⦁ Introducing and Using Technology as part of the Manufacturing Process: One of the
Major Drawbacks is that our Rate of Output / Productivity is very Low. To Increase Output /
Productivity, one must use Technology as part of the Manufacturing Process. More Money 🡪
More Human Services Provided.
Pillars of Development (POD):
This is the Philosophical Ideology of Mahbub Ul Haq. The Idea of HDP was originated by
Mahbub Ul Haq. In the HDP, there were about 30 Major Factors (HDI) to consider. Some were
more Outstanding than others. Eg. Life Expectancy, Mortality Rates, Levels of Literacy, Access
to Education, Standard of Living and GDP per Capita.
The HDP seeks to assess Key Elements that Impact upon Human Well Being. Other factors are
to be considered since there needs to be certain Pillars of Development in place to understand
HDP. These Address a Major Area of any Nation's Developmental Thrust.

⦁ Sustainability.
⦁ Equity.
⦁ Empowerment.
⦁ Productivity.
These may be Studied separately but are Interrelated to Produce an Ideal Developmental
Situation. Pillars of Development recognise certain Human Needs need to be Satisfied for
Sustainability to be Achieved. The Pillars need to be Achieved in the following Order:
Empowerment 🡪 Equity 🡪 Productivity 🡪 Sustainability.
Indicators of Human Development (IOD): Indicators of Human Development are Variables /
Factors than can be Quantified (Assessed as a Means of Understanding Advances made by a
Nation in Achieving Development). For these HDI, the factors must be seen as Important
throughout the World.
Material Indicators are Economic / Infrastructural in Nature. They can be Quantified by Money.
They are important because it is a Guide to allow a Nation to Understand its Economic Position.
However, Material Indicators Don’t Tell the Quality of Life enjoyed by a People; nothing about its
Well Being. Material Indicators include:
⦁ Levels of Output: This is the Product of a Nation over a given Period of Time. Two
Concepts are applied here: Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
GDP is the Value of Goods and Services Generated and Sold within the Economic Boundaries of a
Nation. GNP is the GDP + Export Earnings.

GDP and GNP are useful because:

a. It allows for Economic Growth from one Period to the Next to be seen.
b. It creates Averages per Capita Income.
c. It allows for Long Term Economic Planning.
d. It allows for Annual Budget Allocation.
e. National Income Figures make Comparisons with other Nations and Attract Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI).
However, GNP and GDP tells us nothing about:
a. The Allocation of a Nation's Money.
b. The Needs of a People being Met.
c. The State of Poverty of a Nation.
d. Inequitable Distribution of Income.
e. Mismanagement of Money (Corruption).
f. How much Money was used to Repay Debt.
g. The Status of Environment.
h. The Opportunity of Empowerment of the People.
1. Per Capita Income: This is based upon a Simple Formula:

Average Money= Total Income (GDP or GNP)Total Population

Per Capita Income is Useful for:

a. Getting an Average of Money to Compare with other Countries.

Per Capita Income Fails to Say Anything about:
a. Income Generation.
b. Levels of Well Being as a People.
c. Levels of Productivity of a People.
d. Polarisation / Racism.
Per Capita Income presents a Theoretical Ideal, but in Reality, it is Untrue.
1. Employment Levels may tell about:

a. How many People are still Dependent Upon Government Resources. It is important to
tell the Nation how much Jobs are Available and Needed.

However, Employment Levels don’t tell about:

a. Stratification in Occupation.
b. Levels of Education.
c. Income Levels.
d. Income Distribution.
e. Seasonality (Eg. In Jamaica, 40000 Jobs are Created in the Harvest Season).
f. Make Work Schemes (Eg. Caribbean Societies create Short Term Employment to
Please the Masses such as CEPEP, URP).

1. Levels of Investment / Infrastructural shows:

a. How much has been Added Physically to a Nation. Eg. New Roads. Money has been
spent on Infrastructure which is Beneficial to the Physical Development. Ideally, by Improving
Investment, there may be Increased Productivity Potential.

Levels of Investment / Infrastructural fail because:

a. The Benefits may not be felt by the entire Nation.

b. Nothing is said about Environmental Destruction (Alteration of Landscape).
c. Nothing is said about who the Employment Opportunities were given to.

1. Gini Coefficient: This is a Mathematical Evaluation of Income Distribution in a Society. 0

represents Perfect Equity and 100 represents Inequity. In the Caribbean, the Gini Coefficient is
between 20 and 70. This implies Economic Polarity, ie, Unequal Distribution of Income.
Non – Material Indicators Quantify the Difficult Understanding of Human Well Being. To
Understand Well – Being / Quality of Life, Uniquely Human Indicators have been created:
⦁ Equity Between Classes: This is relevant on both the Economic and Social Spectrum because
it is about Socioeconomic Equity. The Social Spectrum implies the Equity of People's Lives; No
Social Stratification occurs when there is Perfect Equity. There is creation of an Egalitarian Society.

In the Caribbean, there are Tremendous Challenges in Achieving the Non – Material Indicators
of Development. Consider Caribbean Societies that came from a History of Stratification. In the
Caribbean, there was Traditionally the Elite Class; who enjoyed Wealth and Social Prestige.
Everyone Else was Poor and Disenfranchised. This becomes a Developmental Challenge for
the Caribbean.

The Caribbean is Characterized by Social and Economical Polarisation. In the Caribbean, there
is a Perpetuation of a Superior and Inferior Class. Because of Classism, a Negative
International Reputation is Formed that creates Social Injustice Infringements.

Eg. Amerindians in Guyana 🡪 No Voice in Politics and Economics of the Country. Inequity is a
Scandal where a Nation Alienates People and Steals from them. This applied not only to
Amerindians but also Old People, Women, Children, etc...
Strategies that can be Implemented to Improve Equity:
Equity is important for People to feel Value in themselves. It is worth more than Money and
speaks about Psychological Wealth. Thus, a Government must be Proactive in its Treatment of
Classes and they need to Institute Policies / Laws to make the Distribution of Income more
Equitable.
One major Indicator of Development is People's ability to Afford Basic Needs of Life. A
Government has to make every Effort to meet the needs of those who are at risk in the
Population through Proper Management of Money.
This is to Ensure those who are Old, Sick and Young are treated Equally. Eg. Old Age Pension,
Disability Cheques, Widows and Orphans Relief Funds, Social Welfare Expenditure, becomes a
Means of those Helping those who cannot help themselves. Equitable Distribution of Income 🡪
Redistribution of Income.
A Government must be Proactive in creating Taxation Policies / Laws. In many Developed
Nations, there are Tax Policies that fall under Progressive Taxation Policies: The More You
Earn, The More You Return. Progressive Tax Policies work in two ways:
a. It Reduces Economic Polarity.
b. It Alleviates the Burden on Government Resources.
Investment in Education: Making Educational Opportunities more Accesible. Many Caribbean
Countries have become Aware of the Need to Educate People. Education = Empowerment. To
Promote Productivity, one must be given Education.
Creating Access to Education means that there is Optimisation of Human Resources and the
Nation can now do more. It means that International Ratings Increase. Creating Access to
Education means that there is an Alleviation of Burdens of the State 🡪 They are Gainfully
Employed.
Without Education, Lesser Developed Nations will be Doomed to Remain in Socioeconomic
Stagnation and Labour Jobs. Without Education, a Caribbean People will be Perpetually
Disenfranchised. Building more Schools, more Jobs in Education, giving more Scholarships, ie,
Empowering People who Show Prowess.
Additionally, the Government can Provide Funding for Groups that have been Traditionally
Alienated. This is called Positive Discrimination: One group is Promoted over Other Groups. Eg.
In USA Universities, there are suppose to have 10% Non – Caucasian People.
Even though it is Discrimination, it is Geared Towards Empowerment of Traditionally
Disenfranchised Groups.
The Empowerment of Women through Education: In Caribbean Societies, there is Gender
Stereotypes (Eg. They should be in the Kitchen). The Empowerment of Women, while it works
with Empowerment and Equity, also Adds to the Productivity of a Nation.
By Depriving Women, a Nation is Stagnating their Own Development and Hampering their Own
Future. Positive Discrimination is also referred to as Affirmative Action. Eg. Scholarships for
Women / Certain Races only.
1. Productivity: Productivity related to Empowerment and Sustainability. It is a Concept that
deals with how much is Produced by a Nation in a given Period of Time. However, Levels of
Production is Impacted by certain Psychological and Emotional Factors such as Motivation of a
People, Levels of Moral, etc...

Productivity deals with how Happy a Person is. Moral, Level of Happiness, etc... deals with the
Optimisation of Output. If Moral, Happiness is Low 🡪 Output is Small.
Productivity is influenced by Levels of Education and can be Limited by Attitudes including
Stratification. These are part of the Plantation Legacy. Eg. Rascism. There are still some
Amerindians who live in the Bush and Don't Contribute Positively to Society.

Discrimination and Biases (Gender, Religion) Decrease Productivity. The Work Environment of
a People Affects on Levels of Productivity. With Improved Infrastructure, there is Increased
Productivity. Adequate Salary Levels increase Productivity. Everyone wants to feel like he is
Worth Something.

The Use of Technology Improves a Person's Output. Mechanization and Computerisation in

Government Agencies Bring Us in the 21st Century and Beyond. In order for Caribbean
Societies to achieve High Levels of Productivity, there must be a Change of Attitudes.

1. Political Stability and Good Governance: To achieve a Stable Political System, Longevity
is needed to put a Time – Frame for which Developmental Initiatives can be Implemented. Eg.
Housing Plans, Railways, etc...

The Concept of Good Governance means that a Government Governs for Everyone; regardless
of Race, Party Affiliation, Religion. Because of the Legacy of the Plantation, Politics is a Divisive
Stratification. Eg. In Guyana, Politics is Fractured along Race. When one party is in Power, one
Race is Neglected.

Good Governance Overcomes the Plantation Legacy and makes Sensible Use of Limited
Resources for Practical Application and Planning Development. Good Governance is about
Promoting Equity within a Nation. Equity may have Socioeconomic Impacts, ie, the Government
is Tasked with putting Socially Conscious Laws and Policies in place for the Population to
Access the Wealth of a Nation.

The Laws must reach the "At Risked" Population. Good Governance implies Fighting Corruption
and getting Rid of Nepotism. Then, Good Governance is about Promoting Transparency.
Transparency is a Factor Evaluated on a Global Scale. Caribbean Countries rank among the
Lowest in Transparency Scales, therefore, Caribbean Countries have a lot of Corruption and
Nepotism.

The Transparency International Body is the Corruption Perception Index. Barbados ranks 74 /
175 while Trinidad and Tobago ranks 85 / 175.

1. Environmental Purity / Consciousness: There needs to be Responsible Environmental

Factors. Even though the Environment is Physical, the Real Problem is the Human Attitude to
the Environment. As a HDI, the Environment is a Habitat that needs to be Safe.
Mans' Attitudes are Riddled with Misuse, Exploitation and Mismanagement. Historically, most of
the Damage has Already Been Done. Man's Utilization of Resources is Correlated to World's
Environmental Problems.
This is a Futile Endeavour. Environmental Conservationism is a part of any Sustainable
Development Paradigm; Ensuring that we are able to Meet our Needs and Needs of the Future.
Environmental Consciousness needs a Radical Reassessment of Caribbean's People Attitudes
to the Environment.

Awareness, Education and Sensitization of the Public are needed in order to Change our
Attitude. The Government must be Participant in the Change Process in the School Curriculum
(Eg. Inclusion of Education about Forestry, Coral Reefs and Tourisms). They must Create Laws
to Protect the Environment from Exploitation and Systems must be Implemented to Enforce the
Laws.

1. Healthcare: "Health is Your Wealth". Healthcare is a System to Give Society Access to

Health. Health is a means by which People Remain Healthy by Raising Lifespan and Quality of
Life.

In the Caribbean, because of Financial Positions of Caribbean Nations, Provision of Healthcare

is often Ineffective, Non – Effective or Inadequate. Many Caribbean Nations are making Efforts
to Expand Healthcare.

Eg. There are New Hospitals in Couva, New and Refurbished Hospital Wings. The Expansion of
the Medical Sector includes the Services Available to Society. In Trinidad and Tobago, we can
now Access Advanced Medical Services such as Brain and Plastic Surgery.

In Trinidad and Tobago, however, there are many Challenges facing the Industry:
a. Lack of Trained Personnel: Equipment is Present but not much to use them.
b. Lack of Proper Working Machinery.
Some Caribbean Nations, Eg. Cuba, has Globally Recognized Healthcare for its Efficiency,
Productivity and Competence. Cuba Exports Surgeons. Trinidad and Tobago has taken several
steps with the Provision of more Physical Infrastructure and the Introduction of a New System to
Access Drugs: CDAP. CDAP is the only way for Poverty Stricken to Access Drugs.
1. Improved Institutions and Attitudes Within Society: This deals with a Human Quality of
Treatment within the Public Sectors. Trinidad and Tobago has just Received Gold 🡪 Diamand
Sates by Improving Attitudes / Treatments of certain Aspects / Sectors of the General
Population.

The Launch of Effort through Public Campaign is a Viable Option. With Better Treatment, the
Population will feel more Satisfied and they don't feel Alienated from Government Structure.
1. A Rationally Coordinated System of Policy Measures: This deals with the Planning of
Money. There must be a Greater Level of Coordination and Correspondence in Planning and
Implementation of Plans so that Redundancy / Misuse of Resources will be Eliminated.

This is a Chronic Problem. Without Coordination, there is Bound to be Wastage of Resources.

Module 2, Specific Objective 2
Factors that Hinder / Promote Development:
⦁ Gender Inequality.
⦁ Political Ideologies and Popular Movements.
⦁ Distribution of Wealth and Resources.
⦁ Class Boundaries and Stratification Issues.
⦁ Entrepreneurship / Entrepreneurship Activities.
⦁ Natural and Human Induced Disasters.
⦁ Government Policies.
⦁ Technology Factors.
⦁ Global Conditions.
⦁ Quality and Relevance of Education.
⦁ Tourism's Contributions and Challenges.
Any Nation in the World depends on Combinations of these Variables to Stimulate its own
Levels of Development.
Any Nation can Implement these Strategies to Advance their Levels of Development:
⦁ Discovery of Natural Resources.
⦁ Increase in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
⦁ Expansion of the Skilled Labour Force.
⦁ Implementation of Technology.
⦁ Diversifying the Economy.
Gender Inequality: In the Caribbean the Society has been Characterised by Patriarchy
(Patriarchy describes a Social System where Men are always Dominant and Women are
Treated as 2nd Class Citizens). European Countries run on Patriarchy Lines and they brought
this Mindset to the New World. They Organized Political and Social Relations in the light of it.
Patriarchy Influences Caribbean Social Relations to an Extraordinary Degree. Examples:
a. Male Dominance in Relationships often Leads to Families becoming Sites of Oppression
and Coercion for Females (Spouses and Daughters).
b. Women's Education tends to be Geared to the Female Stereotype of Domestic and
Nurturing Skills, while that of Men is Focuses on Science, Practical Construction Skills and High
Level Intellectual Activities (Debating).
c. Statistically, Poverty affects more Women than Men, largely because most Single Parent
Families are Headed by a Female (Mother or Grandmother).

Gender Inequality Hinders the Attainment of Sustainable Development because:

a. A Group in Society (Eg. Women) are Perceived to be Inferior: They are Alienated,
Voiceless and Disenfranchised. When Women are Stereotyped against, there is a Social Justice
Breach. Social Justice suppose to Maintain Equity of Treatment; regardless of Age, Religion
and Education.

⦁ Productivity of a Society is Negatively Impacted: Productivity means Development is Based

on Output. If groups are Restricted from Working, Productivity is Hampered.

⦁ Reduced Taxation Revenue for a Government: If there are Less Persons Working, there is a
Less Tax Generation. If a Government has Little Money, they Can't Provide for the At Risked in
Society.

⦁ Strain on Limited Government Resources: The Government has Little Money so the
Development of the Whole Nation is Decreased.

⦁ Invisible / Intangible Psychological Impact of Discrimination / Alienation: A Group in

Society will feel Inferior which will have a Negative Impact on Self Esteem, Psychological Health
and Well Being.

⦁ Potential of a Nation is Reduced: In order for Sustainability, every Human Resource must be
Optimised. If a Group is made to feel Inferior, a Nation is Limiting Potential Growth.

⦁ Negative International Reputation / Perception: A Country will be seen as a Backward

People. As a Nation, we are seen as Creating a Minority Group (A Group whose Rights, Dignity,
Social, Political and Economic Voices / Participation is taken away from them).
Overcoming Challenges that Hinder Development:
a. Promote Educational Access to Disempowered Groups for Empowerment and
Enfranchisement.

⦁ Sensitization of the Need for Every Member of Society to become Aware.

⦁ Creating Legislation to Defend and Protect Women from Abusive Situations (Eg. Sexual
Exploitation): Creation of Laws that make Affirmative Action; to Advance Disempowered Gender
Groups to deal with Women Issues (Eg. Maternity, Pregnancy).

Often times, Women's Problems are Treated as Hindrances rather than part of Life. Attitudes
towards Women Stem from an Androcentric Show. Men are Insensitive to these Unique Women
Situations.

⦁ Empowering Women: Allowing them to Participate in Society. Eg. More Women at Heads
of Organizations.

⦁ Creating Sexual Harassment Laws.

⦁ Creating Equal Opportunity Bills: Once one is Qualified for a Job, there is no reason why
one shouldn’t get the Job. One should Meet the Criteria to get a Job. There is Pressure to Promote
Greater Levels of Transparency. Eg. Same Salary for Women.

⦁ Attempt to De – Genderise Occupation: Eg. How to Remove Stereotype from Nurses?

Political Ideologies and Popular Movements: Politics is about Utilization of Power in the
Administering of Plans and Policies for the Benefit of a Nation. Since it is about Making Plans
for a Nation, a Political Model is Linked with an Economic Model. Politics is thus about Deciding
how to Best Use a Nation's Limited Resources. There are Essentially Two Political Ideologies
and a Resultant Hybrid Third:
Political Model Economic Model

Democracy Capitalism. /
The Free Market Model.

Communism The Planned Economic Model. /

Central Economic Model.

Democracy + Communism = Hybrid

Mixed Economic Model.

In the Caribbean, there are Variations of both Political Models. Democracy is Associated with
British West Indian (BWI) Nations and Communism is Associated with Cuba. The Economic
Structure Correlates with the Political Structure and this Dictates how a Nation's Resources are
to be used.
Central Economic Model (CEM) Implies that the Government Owns all of the Factors of
Production and Resources Except Labour. The State is Responsible for the Production of
Goods and Services, Administration and Business.
The Communist System creates Policies based upon the Need to Equally Distribute a Nation's
Resources to Every Member of the Population. One of the Driving Motivational Concepts of
Communism is Equity. Equity is a Gargantuan in their Thinking.
Development is Consistent with Government's Planning. In Theory, Communism seeks to
Promote a Classless / Egalitarian Society; where Everyone has Equal Rights.
If a Society is Moving Towards Equity, then SEEP will Follow and Sustainability will become a
Reality. Eg. Same Healthcare, Education, Mobility Factors. Ideally, the Pillars of Development
can be Fulfilled.

Shortcomings of Communism:
⦁ Decision Making Structure is Inconsistent with the Needs of the Masses: Inefficient Policy
Making since Heads are "Out of Touch" with the People.

1. No Private Ownership of Resources: There is Little Desire by the Worker to make the
Business Work since there is No Profit Incentive. This Lack of Private Ownership of Business
Reduces Income Generation Potential and results in a Lackadaisical Attitude.

1. Wastage of Resources in National Enterprises: There is Mismanagement of Resources

and this means that Business Enterprises in the Government won't Profit. Eg. In Trinidad and
Tobago, a Hybrid Political Model is used. Caroni State Limited used an Inefficient System of
Production and this put a Strain on Government Resources. ($2000 to Produce and Sold for
$800).

1. Police State: A Communist State is also referred to as a Police State. The Leaders are
Fearful of Losing their Leadership Position, therefore, they Rule with Brutality. Eg. Cuba doesn’t
want International Media Coverage. Anyone who Opposes Cuban Heads becomes an Enemy of
the State.

1. Fiscal Period: The Planned Economic Model is Organized for a Fiscal Period (Eg. One
Year). There are No Revisions of these Plans. There are No Changes if Affected by Global
Crises or Outside Factors. Because there is No Planning for Contingencies, there are Hardships
on People.

1. Inflexible: State Planning cannot Adapt to the Changing Needs of the People since it is
Not Flexible. Eg. Diseases, Natural Disasters, Climate are not Accounted for. In the 1960s,
Jamaica Experimented with Communism and their Economy Worsened.
Free Market Model (FMM) is Associated with Democracy. There is a Possibility to Solve the
Problems of Communism. FMM sees the Government as a Facilitator of Business and
Economic Growth in a Society. FMM DOES NOT Provide All Goods and Services. They do,
however, Provide Basic Services such as:
a. Policing.
b. Laws / Justice.
There is no Educational, Health or Housing Services provided. In the FMM, Economic Activity is
Governed by the Law of Demand and Supply.
The Law of Supply and Demand Defines the Effect that the Availability of a Product and the
Desire for that Product has on Price. Generally, if there is a Low Supply and a High Demand,
the Price will be High. In contrast, the Greater the Supply and the Lower the Demand, the Lower
the Price will be.
Essentially, in the FMM, the Government leaves the Producers to Produce and the Prices will
be Decided by the Consumers.
There is a High Level of Inequity. Those who Own the Factors of Production and Resources of a
Nation are Exceedingly Wealthy and those who don’t own are Poverty Stricken. The Factors of
Production include:
⦁ Land.
⦁ Labour.
⦁ Capital.
⦁ Management / Enterprise.
Any Business needs these 4 to Facilitate Business. The FMM is Individualistic and Promotes
Socioeconomic Polarity and Classism. FMM is Opposite to Communism. FMM will Never
Achieve SEEP and doesn’t Exist in the World. FMM has to be Tempered by Government
Participation in the Economy.
Mixed Economic Model (MEM): There is an Incorporation of the FMM and CEM, and hence, a
Dual Emphasis.
FMM 🡪 $$$.
CEM 🡪 Distribution of Resources / Equity.
MEM 🡪 $$$ + Equity (Strives to get a Compromise between Economic and Social
Development).
The MEM is the most Efficient Model in Achieving Sustainable Development. There should be
Sensible Use of Resources. The MEM allows Government to Plan for a Nation's Developmental
Objectives. The Government also Produces Certain Goods and Services that it Deems
Essential for Human and Material Development.
Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Government Produces Education, Healthcare, Water,
Electricity. The things that the State Produces are what the Nation depends on for Sustainable
Development.
There are Similar Disadvantages to that of the Communist System. One thing that is Consistent
with the Communist Model is that the MEM Ensures Everyone has Equal Access to the Wealth
of a Nation. They Strive for High Levels of Equity in Distribution of Resources. MEM is referred
to as the Welfare State as Government Participates in the Redistribution of Resources.
Eg. Grants used to Aid the "At Risked" Population. Such Grants Care for those who can't
Achieve the Minimum Standard of Living by Giving Aid. The State is Attempting to Ensure that
Everyone is able to Achieve some Minimal Quality of Life.
The MEM also allows for Private Ownership of Resources. However, the State Reserves the
Right to Intervene.
Eg. In the Mid 2000s, Bad Weather in Russia caused the Potato and Wheat Crops to Fail. The
Global Price of Corn Increased. In Trinidad and Tobago, Chicken Prices Increased. The
Oligopoly of Chicken Producers in Trinidad and Tobago gathered and Decided to Increase Price
of Chicken. The Government became Aware of this. Since Food is a Major Human Indicator,
this Upset the Population. The Government asked the Oligopoly to Reduce their Prices but they
Refused. The Government then Accessed Suriname's Chicken and Flooded the Market with a
Cheaper Alternative. This Forced the Oligopoly to Lower their Prices or Face Bankruptcy. The
Government Protects the Population from Price Gauging.
The Caribbean has a Few Nations that uses the MEM (Eg. BWI Nations). These Nations show
Highest Levels of Development. Eg. Bahamas, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago.
Popular Movements / Ideologies: These must Contribute / Impact / Alter the Concept of
Development:
a. Feminism.
b. Rastafarianism.
c. Environmental Consciousness.
d. Negritude.
e. Social Justice and Human Rights.
f. Health Consciousness.
Popular Ideology is defined as a System of Ideas or Beliefs (that isn’t Politically Oriented) which
People begin to Adopt as Part of their Lives. A Popular Ideology has the Potential to Change the
Way People Live.
Popular Ideology can become a Lobbying Agent / Force. Eg. One of the Lobby Groups that
came in the Spotlight was the Highway Re – Route Movement. They raised Awareness to
Issues relating to the Environment and Development. If the Movement was Successful, the
Government would have had to make a more Suitable, Friendly Alternative than having the
Highway pass through the Lagoon.
Functions of Lobby Groups:
⦁ These Lobby Groups bring Pressure to Bear upon Society and Government's Policies based
upon an Issue that they Perceive to be Important.
⦁ Lobby Groups, based on Popular Ideologies, can bring about Change in the way
Government Administrates Policies.
⦁ A Lobby Group can be a Voice for those who don’t have a Voice. A Minority /
Marginalised / Invisible / Disenfranchised Group of People can now be heard.
⦁ A Lobby Group can Raise Awareness on an International Scale; bringing about further
Pressure on Society / Government to Act.
A Lobby Group, based upon Popular Ideology, is an example of the Practise of Democracy.
Democracy 🡪 Idea of Free Choice. Even if People don’t agree with matters, they have a chance
to Voice their Discontent.
Feminism relates to Equity in Women. Feminism tries to Create Stronger Pillars of
Development. To Promote Development, they Ensure the Minority is given the Treatment /
Respect that they Deserve. Equity tries to Ensure Fairness regardless of Pre – Existing
Stratification Barriers.
Rastafarianism is a Basis of Rebellious Ideologies. Eg. Bob Marley 🡪 Creation of Reggae.
Rastafarianism is based upon a Principle of Equity of Treatment. In Rastafarian Ideology, a
Concept of Babylon comes to Signify all that is Inequitable. Rastafarianism is an effort to
Preserve / Maintain Equal Treatment for all Classes of People.
Environmental Consciousness represents a Tangible Minority. We recognise our Ability to
Change the Environment and we Aim to Control these Abilities to Not Harm the Environment.
“Thinking Green” means to Consider the Environment when we make Decisions.
Additionally, even on the Smallest Scales, People are Changing their Attitudes to the
Environment. This Aids Sustainable Development.
Negritude is a Platform for the Promotion of Equity of a Disenfranchised Group. It is a Literary
Movement that Explores the Atrocities / Travesties that would have taken place due to
European Exploitation.
Eg. Exploitation of African Group. Although it might have Catalyzed due to this group, it can
Reflect Any Type of Exploitation. It helps to Ensure that the Exploitation Never Occurs Again.
Social Justice and Human Rights are Heavily Linked. Social Justice Helps to Preserve and
Ensure that there are Human Rights. In the Caribbean, there have been Heavy Disregard for
Human Exploitation. It became a Legacy of our Society. One group or the other has been
Exploited.
Eg. Amnesty International is a Human Rights Watchdog Group that Focuses on Prisoners in the
World’s Prisoners. Human Rights / Social Justice / Natural Rights are Articles on the UN
Convention on Human Rights.
These Articles (created by the UN Charter) Seeks to Create Rules on how Any Human is to be
Treated, ie, You are supposed to have certain Inalienable Rights, which means no matter
Where you are, Once you are Human, you are Guaranteed those Rights. Social Justice Strives
to Ensure that these Rights are Maintained for Minority Groups such as Old, Sick Suffering,
etc...
Health Consciousness is a Recognition of your Own Need to Preserve your Levels of Health. In
recent times, the Global Society is More Conscious to Health. Most Diseases are Lifestyle
Diseases and are due to our Diet and Lack of Exercise. This Relates to Development because it
would Increase Productivity.
The People are more Inclined to Live Better Lives so the Quality of Life is Improved. Eg. Cancer
Society: An Ideology that Influences Behaviour. In the Caribbean, there are a Few
Organisations based on Popular Movements.
CAFRA: Caribbean Feminist Research Association.
CANARI: Caribbean Natural Resource Institute.
CHRI: Caribbean Human Rights Initiative.
Distribution of Wealth and Resources must Ideally be Equitable. The Caribbean has come from
a History of Socio Economic Polarisation. In the Caribbean, it was Normal for One Group to
have All and Another to have None.
The Plantocracy / Bourgeoisie Class had All. That Polarization has been Transposed to
Caribbean Society until now. Therefore, Equitable Distribution of Resources is one of the most
Pressing / Challenging. Among the Problems being Faced by Society is:
⦁ The Lack of Resources: Constant Pressure on how Money is Spent.

1. To Fill the most Urgent Needs: Is your most Urgent need Helping the People to become
Empowered through Education? Or Vaccination via Healthcare?
Government Spending must also Help the Society in the Greatest Way. Any Government must
Spend Money in order to Help those Most at Risk, ie, to Ensure that those Persons have Access
to the Wealth of a Nation in some way or another.
Everyone in the Society can at least Enjoy a Minimum Standard of Living. This is done by
placing Subsides on Basic Human Needs. A Subside is a Cost that is Absorbed by a Body /
Government.
It makes a Commodity more Affordable / Accessible. In Trinidad, persons who are Disabled
have Subsides on Electric and Water Bills.
Welfare Expenditure: Welfare is Highly Criticised and Considered "Wasted Money" because it is
Free Money given away Without Gaining Any Return. Welfare Includes Pension, Public
Assistance, Box Lunch and Widow’s Benefits. These Encourage Exploitation of the Public
System by the People.
CDAP, in Trinidad, is for some the Only Way Persons in Society can Access Drugs. Free Health
Care, Access to Cheap Loans from Government Agencies: ADD, HDC TTMF.
Changing Class Boundaries and Stratification Issues: The Caribbean comes from a Legacy of
Stratification. The Stratification is Essentially based upon Socioeconomic Factors. There is No
Caribbean Country that does not face Stratification Challenges. This causes Inequity.
The Quality of the Life of a Person is Reduced. Class Structures, based on Race, Gender,
Wealth, always Alienate a Group of Persons. Classism of any kind is always Counterproductive.
a. Antagonistic Work Relationships: There is obvious Hatred / Aggression between
Persons. There is a Gap between Employer and Worker. Management becomes Equivalent to
the Bourgeoisie Class and the Worker sees Himself as being Oppressed. The Worker will
usually take Steps to Sabotage or Reduce the Levels of Productivity.

⦁ Poor Work Ethic: There is a Demotivated Work Force. People do the Least in Order to
Draw a Salary. To Redress this Negative Work Attitude, a Paradigm Shift is required; where People
have to Address their Own Cultural Attitudes.

⦁ Institutionalised Injustice: Caribbean People Perceive that the System is Built to Oppress
them. They believe that there is No Opportunity for Redress.

People feel Disempowered especially when there are Certain Groups have Money / Position
who always seem to Succeed / Get Away with Something. There is the Perception that if you
have Money, you are Immune to the Effects of Society. This leads to Antagonism of the Upper
Class.

⦁ Discrimination: This Implies a Negative Perception of a Group: Race, Gender, Age, Group.
Any Class Factor is used to Alienate. People's Quality of Life is Negatively Impacted and their
Human Rights are Encroached.

In order to deal with Stratification and the Negative Impacts it has on Development, Caribbean
Societies have to Address those Areas that Perpetuate Classism, such as Addressing Race
Politics, Inaccessibility of Education, Laws that Allow Socioeconomic Polarity. Eg. Creating
Progressive Taxation Laws, Training Opportunities for the Masses (Empowerment of the
People).
Entrepreneurial Drive and Activity: An Entrepreneur is a Person who Creates his Own Avenue
for Business. Therefore, the Entrepreneur has been part of the Caribbean History. The
Entrepreneur becomes Important to Promote Self-Reliance and Reduce Dependency.
He also Creates Employment Opportunities for others in Society. He now takes on the
Responsibility of Giving Others Empowerment through Jobs. Entrepreneurship is as Important
as Enfranchisement.
The Entrepreneur Adds to the National Purse because he Stimulates Economic Activity,
Creates Jobs for Others and he Pays Taxes. The Entrepreneur and the Entrepreneurial Attitude
must be Encouraged.
Ways in which Government Stimulate Entrepreneurship:
⦁ Legislation: Government can Create Laws to make a Friendly Environment; an Environment
that Promotes the Start-Up of the Business. Such things as Offering Loans, Eg. In Trinidad, there is
the Ministry of Small and Micro Business Development. Essentially, Laws have to make the Wealth
of a Nation Accessible to a Country.

The Government should make available Technical Advice. Eg. How to Market your Goods.
Government's Incentives such as Tax Rebates for Small Businesses. Consider that Corporation
Tax Exempts Small Businesses until they start Earning a Certain Amount. Subsides on
Machinery, Awards Program that are Incentives.

Creating Specialised Vending Areas for Small Producers Eg. Vending Areas in Cities, Farmers’
Market (NAMDEVCO). The Government can also Partner with the Private Sector to Make
Preferential Vending Areas possible.

1. Education: Promoting Educational Opportunities in Business, Programmes for Training

and Advancement, Scholarships for the Business Minded. In recent times, CAPE has
introduced Tourism and Entrepreneurship.
Natural and Man-Made Disaster: Review Module 1, Objective 5.
Government Policy: All Government Policies must Seek to Promote Human Development and
Environmental Preservation whilst still Generating Wealth for a Nation. Governments must Fulfill
the Sustainable Development Paradigm. The Policies must Create Empowerment / Equity /
Productivity and therefore Sustainability.
Ministry of Labour: Promote the Creation of Jobs and can Stimulate a Healthier Working
Environment. OSH ensures Standards are Met. Ministry of Labour may also Decide on more
Equitable Minimum Wage. Maternity Issues / Benefits, Child Labour Laws, Creating Work
Schemes, ie, Creating Work Opportunities for the People.
Ministry of Education: Improved Physical Facilities. Eg. More Schools, Whiteboards instead of
Blackboards. Training Teachers by creating more Tertiary Places and Scholarships. Institute
Universal Primary and Secondary Teachings. All Governments in Trinidad have sought out to
provide more Scholarships each year.
More Scholarships, Free Box Lunch and giving Laptops to students Adds to Education and
Moves towards Sustainable Development. The GATE Program: Trinidad is the only Nation in
the Caribbean country to have this Program.
Ministry of Social Justice: All about Empowering Minorities. Equitable Distribution of Aid /
Finances. More Proactive Approach.
Ministry of the Environment: Creating Legislation to Protect / Safeguard the Environment,
Creating Watchdog Agencies. Eg. EMA to Monitor how our Landscape is Altered. They are also
Responsible for Spreading Awareness of Environmental Concerns. This might be a part of the
Educational Aspect. Promoting Sustainability through the Environment.
Only in 2015, the Hunting Season was opened in Trinidad. Creating Laws to Protect what we
already have. Alterations to our Natural Environment will have Long Term Negative Effects.
There is Disregard for Existing Laws.
Use of Technology and Technological Factors: Technology and Mechanisation is a Reality of
the Industrial and Social Landscape of the World. The Use of Technology has Never been a
Major Point in the Caribbean. The Caribbean has Evolved from Labour Intensive Forms of
Agriculture.
The Legacy in the Caribbean is Not Dependent on Technology but on the Labour. Labour
Intensive Production is Not Sustainable as People are usually Lazy. The Use of Technology will
have Benefits of Enormous Scale and can Impact upon the Economy by Providing Higher
Levels of Productivity, Output and Income.
Technology and Education: Easier Means of Communication, Faster Rates of Learning and
more Efficient Methods of Record Keeping.
Technology and Tourism: Creating Visibility, Advertising on the Internet, Bookings and
Reservations, Increased Market Shared due to Remote Capability Provided through
Technology.
Technology and Medicine: In the Caribbean, we are Dependent upon Metropolitan Medical
Services. This is due to not having the Necessary Specialists and or Equipment. Medical
Services will Impact upon our Pillars of Development by making out Population Healthier.
Advantages:
a. Higher Levels of Efficacy, Output and Income Generation.
b. Lowered Cost of Production.
c. Creation of Spin-Off Jobs.
d. Greater Access to Knowledge.
e. Greater Access to Recreation.
f. Greater Access to Education.
g. More Reliable Systems of Information Storage and Retrieval.
Challenges to the Use of Technology:
a. Costly: Caribbean Countries have Little Money.
b. Technology requires High Amounts of Energy and not all Caribbean Countries Produce
Energy.
c. Landscape of some territories Prevent Use of Technology.
d. Jobs will be Rendered Redundant / Obsolete.
e. Incur Unforeseen Expenditure.
f. It may put Traditional Industries into Jeopardy. Eg. Fast Food Production may Render
Traditional Foods as Undesirable.
g. Because of the Access to all Types of Movies, the Local Drama Industry is Undesirable.
h. New Types of Illegal Activities Eg. Privacy, Access to Questionable Material.
i. Detritions of the Social and Moral Fabric of Society.
j. Displacement of Local Producers of Goods due to Online Shopping.
k. Outflow of the Nation’s Wealth due to Online Shopping.
Global Conditions: There are Certain Global Issues that are Pressing to how Caribbean
Countries deal with these. There are Environmental Issues, Human Well-Being Issues (MDG’s),
National Security Issues (Global Threats).
The Caribbean is a Member of the Global Environment and that Problems that Face the World,
Face the Caribbean as well. Because of our Small Size (Economically, Population, Geography),
the Caribbean is More Susceptible to Global Changes than are many of the Larger Territories of
the World.
Eg. Inflation: Large Nations can Better Deal with it than Small Nations due to Stronger
Economy. The Countries are too Small to Change Global Situations therefore we are More
Reactive than Proactive. We follow International Trends. The LDC’s (Lesser Developed
Countries) usually have a Legacy of Dependency upon Metropolitan Nations.
Changes in Patterns of Spending in Tourism can Happen if there is an Economic Crisis in the
World and this will affect LDC’s. Eg. In 2008, 2012 there were Crashes due to Drop in Oil Prices
Actions. In 2015, there is an Impending Crash. Our Situation of Economic Dependency means
that Changes in National Economics will have a Ripple Effect on the Caribbean.
In 2008 and 2012, because of Recession, Caribbean Countries (Barbados, St Vincent, St.
Lucia,) took a Downturn (Not Trinidad due to Possession of Oil and Gas). This is one thing that
is Important that affects Oil Based Economies (Trinidad and Tobago).
In 2013, the United States, which is our Major Importer of Crude Oil, discovered how to get Oil
out of Shale Clay through Fracking. This means that our Main Buyer has Reduced
Consumption. This Impacts us even though it was not a Global Crisis.
Global Changes in the Economy:
⦁ Climate Change: In the mid 2000’s, the Price of Corn and Wheat Increased.
⦁ Bad Weather in Russia: Chicken Prices Increased.
In order to Enjoy Sustainability, our Attitudes to the Environment must Change. Environmental
Concerns seem to affect 3rd World Nations. Whether it’s because of our Luck / Geographical
Location, the 3rd World Nations have the most Forests.
The World has become Aware that the Forests are the Lungs of the Earth. The Nations with
Forests are therefore Important Eg. Guyana. Metropolitan Nations want other Nations with
Forests to become More Conservative with their Exploitation of the Forest Reserves.
However, they do nothing to help Subside the Income Generated by these Nations. The
Metropolitan Nations are also the ones that Consume the Products Eg. Lumber. The Millennium
Development Goals become Problematic to Caribbean Nations.
They were supposed to become a Reality in 2015, but this has not happened. In truth,
Caribbean Nations don’t have enough Money to Achieve Advances in Millennium Development
Goals.
There is also a Lack of Investments by Metropolitan Nations. Sometimes, these can be Good /
Poor and this Reflects the Global Environment. Eg. If America has hard times, we shall not get
anything from them. Caribbean Nations depend on FDI (Foreign Direct Investment), therefore
without FDI, we can’t do anything.
Our Lack of Accumulated Wealth Accounts for our Dependency upon IMF (International
Monetary Funds) and the World Bank. Taking Loans from the World Bank / IMF can lead us to a
Worse Position than we were before.
Human Trafficking: This is Important for the Caribbean because the Caribbean becomes a
Major Transhipment Point for the Movement of Human Cargo especially from South America.
African Refugees are using the route from Africa to the Caribbean then to the United States.
Human Trafficking is Modern Day Slavery.
The Movement of Drugs is related to Human Trafficking. The Caribbean is under Heavy
Suspicion and Immigration Laws change because of this. South America sends Drugs to the
Caribbean.
Environmental Factors: Our Economics depend on Ecotourism. Any Natural Event, Global in
Scale, will Affect our Ecotourism.
Quality and Relevance of Education: Investment in Education is the Investment in Development.
Any kind of Empowerment must begin with Education simply because you Cannot give
Everybody Access to a Loan. Education is Easiest / Most Practicable.
Therefore, the Caribbean must make Educational Opportunities available in order to Improve
your Human Resource. To get rid of Inequity, you have to give everybody the Opportunity to
become Mobile. Education is the most Sensible Way for this.
Since Indentureship, Caribbean People have realised that Education allows the most Social
Upward Movement. We must make our Education Compatible and Equivalent with that of the
world. We must take our Education into the 21st Century, ie, What is Done in the Caribbean
must have a Global Relevance and must be Seen by the World to have a High Quality.
This is an Ironic Twist because in 2004, the Caribbean Abandoned GCE as an A’ Level
Examination Body and Adopted CAPE, which is Not Globally Recognised. While we know that
GCE is better, we moved to CAPE to gain a Level of Autonomy and Self-Respect.
Caribbean Students therefore have Difficulties getting into Foreign Universities. In order to
Improve Education, we need: Modern Classrooms, the Use of Technology and the Need of
Teacher Training for the 21st Century Methods of Training.
All these require Money, which the Caribbean has little of. We are Limited by one thing or
another. In recent times, the CAPE body has been Introducing More Subjects. This is an
Advancement in our Education. UWI has also Introduced more degrees Eg. Degree in Maritime
Engineering.
Tourism: This has the most Significant Potential to Boost Development in the Caribbean
because the Caribbean has the Ecological Basis that Acts as a Magnet for Metropolitan
Tourism. The Majority of our Tourist Clients come from North America and the Western
Hemisphere: The Netherlands.
Many Caribbean Countries (Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Jamaica) depend Heavily upon
Tourism for most of their GDP. Tourism creates Several Developmental Opportunities such as
Employment Opportunities for many.
Eg. Barbados Boasts that more than 80% of their Population is Employed by Tourism (Directly,
Indirectly). More than 40% of their GDP is from Tourism Investment / Spending. This means that
Tourism can be a Viable Factor in Economic Development.
Upstream and Downstream Industries: Assume Tourism is the Main Industry:
Upstream is What Goes Into: Flight Agencies, Insurances.
Downstream is What Comes Out: Taxi Services, Restaurants.
Some Industries may be both Upstream and Downstream.
Tourism is Important for Development because it Helps to Stabilise the Economy through
Foreign Exchange. We are Import Based Countries. Eg. We Use Foreign made Toothpaste and
Toothbrush, Foreign made Toilets, Soap, Tea Bags Microwaves, Cars, Clothes, etc. Most things
we use are Dependent upon a Foreign Investor.
Tourism gives us Foreign Revenue to Purchase these Items. In 2013, 2014 and 2015, the
Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago had Limited US dollars, this was in Parallel with the US
Recession. Tourism Promotes Inertia. Once there is Positive Feedback, Tourism will Grow.
Our Perception can Increase and this Continues our Tourist Potential. Tourism Raises our
Environmental Appreciation. Eg. People will come from Japan and Australia come to see the
Buccoo Reef and Scarlet Ibis. People will come to the Realisation that these are Worth
Something and will try to Utilise it.
People may also Change their Attitude to the Environment. Etiquette is taught in Barbados so
as to Improve the Hospitality of the Nation. Caribbean People’s Attitude is very Bad. Trinidad is
Based on Oil and Gas so we do not focus on Hospitality. Therefore, Trinidad will have a Bad
Reputation; as being Disrespectful Hosts.
Many of the Major Hospitality Agents have Invested in the Caribbean. Everyone of our Four Star
Hotels in the Caribbean (Except Sandal’s in Jamaica, whose Management is Foreign but it
Originated in Jamaica) Originated from Foreign Investors.
Negatives of Tourism:
⦁ Cultural Imperialism: When Locals see a Tourist living his Life, they will want to Adopt
their Identity and Drop their Own. This can lead to Cultural Erasure.

1. Stratification of Society: Eg. In Some areas in Jamaica, there is Negril, which is

Especially for the Tourists. Locals are Unwelcomed. In Tobago, Pigeon Point Park was Accused
of having a Racist Eurocentric Agenda where Pigeon Point was Catering Exclusively for White
People. Black People (Local People) could not get into Pigeon Point Park.

1. Inflation: Due to Indirect Increase of Goods, Local Consumers have to Pay Higher
Tourist Prices.

1. Diseases: Movement of People Implies Movement of Pathogens. In Recent Times, there

have been Several Influenza Scares: Bird Flu, Swine Flu, Ebola, etc. This means there can be
Diseases brought In that We Aren't Prepared For. STI’s and STD’s can pass as well due to Sex
Tourism Industries.

Eg. Barbados, Tobago and Jamaica. In the 1990’s, Simona Fricker from the Netherlands had
Sexual Interactions with Several Men. These men were all in the Sex Tourism Industries. Back
then, there were No Laws regarding Knowingly Giving Someone HIV / AIDS.

1. Decay in Morals and Values: Due to Sexual Conduct / Misconduct of People. It may
Spark Underground Drug Industries (Debauchery Tourism: Weed, Alcohol and Sex, also known
as Hedonism). This can cause Problems with the Law.

1. Civil Problems: Due to Violence Towards Tourists. Eg. In 2011, a Tourist Couple with the
Last Name Green were Attacked in Tobago.
Challenges Facing Tourism in the Caribbean:
⦁ Lack of Publicity and Marketing on the Caribbean’s Part: To Sell Something, you have to
Make it Visible (Advertise). There needs to be Vigorous Marketing Campaigns by the Nations
themselves. There is also an Agency for this: CTO.

1. Lack of Infrastructure and Modern Conveniences: To make Tourists Comfortable, you

must have Infrastructure to Allow Mobility: Proper Roads, Air and Seaports. (These cost
Money). Lack of Infrastructure is also seen in the Water and Electric Shortages. Creating
Infrastructure means Diversifying your Tourism Product.

Eg. Grenada was one of the First Nations to Embark on “Yachtie” Tourism. Other Nations have
not Embarked on this because of a Lack of Money. Trinidad has followed Grenada with this
Type of Tourism.

1. Levels of Crime: Eg. Green’s in Tobago. Also occurs in Jamaica and Trinidad.
Metropolitan Nations provide Bulletins and Advisories about the High Crime Rates in these
Countries.
1. Poor Attitudes: Some Nations are Hostile towards Tourists. Eg. Trinidadians.

1. Natural Disasters: These will Destroy the Ecology / Infrastructure that Generates
Income. Tourism is Highly Fickle / Capricious, meaning, it is Subject to Changes in Trends.
Tourism based Nations must be Dynamic and Constantly Change their Advertising.

Once they Lose their Appeal, it is Difficult to get it back. Natural Disaster can Nullify your
Tourism Industry for a Period of Time. The Long Term Spin-Off means that you can Lose your
Tourism entirely.

1. Political Instability: Eg. Haiti. For the Tourist to feel Safe, there must be Law, Police etc.

1. Lack of Diversification: Caribbean depends upon SSS (Sun, Sea, Sand: Ecotourism).
The Caribbean is Not Particularly Unique (they all have the same Tourist Niche). We therefore
Compete with Each Other and this will Lead Us Nowhere.

Trinidad is Developing a Cultural Niche (Carnival), Guyana is Developing Adventurous Niche

(Adventure Activities), Cuba has a Health Niche.

St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Grenada has Developed a Spa Niche where they Utilise their
Secondary Volcano Features. Tobago is Developing a Niche where they Sell Culture and
Heritage with the Tobago Heritage Festival.
Module 2, Specific Objective 3
Globalisation and Development:
Globalisation is an Unavoidable, Revolutionary, Macroeconomic Concept that Envisions the
World as a Global Economy.
Globalisation Emphasizes that for Facilitation of Global Trade; there must be Understood and
Accepted Standards of Trade and Fair Trading Practices. Only when these are Achieved will
another Objective of Globalisation called Trade Liberalisation (The Movement of Goods, Capital
and People across International Boundaries with Minimal Restrictions) be Accomplished.
So, Globalisation Attempts to Promote Equity for all Buyers and Sellers, and to Remove all
Barriers to Trade such as Taxes and Tariffs, Quota Restrictions and Duties. Essentially,
Globalisation is an Ideology that Attempts to Promote Business in a Global Platform.
Agents of Globalisation / Multilateral Agencies:
⦁ International Monetary Fund (IMF).
⦁ The World Bank.
⦁ World Trade Organization (WTO).
⦁ Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA).
As a Business Concept, Globalisation seems to Favour Technology Advanced Manufacturers
(Metropolitan Nations) more than Developing / LDCs (Lesser Developed Countries) / 3rd World
Nations. Therefore, it is often times to the Demerit of Developing Nations.
According to Globalisation, the Producers and Movers of Goods get all the Business.
Metropolitan Countries are Pushing Globalization because they Perpetuate Economic Control
on a Worldwide Level. Globalisation can be Divided into certain Categories:
⦁ Economic Globalisation: Money and Goods.
⦁ Socio – Cultural / Ideological Globalisation: Cultural Imperialism.
⦁ Political Globalisation: Impact of Metropolitan Policies.
⦁ Media and Telecommunications Globalisation.
Positives / Benefits of Globalisation:
⦁ An Open Market Policy is Promoted: More Accessibility to Markets 🡪 More Profits.

1. Because of Increased Competition in the Market, Local Producers are Pushed to

Improve their Products, Business Strategies and Level of Efficiency. It means Cost –
Effectiveness.

1. Expansion of Choices for Consumer: They can Make Better Decisions 🡪 Higher Quality
of Life.
2. With Free Movement of Capital, Goods, etc...There are New Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) Opportunities. Foreign Investors can now come in the Country and Employ Local Workers.
Economic Turnover and the Multiplier Effect will Continue.
1. Greater Levels of International Exposure (Eg. Tourism Advertising via Media). A
Household Name can be Gained by the Movement of Goods. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago Bitters.

1. International Aid will become Easier.

1. Increased Tourism Opportunity: There is Removal of many Restrictions to Travel.

Ideally, with People being able to Move more Efficiently, there is more Tourism.

1. Higher Levels of Scrutiny: Promotes a Higher Level of Accountability and Transparency

in which Caribbean Governments Conduct themselves.

1. Adoption of Beneficial Ideology: Eg. Gender Equity, Environmental Conservationism,

Better Attitudes towards Elderly and Children.
Negatives / Drawbacks of Globalisation:
⦁ Local Industries Forced into Downsizing and Closure: For Caribbean Entrepreneurs, the
Future is Grim because their Businesses are Small Scale and Lack Technology. It also Leads People to
Losing their Entrepreneur Spirit.

1. Unemployment: A Government will now be Faced with a Great Social Welfare Burden;
Creating an Enormous Opportunity Cost for Development.

1. Disparity in Socio – Economic Status of a Nation: Foreign Industries can Pay their
Employees more; Distorting Wage Scales in the Nation. This can Cause Socio – Economic
Polarisation.

1. New Types of Crimes, Diseases, Invasive Species: Eg. Trinidad and Tobago Exporting
Cocaine in Juice Tins, Growth of Drug Industry, Money Laundering, Cyber Crimes, Black
Markets and Smuggling of Illegal Objects.

Eg. Movement of Diseases (STDs) {In Barbados, AIDS is Rampant}. Diseases can be
Environmental (Eg. Red Palm Mite Raging in the Caribbean. Coconuts thus get Scarce and
Expensive). Eg. Invasive Species (Lion Fish) are Introduced (No Natural Predators 🡪 They Alter
the Ecosystem).
1. Exploitation of Natural Resources: Extracting Companies Mine Quickly; no Time left for
Restoration of Resources.

1. Outflow of Cash from the Caribbean: Online Shopping has an Economic Edge. Many
Persons are Cut Out from Making a Living.

1. Cultural Erasure and Imperialism: Forms of Media Content are being Bombarded by
Metropolitan Messages. Eventually, we Identify with the Metropolitan Messages. We become
Discontent with our Ideology and Idolize theirs.

1. Promotion of Neo – Marxism, Neo – Colonialism and Neo – Imperialism: This Implies
that the Bourgeoisie Class (Metropolitan Nations) Exploit the Proletariats (LDCs).
Facilitators / Agents of Globalisation:
World Trade Organization (WTO): The Most Representative Agent of Globalisation because
they Craft Rules for International Trade and Movement of Goods.
This comes in the Form of Economic Opportunity (Trade of Resources). The WTO began as the
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and the same Principles that Applied then,
Applies now.
In order to Sell Goods to Participants within the WTO, Nations must Adhere to their Taxation
and Trading Policies. The Caribbean had no Choice; We Depend on Metropolitan Goods.
However, to be Allowed into Global Trade, the WTO Requires Certain Prerequisites to be
Fulfilled:
a. Democratic System of Government.
b. A Free Market Model of Economy.
c. A Nation must Remove all Barriers to Trade.
The WTO Policies are Filled with Double Standards. This is because China doesn’t Fulfill the
Prerequisites, yet, they are in the WTO (Because they Produce Everything!).
The WTO is the Global Institution that Adjudicates on Trading Disputes between its Members.
The WTO is Controlled by Metropolitan Nations, therefore, the Global Nations (Eg. USA, UK,
France, Germany, Russia), the WTO and their Relationship with LDCs, Fulfill a Neo – Marxist
Paradigm.
Economic Partnership Agreement: This is a Trade Agreement. The Cotonou Agreement is an
EPA which Replaces the Lomé Agreement. The EPA allows a "Phase Out" of Preferential
Trading while allowing WTO Trade Liberalisation Policies to be Implemented.
The Cotonou becomes a Compromise; the ACP Nations will be allowed a Transitional Phase.
The EPA allowed the ACP Nations to Integrate into Economic Globalisation Ideology. The EPA
becomes a Continuation of Good Will to "One Time" Colonial Territories.

Challenges Resulting from Discontinuation of Lomé:

⦁ Social / Cultural:
a. There is a Negative Impact to Cultural Identity. For 500 Years, ACP Nations were
Planting Bananas but they had to Stop. This Causes Cultural Dislocation.
b. There is Social Incohesion in Communities. Certain Societies are kept together because
of Occupation. Certain Societies Bond because of Jobs (Eg. Fishing Villages). With the Loss of
the Banana Industry, there is Social Dislocation and Loss of Tradition.
c. Unemployment Produces Psychological Impacts (Eg. Fear of not Feeding Family).
d. Change in Use of Land as Farmers will no Longer see Arable Land as Viable.

1. Economic:
a. Unemployment: Direct and Indirect Employment Negatively Affected. There are Negative
Spinoffs such as Greater Burdens on Government Resources.
b. Less People Contributing to GDP: Reduced GDP 🡪 Rationalization of Expenditure 🡪
Hardships on People. There will be Social Welfare Cutbacks (Spending that Seeks to Reach the
"At Risked" Population). Those who are Living Dangerously Close to the Poverty Line will Fall
Under the Poverty Line.
c. Decrease in Capital Investment / Expenditure: There will be Reduced Development (Eg.
To Construct Infrastructure). There will be a Contraction of Locally Generated Employment and
Ripple Effects will Occur (Eg. CEPEP will come to an end).
d. Migration in Search of Better Opportunities.
e. Loss of Investor Confidence as a Spiral of Decrease Occurs (Negative International
Reputation). In a Worst Case Scenario, there may be Capital Flight. Also, FDI and New
Investment will be Inhibited.
International Monetary Fund is a Bank which Helps Nations Meet their Balance of Payments
Need, ie, Help with Expenses.
The IMF will only Lend Money if a Nation Adheres to its Recommendations, Policies, Structural
Adjustments and Austerity Measures. The IMF makes these Policies to Ensure they are Repaid.
The Structural Adjustments are Sound on Paper but in Reality, they Sink a Nation. Among the
Policies are:
⦁ Devaluation of Currency: Through Devaluation of Currency, your Items will be Cheaper on
Foreign Markets, ie, Metropolitan Money has more Buying Power. Ideally, more Exports will Sell.
The Problems are:

a. Devaluation of Currency does not Factor in the Types of Goods we Export: Our "Market
Goods" are Inelastic in Demand.

⦁ Developing Nations are Import Based Economies, thus, by Devaluating Currency, we Pay
more for Import Goods.
1. Downsizing of the Public Sector: This Results in Unemployment. The Public Sector is
Government Jobs. The Government is the Biggest Employer in any Nation. Via Downsizing, a
large Portion of the Population will be Rendered Redundant.
1. Reduction in Public Spending and Social Welfare: Eg. Cut in Pension, School Feeding
Programmes. Hardships will be Created for the "At Risked" Population.

1. Privatization of Industry: There are National and Private Industries.

A National Industry is Driven by Economic Incentives. It Acts in the Long Term Welfare of the
Nation. It is Owned by and Works for the Benefit of a Nation. A National Industry may be
Subsidized by a Government, ie, the Price of Goods to the Consumer needn’t be for a Profit.

Eg. Goods such as Electricity, Water and Telecommunications in Trinidad. National Industries
Help us to Enjoy the Wealth of a Nation by Providing Goods that are Uneconomical to Buy in
Small Quantities.

A Problem with National Industries is Inefficient Production of Goods. This Leads to Wastage,
Corruption and Theft; Resulting in Leakages. The Government thus Loses Money.

Private Industries are Driven by a Profit Incentive, therefore, the Goods that are Produced will
be Sold at the Highest Possible Profit Margin. The Goods will be Produced as Cheaply and
Efficiently as Possible.

The IMF Recommendation for Privatization can be Negative for the People, ie, if a Private
Company had to Sell Basic Goods such as Water and Electricity, it would be Sold without
Subsides and the Consumer will have to Pay Full Prices.

The Goods that Government Produces on Large Scales are Necessary for Development. If
these end up in the Hands of Private Owners, there will be Exploitation.

1. Salary Caps and Salary Cuts: Salary Caps Imply that One's Salary Remains Fixed for a
Period. Government Workers are Allowed to Negotiate their Salaries at certain Intervals. A
Salary Cut is where the Whole Public Sector's Salary is cut by 10%.

1. Savings Tax: Tax on Savings in the Bank. Eg. 10% Tax on People who Owned more
than $75000 in the Bank.

1. Blacklisting: A Nation will have to Revise its Importation List; some Goods will be seen
as Unnecessary. Eg. In the 1980s, many Goods were Deemed Luxury Goods (Rum, Imported
Tobacco Products and Fruits). Blacklisting Results in Reduced Outflow of Cash.
This Created Hardships because Industries Plunged into Turmoil. Eg. The Baked Goods
Industry Suffered because of the Lack of Currents to make "Currents Roll." The Local People
then used their Ingenuity to make Paw Paw Rolls; which Replaced the Currents Roll.

1. Implementing New Taxes: Eg. Land, Motorvehicle, VAT. This Creates a Greater Burden
in Society. Reduced Salary 🡪 Devalued Currency 🡪 Increased Tax.

1. Democratic System of Government: The IMF can Create more Challenging Times for a
Nation. People can Revolt and Rebel during Hardships. Eg. The 1990 Coup.
The World Bank has the same Stipulations for Borrowing as the IMF. The World Bank is also
Responsible for Implementing Structural Adjustment Policies that have Led to LDCs Facing
Long Term Difficulty; Damaging their Economies more than it Helps.
Difference between these Multilateral Agencies:
The IMF Focused Attention on Lending Money for Balance of Payments Deficits whereas the
World Bank is a Project Lender; Focusing its Attention on Capital Lending for Developmental
Initiatives and Infrastructure that could Improve the Quality of Life for a People.
The World Bank Lends Money for Expansion of Health Facilities, Regularization of Water and
Water Treatment Facilities, Electrification Projects, Improved Measures and Strategies to Help
Prevent the Spread of Diseases. There is a more Humane Side to the Activities of the World
Bank.
Underdevelopment: This is a Feature of Caribbean Economic Reality and it has Linkages to a
History of Exploitation and Capitalism. Our Imperial Powers have Monetized and Repatriated
the Wealth of the Caribbean, ie, NONE of the Caribbean Wealth was Re – Invested in its
Development.
This Underdevelopment was Motivated because of an Attitude of Exploitation and an Attitude
that sees the Caribbean as Expendable. Underdevelopment is Linked to Actions of Multinational
Enterprises. The World Bank, IMF and our Imperial Masters can be Perceived as Agents of
Underdevelopment.
Similar to the Actions of our Imperial Masters, the Multilateral Agencies Develop Policies to
Exploit our Wealth and Resources.
Neo – Marxism, Neo – Colonialism, Neo – Imperialism: These Speak about Political and
Economic Power on a Global Basis. The Historically Imperial Nations (Eg. France, Spain,
England) Control Global Economics. They Control the IMF, World Bank and WTO. These
Agents Replace the Monarchy; there is an Economic Puppet instead of a Political One. The
Caribbean Finds itself in a Sad State due to its Economy.
Dependency Theory: A Psychological Set of Circumstances where a Person is Socialised into
becoming Dependent. African Slaves and East Indians were Disempowered on the Plantation
and Estate respectively. The Oppressed People were Socialised into Thinking that Everything
has to be Received from the White Man.
The Dependency Theory can be Extended to an International Political and Economic Platform.
The 3rd World Nations look at the Metropolitan Nations for Opportunities.
Implications of Globalisation in the Caribbean:
a. Trade and Industry.
b. Capital Investment.
c. Commerce.
d. Education and Culture.
e. Labour and Migration Patterns.
f. Distributional Sector.
We are Impacted because of certain Characteristics since Interaction with the Caribbean is
Skewed in Favour of the Rest of the World. Characteristics of LDCs:
a. Lack of Capital.
b. Lack of Natural Resources.
c. Lack of Technology, Skills and Education.
d. Import Based Economy.
e. Heavy Dependence on Low Yielding, Labour Intensive Jobs.

⦁ Ideally, because of Globalisation, Trade between Nations should have Illustrated

Improvement for Both Caribbean and Metropolitan Nations. However, in the Caribbean, our Trade
has been Negatively Impacted. There has been the Loss of the Lomé and the Flooding of Caribbean
Markets with Cheaper, Alternative Goods.

This means that Foreign Goods Dominate the Market at the Expense of Local Goods because
Metropolitan Nations Enjoy Mechanization, Cheaper Production and Economies of Scale (When
more units of a Good or a Service can be Produced on a Larger Scale, yet with Less Input
Costs).

1. There is an Increased Outflow of Cash from Caribbean Societies as we Employ the

Foreign Businesses at the Detriment of our own.

1. There is a Possibility of Demerit Goods: Eg. Cheap Alcohol and Cigarettes, Drugs,
Socially and Morally Corrupted Materials.

1. There is a Loss of Entrepreneurship: Local Businessmen can't Compete with Foreign

Businessmen. The Prices Affects our Buying Preferences in the Country. Unemployment 🡪
Social Welfare Burden 🡪 Increased Load on Tax Payers.

1. Multinational Corporations Exploit Weak Legislation: They Target certain Nations in

order to Save Money. Eg. They go to Indian, Mexico in order to Access Child Labour. They go
to Places where they won't have to Pay for Environmental Clean Up.
Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Proposed Aluminum Smelter Plant would have Created Toxic
Chemicals which could have been Released into the Open.
Coupled with Cultural Imperialism, the Economic Impact because of these is Exaggerated.
Globalisation and Capital and Investment: Ideally, because of Globalisation, Caribbean Nations
suppose to Receive more FDI and Economic Activity into the Caribbean. However, this is not
entirely so.
In Reality, there are New Outflows of Capital from the Caribbean with New Types of Economic
Activity such as E – Commerce and Online Shopping. There are New Types of Financial Crimes
(Eg. Money Laundering, Theft).
Globalisation has Allowed Multinational Corporations to Exploit and Repatriate our Resources.
Because Multinational Corporations are NOT Bound by Law to Remain once they Declare
Bankruptcy, they can Exploit rather than Help Development.
Globalisation and Trade: Trade has Increased. However, there is an Emphasis upon
Metropolitan Goods at the Detriment of Caribbean Goods. Metropolitan Nations have Advanced
Technology, Economies of Scale and High Levels of Credibility because of their Science.
In the Past, the US Market used Protectionist Methods to Promote their Own Goods while
Deterring Caribbean Goods. The US was our Largest Importer of Brown Sugar until the
1940s.They began to Produce Sugar Beet. It was Branded Healthier than Brown Sugar.
This began the Collapse of the Sugar Industry. After much Research, it was Noted that Sugar
Beet was Worse than Brown Sugar. The Sugar Beet was the Basis of Mono and Polysaccharide
Substances as Sweeteners, ie, the US killed our Markets.
In the 1960s, because of the US Industry, they Advanced the Revolutionary Crop: The Soya
Bean. The Soya Bean Oil was Advertised as Healthier than Coconut Oil. This Resulted in the
Collapse of the International Coconut Industry. The US Claimed that Soya Beans Contained
Good Cholesterol.
In the 1990s, Researchers found out that this was a Lie. But, the Damage was already Done.
The US Promoted their Own Industries at the Expense of the LDCs Industries.
Erasure and Cultural Hybridization via Globalisation: Since 1492, Erasure began to take place,
and to this day, it has not Stopped. With Easier Access to Goods, Culture and Ideas, Erasure
would take place more Rapidly. This is Promoted by the Prevalence of Ideas.
We are Bombarded by Metropolitan Imperial Ideologies. This Erasure Implies we are becoming
more and more Americanised; even though we don’t Realise it.
Globalisation and Disease: Diseases Spread due to Movement of Goods and People. In Recent
Times, Several Pandemic Threats have come into Existence. Eg. H1N1, Bird Flu, Swine Flu,
Cholera, Ebola and Zika Virus. There is also a Movement of STDs. There are Sexually
Transmitted Diseases in Tourist Dependent Nations such as Barbados and Jamaica; which
causes the Nation Money.
Many Caribbean Countries have Experienced Impacts due to Movement of Disease. This may
Cause Public Panic. Additionally, there is Movement of Disease with the Movement of
Agriculture and Related Products. Eg. Giant African Snail.
Social and Moral Decay: This is Related to the Role of Media and Corrupting Influences of
Certain Type of Media Content. The Internet can Cause Exploitation of Vulnerable People. Eg.
Pedophilia. The Exposure to Media Promotes Divorce, Single Parent Homes and Promiscuity.
These are Corrupting Influences that Damage the Moral Fabric of Society.
Brain Drain and Labour Loss: Caribbean People Idolize Metropolitan Nations for Better
Standards of Work, Salary and Quality of Life. When People Migrate, there is a Negative Impact
to our Labour Supply. This Results in Less Jobs, Productivity, Tax Income Generation 🡪 Less
Output.
In a Worst Case Scenario, if People Leave in Large Numbers, it may Trigger an Exodus. People
Tend to Become Frightened Quickly. There is ERD (Emotional Regulation Disorder) Mentality.
There is a Movement of Intellectual Capacity. Because of Labour / Migration Laws, the People
whom you don’t want to Leave, are the Ones who are Encouraged to Leave.
With the Loss of Skills, it Lowers / Limits the Developmental Potential of a Nation. Consider the
Human Indicator: Skills to Population Ratio. Lower Ratios 🡪 More Promising, ie, The Lower the
Ratio, the more likely Services will be Accessible. Eg. 10:1 is better than 1000000:1.
A Nation will have to Spend Money to Access these Skills, ie, Brain Drain Costs Government
Money that was Previously Invested. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago has Students Studying Medicine
in all UWI Campuses in the Caribbean + St. George's, yet, they Import Doctors from
Bangladesh, India, etc...
The Money Invested into a Person is on the Premise that a Person would Give Back. So, when
a Person Migrates, there is a Loss of Development and a Contraction of the Economy.
However, there are some Positives:
a. Remittances.
b. Spread of Culture.
c. Promotion of Respect for Intellect.
Globalisation and Regionalism: Regionalism is a Concept that Promotes Cooperation on a
Regional Level. The Caribbean has Responded to Globalisation on a Regional Economic
Platform called CARICOM. CARICOM is known as a FTA (Free Trade Area); which means
Members Enjoy certain Benefits:
a. CET (Common External Tariffs): Caribbean Nations may be Prompted to Trade with
each other instead of other Traders of Goods. This will Allow the Nations to have an Economic
Advantage. However, the Problem is all Caribbean Nations Produce the Same Products. The
Caribbean has Attempted to get into NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) but was
Denied.
Multinational / Transnational Corporations: These are Characterized by an Industry Conducting
its Operations Outside of its Own Nation. In this Regard, Multinational Corporations are Enabled
because of the Movement of Industry, Capital and Labour.
Multinational Corporations are a Form of FDI, and is a Characteristic of Caribbean
Development. Multinational Corporations are Encouraged in the Caribbean. There is a Lack of
Capital. So, the Promise of Capital Injection, Job Creation and Co – Operate Taxation are all
Economic Opportunities for Caribbean Nations to Build and Expand Development.
FDI, as a part of Development, was Captured by a Revolutionary Economic Structure called
Industrialisation by Invitation (II). This Theory was Created by a Sir Arthur Lewis from St. Lucia
in the 1950s. He Devises a Formula by which LDCs may Promote Development.
Industrialisation by Invitation Attempts to Attract Foreign Investment into LDC Economy, using
Strategies such as:
a. Making Natural Resources of a Nation Available to a Company.
b. Providing Cheap Labour.
c. Providing Lenient Tax Policies.
d. Providing Cheap Energy.
e. Sophisticated Facilities (Eg. Ports).
Industrialisation by Invitation means that a Country has No Economic Risk (The Company takes
the Risk). In the Caribbean, the People are Primarily Uneducated in Technical Areas. We have
Low Yielding Industries. The Caribbean Lacks Capital, Technology, Necessary Markets,
Knowledge and Connections.
Pros of Multinational Corporations:
⦁ Job Creation: Increase in Standard of Living, Working of the Multiplier Effect and
Economic Turnover.

1. Tax: Ideally, they Pay Corporate Tax on their Profits, in Addition to Royalties. With
Multinational Industries, Upstream and Downstream Industries can be Created. Entrepreneurial
Activity is Activated.

1. Training: Technical Training Opportunities is Stimulated for Local People. Ideally, our
People will become more Educated and Optimised in Potential. In the Best Case Scenario,
when a Company Hires and Trains Local People, there is a Transfer of Skills Needed to Start its
Own Company. Eg. In the 1940s – 1970s, the Point a Pierre Oil Refinery was Owned by
Texaco. However, in the late 1970s, Trinidad and Tobago Purchased the Rights to the Refinery
and all its Assets from Texaco.

1. Corporate Spending: A Multinational Corporation Spends Money in Society; Fulfilling

Corporate Citizenship. A Corporate Citizen takes Care of his Community. Some Companies are
Encouraged to do this because Good Will is Gained (Society Appreciates your Presence) and
Companies get Tax Write Offs.

Corporate Spending usually Helps the Human Aspect of Development. A Company can
Promote Training Opportunities for People in the Company, ie, Empowerment. Eg. BP gives
Opportunities in Mechanical Work, Agriculture and Design. People Gain Skills that won't Make
them a Burden to Government's Social Welfare Programs.

Corporate Spending has Sponsorships. Eg. Cricket Teams, Pan Sides, Environmental
Campaigns, Beach Cleanups, Scholarships to Children of Workers. Some Companies Offer
National Scholarships for Post Graduate Work for their Local Workers.

1. Positive International Reputation: If One Company is Doing Well, it may Encourage other
Similar Type of Industries to Invest. This can Promote Positive Inertia Investment.
Cons of Multinational Corporations:
⦁ Replacement of Small Companies: Entrepreneurial Spirit is Killed 🡪 Unemployment and
Disruption in a Person's Life.
1. Multinational Corporations depend on a High Level of Importation of Commodities for the
Production Process. Few Local Inputs are Required.

1. Multinational Corporations are Exploitative of Natural Resources, Cheap Labour and

Lenient Labour Laws. Eg. Reebok used Child Labour in Pakistan. There was a Boycott against
Use of Reebok Products because of their Actions.

Big Companies try Every Way to Expand the Profit Margin because they are not Interested in
Sustainable Development, but rather, the Profit Incentive.

1. Occupational Stratification: Multinational Corporations Create Low – Level Labouring

Jobs, ie, the Technological and Managerial Jobs are Reserved for their Own People.

1. Outflow of Capital: Repatriation of Wealth 🡪 Underdevelopment. Multinational

Corporations Perpetuate Underdevelopment by Giving No Real Advancement to the Nation, but
instead, only Exploit their Wealth.

1. Large Companies become Politically Important: They can Support a Government and
Heads of a Nation (Eg. Prime Minister) become Puppets, ie, Companies can Own a Nation.

1. Economic Distortion in Society: Multinational Corporations Pay their Employees High

Salaries. People who have the same Qualifications will Lobby the Government for more
Money 🡪 Internal Disruption in Society.

1. Multinational Corporations are Famous for Environmental Degradation due to Slack

Laws.
2. Multinational Corporations are known to Deal in Bad Faith, ie, they Withdraw at the
Slightest Hint of a Change for the Economic Situation of the Country. Eg. AnsaMcAl.
Examples of Multinational Corporations: They Exist Mainly in the Mineral Extraction Industry:
a. Bauxite in Jamaica and Guyana.
b. Gold Mining in Guyana.
c. Companies such as BP, Atlantic, Shell, BG Extract Oil in Trinidad and Tobago.
Multinational Corporations also Exist in the Financial Sector, such as Banking, Insurance, Retail
(Eg. PriceSmart).
These Multinational Corporations Provide many Positive Impacts but their Negative Impacts are
Greater in Number, ie, there is More Loss than Gain. We Depend on them because we Lack:
Money, Links, Technology, Resources and Education to do what they do.
Distributional Sector: Associated with the Movement of Goods and it is Promoted Significantly
by Globalisation. The Distributional Sector is Broad in its Scope; it Includes Several kinds of
Industries. Consider the Movement of Goods: There is Insurance, Transportation, Advertising,
Warehousing, Security and Retailing.
The Distributional Sector Does Not Sell a Tangible Product. They are Essentially Myriad
Services. As the Distributional Sector Improves, there is Creation of Numerous Jobs and
Stimulated Economic Activity but at the same time, Cultural Imperialism and Outflow of Cash
Improve.
Globalisation and Franchises: Franchises are Names that have become Globally Famous and
Associated with a Particular Good or Service. Franchises Allow Caribbean People to become
Entrepreneurs, using an International Standard. Eg. Some Businessmen in Trinidad Rented the
KFC Franchise.
A Franchise is Never Sold, but instead it is Rented, ie, a Person Enters into a Contractual
Obligation with the Franchise Holder. Franchises Bring Metropolitan Standards into the
Caribbean and this Contributes to Diversity. Franchises also Mean that there is an Outflow of
Cash because Parent Companies take a Part of the Profits + Annual Subscription Fees.
Globalisation and Technology: In Order for Globalisation to Become a Reality, Technology is
Needed. Through Technology, the World is made into a Single Interdependent Marketplace. Eg.
Mechanisation. The Greatest Impact in the Caribbean is via the Internet and Computer.
Globalisation and Ideology: Throughout Caribbean Evolution, it is seen that we were Influenced
by Metropolitan Ideas and Ideology. Eg. Land, Religion, Political Structure. This is Cultural
Imperialism. Via the Media, we are more Greatly being Influenced.
This means an Erosion of Caribbean Cultural Identity and in its Place, a Metropolitan One. But,
not all Ideologies are Bad. Eg. The Caribbean's Attitude towards Environmental and Animal
Rights, Women and Children Rights, Sexual Differences and Gender Orientation are Changing.
Globalisation and Social Justice: Nothing Brings Negative Publicity like Infringements of Social
Justice. Because of the Media, the World can Know about Injustice. People can get a Voice on
a Global Scale and this may Promote Higher Levels of Transparency.
We are Adopting Lifestyle Ideologies; especially among the Young. They Idolize and Emulate
Europeans and American Lifestyles. Eg. Sexual Promiscuity, Divorce, Non – Traditional Sexual
Behaviour. Because of Globalisation, Popular Movements and Lobby Groups have Increased.
Globalisation and Feminism: Feminism, as a Concept, did not Begin in the Caribbean, but came
in via the Movement of Ideologies. Feminism is a Position that Women should be Treated
Equitably and they are of Equal Worth in Society. From a Developmental Point of View, this is
Important since it Means Empowerment. In the Caribbean, there are a few Feminist Platforms:
⦁ Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA): They have 3 Main
Purposes:
a. To Create Awareness of Feminist Issues in the Caribbean.
b. To Promote Women's Place in Society and the Law.
c. To Promote Women's Health Issues.
1. Women's Actions for New Directions (WAND): This is not a Political Group but it can
have a Political Impact. It is Similar to a Group such as the Highway Reroute Movement. WAND
Seeks to Achieve the same Purposes as CAFRA.

Because of Globalisation, Social Justice Rights have Improved. People have the Opportunity to
Access a Voice and have Visibility on a Global Scale. So, there is a Higher Level of Inclusion.

Module 2, Specific Objective 4

Integration Movement:
Integration is based upon Historical Commonalities, Producing a Basis for Interaction and
Working Together for a Common, Bigger Purpose. All Caribbean Countries Faced the Same
Challenges of the Past.
Eg. Exploitation, Underdevelopment, Same Globalisation Challenges. Additionally, with respect
to British West Indian (BWI) Nations, we have the same Systems of Government, Politics,
Language and Economy.
Caribbean Countries look at each other as Insular; looking at ourselves as "Us Alone." Thus,
our Mindset is Exclusive rather than Inclusive. So, the 1st Challenge for Integration is our
Cultural Outlook.
Integration is an Important part of Sociocultural and Socioeconomic Reality. Caribbean Nations
are too Small Politically and Economically to have any Impact on the World. As such, it is
Sensible to Seek Alliances for our own Protection.
The West Indies Federation (1958 – 1962) was a Union of Self – Governing Territories which
are Nations in their Own Right. Eg. Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Dominica, Barbados.
The Federation was the 1st Integration Platform that came into the Caribbean and was Based
on British Decolonisation Design. The Federation was Sensible in many ways; it was based on
our Similar Characteristics, Concept of Strength in Numbers and the Idea of same Challenges
Suffered.
Federation presents an Opportunity for Caribbean Nations to become more Independent. It
takes a long Period of Planning and the Federation, which is a Joint Political Body, comes into
Being.
Reasons why the Federation Failed:
⦁ Distance and Communication: There were no Cell Phones and there were Unreliable
Landlines. Hence, there was No Collective Decision Making.
1. Lack of Coordinating Development: Some Nations were Wealthier and thus Advanced
and Developed faster than Others.

1. Parochialism and Xenophobia: Parochialism is the feeling of Contempt of People of

other Nationalities whereas Xenophobia is the Fear of Strangers.

1. Personality Conflicts: There were many Strong Leaders; each a Leader of his own
Nation. In the Federation, they had to put away their Views and take orders from one man. This
didn't work well with Everyone.

1. Funding of Federation: The Federation had Bills to Pay. At the time, some Nations had
Differing Levels of Economic Well Being. Some Countries had to Bear the Weight of Funding
the Federation and this was thought to be Unfair. Eg. Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago.
2. Monetisation of Economies: In order to have a Common Currency, each Nation had to
be Theoretically Monetized else Inflation would have occurred.

The Federation Provided a Platform for a Free Trade Area (FTA). But for a FTA to Work, there
must be a Common Currency. Eg. The WI / Federation Dollar. This became Challenging to
Evaluate Resources.

1. Migration Challenges: People from the Small Islands began to Storm the Wealthier,
Larger Nations due to a Lack of Opportunities and hence a search for Better Opportunities. Eg.
Some People came in Trinidad to work in the Oil and Gas Industry.

Deciding on Migration Policies became a Challenge since One Country didn’t want to take on
the Burdens of Other Nations.
Observations:
Even though the Federation came to an End, it was a very Sensible Ideology because it Offered
Caribbean Nations the Opportunity for Unification, Economic Co – Operation, a Level of
Protection and Inter – Dependence.
Soon after the Federation Collapses, there is the Movement towards Independence. In 1962,
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago Gained Independence. Among the Important Institutions
Catalyzed by the Federation are:
⦁ University of the West Indies (UWI).
⦁ West Indies Cricket Board (WICB).
⦁ Caribbean Meteorological Services.
⦁ Federal Supreme Court of the Caribbean (CCJ).
These Institutions Helped to Bring the Caribbean Closer as a Society, People and Cultural
Identity. Even though the Federation Fails, Caribbean Nations Recognize the Need to
Cooperate on certain Levels.
The Federation was a Political and Economic Union. The Federation Fails because of Political
Reasons but it is still Recognized there is Need for Economic Cooperation. We must still
Cooperate on Money, Trade and Global Finance Matters. After the Federation, there are several
Regional Economic Platforms:
⦁ CARIFTA (1965 – 1962).
⦁ CARICOM (1973).
⦁ CSME (Late 1990s till Today).
These Agencies are Principally Economic but it still Required Governments to work together.

Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA): There are a Few Major Objectives:
a. Managing Body for CARIFESTA.

⦁ Diversification of Trade: This is Important because we Need to Rely on each other in the
FTA to Avoid Dependency upon Metropolitan Nations; we Benefit from each other. However,
Caribbean Nations have to get into the Manufacturing Sector since it is Critical for the FTA to
Function.

⦁ Intensification of Trade between Caribbean Partners, ie, Source Materials Locally (Within
FTA) before Approaching Metropolitan Nations.

⦁ Introduction of Common External Tariff (CET): Caribbean Nations should Agree on how
much Tax they Charge for their Products. Eg. 10% Tax on Local Alcohol and 20% Tax on Foreign
Alcohol to Encourage Locals to Buy from each other.

⦁ Sport and Cultural Platform: Brings the Caribbean together via Sport. Eg. CARIFTA Games:
An Important Prequalification Platform for Caribbean Sports.
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) has same Objectives for CARIFTA. The Difference is that
CARIFTA is an Internal Arrangement but CARICOM is a Body that Represents the Caribbean to
other FTAs. CARICOM was Important for Representing Regional Trade on an International
Basis.
In the Past, CARICOM has been Able to Represent the Caribbean. Eg. In the Early 2000s,
CARICOM Represented the Caribbean to the EU and WTO. But, CARICOM was still able to
Secure the EPA.
CARICOM Allows for Cooperation in Creating Economic Policies among Governments.
CARICOM is made up of Government Representatives since it Needs Political Cooperation for
an Economic Platform.
Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) is the Latest Incarnation for Trade, Investment
and Cooperation Strategies. The CSME is still being Rationalised and Seeks to Regulate the
Movement of People.
Each Regional Institution has Achieved certain Successes but the Integration of the Caribbean
has several Unique Elements to it that Needs to be Considered. Each Agency Introduces a New
Angle into Integration. Objectives of CSME:
⦁ To Promote Full Employment of Labour in the Caribbean.

1. To Promote Free Movement of the Factors of Production.

1. To Promote Diversification of Caribbean Economy.

1. To Promote Co – Operation among Governments.

2. Single Domestic Space (SDS) allows for Creation of the CARICOM Passport. This
Breaks Down the Restrictions to Caribbean Territories. Ideally, People, Money, and Skills can
Move. This Promotes Development and Opportunities.

1. The Harmonization of Laws: The CSME has to find a way to Harmonize Laws among
Caribbean Territories such as Trade, Migration and Taxation Policies, so that People can move
Freely. Non – BWI Nations have already Agreed to this. Eg. Cuba, Haiti. This Seeks to Avoid
Unnecessary Conflict of Interest in Business Matters. They would Adjust FDI and Import /
Export Policies.
Challenges of CSME:
⦁ Work Permits and Restriction to Movement: In order to Access a Work Permit, certain
Criteria must be met. Eg. University Education, A Job must be Waiting for you and you must be a
Sportsman, Businessman or a Media Personnel.

To get a Work Permit, you must Prove that you are not going to be a Leech 🡪 There will be
Stratification, Exclusion and this is a Reason for Antagonism against the System.

1. Difficulty for Harmonization of Laws because of Income Tax Regimes in Different

Nations: Persons without Work Permits may Experience Double Taxation. So, there is a Loop
Hole in the Policy.

1. Corruption: Eg. Sale of Passports for a Caribbean Nationality in a Foreign Country.

1. Tax Evasion: CSME is not Foolproof to Tax Evasion and Money Laundering so People
Seek to Hide their Money.

1. Resistance to the Right of Ownership: Some Caribbean Countries have certain

Restrictions on how Non –Nationals may Acquire Land. Trinidadians are Considered Alien in
Jamaica, so this Causes Restrictions.

1. Differences in Value of Currency: Salaries, Payments and Taxes. Some People

Gravitate towards other Nations and this Causes Social Welfare Burdens.

1. The CSME has not yet come into Full Operation.

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OEC) Operates on several different Levels, ie,
Economic, Political, Social and Judicial. OEC Seeks to Harmonize Trade Laws and Judicial
Processes in order to Promote Cooperation and Interdependence.
OEC is Informed by the Small Size of Island Nations which Comprise it. Eg. Antigua, Barbuda,
Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the
Grenadines. They all Share the same kinds of Geographic, Meteorological,
Geological and Economic Threats such as Hurricanes, Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Lack of
Money.
In coming together, they Support each other, so, the Liability is Spread across many Nations.
Strength in Numbers and a Support System is Created. Two Major Achievements of the OEC
are:
⦁ Economic: The OECs Successfully Implemented an Economic Union, ie, they have Crafted
Laws to Harmonize Trade and Taxation. They Created a Common Currency: The Eastern
Caribbean Dollar (ECD). This is Important since the CSME and CARICOM has not yet done so
because of Economic Differences.

This Harmonization of Laws and Strength of Currency Aid the OECs in Stimulating FDI. A
Nation with a Strong Economy Attracts Investment on a Global Scale.

1. Judicial: OECs Achieve Judicial Union and Created the EC Supreme Court. This Court
Handles matters of the Highest Order and matters Pertaining to Discrepancies among
Members. The EC Supreme Court has Achieved what the CCJ is still trying to do.
Association of Caribbean States (ACS) is an even Larger Entity than the OCS and CARICOM
because it Incorporates even Member States from Central America, such as Costa Rica,
Guatemala and Colombia. The Objectives of the ACS are Economic and Trade in Nature; in
order to Promote Economic Opportunity and a Common Interest.
ACS Promotes Sustainable Tourism, Natural Disaster Preparedness, Regional Security matters
and the ACS Provides the Biggest Platform for Regionalism. The ACS Faces certain
Challenges; also Met by CARICOM and OCS:
a. Language Barrier: English, French, Spanish.
b. Varying Levels of Development.
c. Difference in Political Ideology.
University of the West Indies (UWI) comes out of an Act from the Federation and it Serves 17
English Speaking Nations. The Aim of UWI is to Unlock the Potential of the Caribbean Human
Resources in order to Promote Development Opportunity within the Region.
There are 3 Campuses Spread across the Caribbean to make UWI more Accessible to all
Nations. They are Located in the Wealthier Nations, ie, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and
Barbados. Initially, UWI was Specialised. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago 🡪 Engineering, Jamaica 🡪
Geology and Medicine, Barbados 🡪 Laws and Humanity. This Specialisation Promoted Cultural
Exchange.
This was to Reduce the Cost on each Program. However, as Demand Grew, UWI Adapted and
Changed. UWI, overtime, Expanded into several other Countries in the Fields of Education, but
not necessarily Tertiary Education. Eg. UWI Distance Learning Centers, Agents for UWI
(Roytec, SBCS, Costatt).

UWI has several Objectives and Achievements:

⦁ Promotes Cultural Integration.

1. Development of Human Potential.

1. Countering Cultural Imperialism.

1. Reducing Dependency upon Foreign Skills and Academic Institutions.

1. Job Creation for Academic Elite: This Inhibits Brain Drain.

1. Bring Positive International Attention as a Center for Academic Achievement.

1. To Add New Research / Knowledge to the World.

1. Attempts to Remain Relevant, ie, to Diversify its Curriculum. Eg. Environmental Issues,
Maritime Industry, Diversification into Tourism and Hotel.
Challenges Facing UWI:
⦁ Cultural Imperialism in Academics: People Perceive Metropolitan Education as a Higher,
Intrinsic Value. The Smartest of the Caribbean Attend these Schools and this Creates a Negative
Stereotype of UWI.
1. Poor International Recognition 🡪 Low International Ratings.

1. Space, Technology and Facilities: Some Students are on a Long Waiting List. So, they
Seek Opportunities elsewhere. Because of a Lack of Space, Human Development is Restricted.
In order to have the Greatest Level of Relevance in Education, the Greatest Levels of
Advancement in Technology is Needed. The Use of this New Technology is Challenging.

1. Local Based International Universities.

1. High Cost of Education: Trinidad and Tobago Subsidizes Education but Nations which
are too Poor cannot do so. Some Students will not be able to Attend University.

1. In order to get Credibility, UWI must Attract the Brightest People. Eg. Inviting Stephen
Hawking.

1. Underperformance in New Research: Universities must Produce Work. Lack of

Publications 🡪 University is Promoting Regurgitations instead of New Intellectual Ideology.

1. Brain Drain.
Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) was Established in 1972. It was One of the 1st Acts of
CARICOM and it became Effective in 1973. CXC has similar Intentions, Benefits and
Challenges to UWI.
a. CXC is a Direct Method to Empower through Education, therefore, CXC Empowers the
Largest Numbers in ways to Add to Development.
b. CXC becomes a Model for Integration.
c. CXC Seeks to Optimise Alternate Routes for Empowerment.
d. CXC Faces Self – Inflicted Integrity Issues such as Testing Material that are not on the
Syllabus and Errors on the Examination Paper.
e. CXC uses Secondary School Teachers to do the Marking of the Exams. Examining
Bodies, such as GCE, has Paid Markers. Hence, there are Leakages of Papers and Matters of
Integrity that needs to be Investigated.
f. Issues with the Internal Assessment (IA) Process: Standardization Problems and it is
Open to Scrutiny.
West Indies Cricket Board (WICB): The Caribbean's Governing Body for Professional and
Amateur Cricket. It was Formed out of an Act of the Federation. WICB Organizes Cricket in the
Region and Negotiating as an Arbitrator for International Level Games. WICB Allows Integration
in Sports.
The WICB has Achieved a High Level of Success in Bringing the Caribbean Together through
Sports. Cricket is a Spectatorship Game; this Increases Visibility on a Global Scale. Since the
BWI Nations had Exposure to Cricket, it was Exclusive to BWI Nations and it Draws upon the
Talents of their Natives.
Through Participation, Nations feel as part of a Bigger Enterprise. Because of Inclusion, the
WICB and the Composite WICT Create Sources of Pride.
The WICB becomes an Agent of Empowerment and there are many Benefits:
⦁ Development of Talent and Skills of Youth:

1. WICB requires Venue; Resulting in Infrastructural Development of a Nation. This

Stimulates Economic Activity, Jobs, Upstream and Downstream Industries.

1. WICB Creates a Model; a Paradigm for Youth to Work towards so this Creates Role
Models for the Youth: Local Role Models Aids to Defeat Cultural Imperialism.

1. To Generate an Income for Caribbean Countries: Because of the matches, there are
Fees and Ticket Sales, etc...

1. To Mobilize the Private Sector Involvement in the Game. Eg. Sponsorship.

1. To Promote Professionalism in Cricket; making Players Ambassadors for the Caribbean.

1. To Promote an Identity for the Caribbean on an International Basis.

Challenges of WICB:
⦁ Parochialism and Proportion: Proportion is the Composition of the Team and this may
Reflect a Larger Portion of One Team; rather than Players from all Nations. People Lose
Confidence in the WICB and there is a Risk in Losing the Fan Base.

1. Allegations of Corruption, Mismanagement and Nepotism.

1. Lack of Funding.
1. Competition from Foreign Series: Players Choose to Play for a T20 Franchise in Foreign
Countries rather than Local Tournaments. The Lucrative T20 Promises Quick Money and
Reputation. Players choose this since a Sport Career is Short.

1. Lack of Technology: Metropolitan Nations Implement High Levels of Technology in the

Practical and Theoretical Aspects of the Game. Caribbean Nations are Playing “Catch Up.”

1. Confrontation between Players and Board: In the 1990s, the Players Formed the WIPA
(West Indies Players Association) since the WICB was not Paying Match Fees to the Players.
So, the WIPA gives Players a Platform to Challenge their Decisions.

1. Match Fixing: Some Players are Corrupt. Eg. Marlon Samuels was found of this.
Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) is a Regional Agency that Includes the Caribbean and
Central American Member Nations. The Main Task of the CTO is to make Tourism into a more
Viable Industry in the Caribbean and to make Tourism Contribute more Greatly to Development.
The CTO has many Responsibilities:
⦁ Assessing Global Trends in Tourism and Advising Governments on how to Improve their
Tourism Product.

1. To Make Arrangements with Airlines, Cruise Ships, Operators, Hotel Chains,

etc...Ensuring a Caribbean Destination is part of the Itinerary for Companies.

1. To Create Forecast for the Tourism Industry.

Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) comes into being through CARICOM. Its main Focus is to
become a Business, Trade, Territorial and Supreme Court for the Caribbean. Ideally, the CCJ is
meant to Adjudicate for CSME and CARICOM and to Replace the Privy Council. However, there
is a Lingering Doubt in the CCJ, as not all Caribbean Nations Support the CCJ.

Advantages of the CCJ:

⦁ Creates a Level of Identity for the Caribbean.

1. Gives a Sense of Judicial Independence.

1. Allows for Working of CSME.

1. Generates Employment Opportunities: Lawyers, Judges can get Opportunities on a
Regional Level.

1. Immediacy: There is more Rapid Justice than the Privy Council and Relevance:
Judgements are more True of a Caribbean Cultural Identity.

1. Creates a Culture of Jurisprudence and Intellectual Traditions.

Challenges Facing CCJ:
⦁ Lack of Funding.

1. The Privy Council: The Privy Council comes with several Centuries of Credibility and
Reputation; whereas the CCJ is not even 10 years old. They Lack the Accumulated Knowledge
of Centuries.

1. Lack of Jurisprudence.

1. Lack of Confidence by Caribbean Nations that Create a Negative Stereotype.

1. Parochialism: All Judges who work in the CCJ will have a Nationality. Some Matters will
go one way or the other 🡪 Allegations of Corruption, Nepotism.
Regional Security System (RSS) is a Virtual Organization Comprised of both Police and Military
Personnel. It is an Agreement rather than a Physical Entity. In Times of Need, Nations will
Contribute Employed Police. The RSS, as a Treaty Measure, Aids in Events of Natural
Disasters or Insurrections.
RSS is a Security Measure; especially Important for the Smaller Nations since they don’t have
enough Manpower. Eg. In 2004, Trinidad and Tobago sent Regiment, Police Forces and
CEPEP to Help Clean up Grenada after Hurricane Ivan. Also, in 2010, in St. Vincent, for
Hurricane Tomas and the Earthquake in Haiti.

Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) is a Lending Institution that Emerges out of an Act from
CARICOM. There are many Functions; which are Exclusive rather than Inclusive. There are
many Restrictions in terms of Lending (Eg. Little Money). The CDB Lends Money to:
⦁ Aid in Development of Business.

1. Stipulate Investment in Borrowing Nations.

1. Promote Business Diversification.

1. Support Agriculture and Rural Development.

1. Promote Equity through Education and Training.

1. Promote Gender Equity.

Challenges of CDB:
⦁ Lack of Capital.

1. Too many Requests from Countries and Agencies within the Caribbean.

1. The Lending is Built upon Conditions, ie, CDB States what Borrowers can Buy.

1. Some Caribbean Nations are more in Need, therefore, it Creates Platforms for
Favouritism.

1. Issue of Rejection: Some Nations may not get Money.

Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) is Housed in UWI, Jamaica. Its
Main Function is to Promote Media, Journalism and Communication in the Caribbean. It is
Attempting to make the Caribbean Smaller through the News.
It also becomes a Journalism School in the Caribbean; giving New Avenues for Academic
Achievement. Because of CARIMAC, there has been Creation of Caribbean Broadcasting
Systems such as Caribbean Broadcasting Union and CaribVision.

Module 2, Specific Objective 5

Contribution of Sport: The Human and Sustainable Development Paradigm are based upon the
Premise that Every Human Resource is Optimised and the True Potential of Every Individual is
Achieved. Sport becomes another Avenue for Empowerment.
Sport gives a Unique Opportunity to those who are Athletically Gifted. In this way, it Allows an
Individual an Opportunity to Contribute to National Development because as a Human Being, he
is Developed. In the Caribbean, the Value of Sport is Underestimated.
Benefits of Sport:
⦁ Sport Adds to the Physical Well Being of a Nation: Increase in Health of a Nation 🡪
Higher Morale. They can Contribute to more of Development 🡪 Increased Productivity. They are
Independent of Government's Medical Supplies, therefore, there are Savings for the
Government.

1. Sport can Engage in Income Generation, resulting in Economic Enfranchisement and

this Stimulates Upstream and Downstream Industries.

1. Sport can be the Basis for a Tourism Industry: Eg. Tobago Utilizes the Tobago Classic:
A Cycling Race throughout the Island.

1. Investment in the Economy, Building Stadia, Employment Opportunity and the Increase
in the Multiplier Effect.

1. Sport Adds FDI: Eg. In 2011, the Tobago Fishing Festival Attracted the Producers of
Mercedes Benz to the Island and they Sponsored Prizes.

1. Sport has an Invisible Psychological Impact: Psychological Stability is Important and

Sport is a Famous Stress Reliever 🡪 Increase in Morale. Psychological Stability 🡪 Efficient
Worker 🡪 Less Antagonistic Person 🡪 Higher Levels of Productivity.

1. Education Opportunities Attached to Sport: Sport Scholarships, ie, Mixture of Sport and
Education. Caribbean People become Empowered because of Sport Prowess; allowing for
Increased Educational Opportunities.

1. Creation of International Reputation: Eg. Usain Bolt, George Bovell.

Sport and Development of Caribbean Identity:
Sport can Contribute to Identity Building on a Micro and Macro Level. Sport is Spectator Based;
it Brings People Together. Sport can Act as a Common Denominator and Work to Counter
Stratification in the Caribbean. Sport can Promote Development by Changing Negative Attitudes
within the Society.
The Team becomes Representative of a School, Community, Nation and Region. Sport Acts as
a Cohesive Agent; Allowing all Levels of Society to Interact based on the Love of the Sport.
Sport may Operate as a Platform for Regional Integration. The Federation has Failed, CSME
and CARIFTA has Issues but the WICB has not Failed. In Global Games, the Participant of One
Caribbean Nation becomes the Participant of All Caribbean Nations.
⦁ FIFA World Cup, Germany, 2006 (When Trinidad and Tobago Participated):
a. Brought Recognition (Positive Awareness) to the Region on an International Basis.
b. There is Increased International Funding. Eg. Sponsorship, Aid from Sport Nations.
c. In Best Case Scenario, Tourism is Gained.
d. Role Models for the Younger Generation is Promoted.
e. Caribbean Nations get Placed into Global History. Eg. Jamaica 🡪 Track and Field.
Sport is Associated with High Levels of Discipline in the Player. Eg. Fair Play, Recognition of
Rules, Sportsmanship. This is Good because it is the same Attitudes a Nation Needs to have
High Levels of Productivity.
Through the Media, the World has become Aware of the Caribbean, which Attracts FDI, Income
Generation, Employment and Advertising. Sports can thus Stimulate Upstream and
Downstream Industries.
Difficulties Sport Faces in the Caribbean:
⦁ Sport Needs Venues: The Caribbean has not Invested Heavily to make Physical
Infrastructure for Sport. This is because there are always other Important Things to do. Eg. Hospital,
Roads.

1. Lack of Funding: International Class Games don’t come to the Caribbean.

1. Lack of Technological Facilities: Games are not Televised 🡪 Spectatorship is Lost.

1. Sport is not Commercially Viable: Sport Needs a Venue to be Televised. Some

Countries have Gained Sport Venues. Eg. In the 1990s, Contributions from FIFA Ensured that
there are International Class Stadiums Built.

1. Illegal Industries: Eg. Gambling, Doping, Match Fixing Troubles the World Sport (Not
Many in the Caribbean).

1. Lack of World Class Coaches: Best Advice Needs to Best Persons. Many Countries
have Invested into Different Personnel for Different Aspects of the Game. However, in the
Caribbean, there is only One Person to do all Pieces.

1. Poor Attitudes: The Attitudes of the Players and Spectators are Poor. In order to Play
Sports, one Needs Discipline. In the Caribbean, Sport is Associated with the "Feteing Culture."
The Players Carry a Vibrancy of "Hard Feters" which could Damage their Reputation and that of
the Sport.

This Brings the Sport into Disrepute. The Spectators have Little Patience with the Players.
When the Team Enters into a Losing Slump, Spectators Lose Confidence, become
Unsympathetic and Condemn the Players. This Negative Attitude does little to Encourage the
Players.

Spectators can be Branded as Ungrateful. The Attitude to Sport is Linked with a Cultural
Attitude. Parents have a Contemptuous Attitude towards Sport; they Perceive Sport as
Recreational rather than Professional.

Module 2, Specific Objective 6

Intellectual Traditions: There is a False Perception that the Caribbean is a Backward Intellectual
Place since it is Claimed that the Caribbean has not Produced Anything of Intellectual Worth.
The Things we put Forward are not seen as Phenomenal. We Add Stuff to the World of
Economics, Politics, Medicine, Literature, etc..
Pan Africanism, a Social and Political Philosophy Associated with the Work of Marcus Garvey,
is a Platform for Promotion of Equity for People of African Origin.
a. It becomes a Platform for Redress from Oppression for all Oppressed People. Pan
Africanism Seeks to Redress 500 Years of Stigmatization.

⦁ Pan Africanism Promotes African Consciousness, Positive Propaganda (Creating Awareness,

Sensitization, Knowledge) and becomes Anti – Imperialist.

⦁ Pan Africanism is Linked to Garveyism and Requires Africans to Recognize their Worth and
Contributions to Global Advancement.
⦁ Pan Africanism Calls for the Unification of all Rastafarians. Bob Marley is thus a Proponent
of Pan African Ideology.

⦁ Pan Africanism Seeks to Change the Global Perception of Africans, but, it is also Associated
with certain Negatives: Physically Rebellious Movements. Eg. Black Panther Movement, Nation of
Islam in USA and Black Power Movement in Trinidad and Tobago. These are based upon an
Extreme Pan Africanism.

⦁ Martin Luthor King Built his Pan Africanism on Peace Walks. They have been Pan
Africanism Thinkers in the Caribbean such as Martin Carter, Bob Marley, Edward Kamau
Brathwaithe.
Negritude Bears certain Commonalities to Pan Africanism. However, Negritude is a Literary
Propaganda Platform about Creating Awareness of the Suffering / Exploitation of Africans.
Negritude Explores the Human Condition of Alienation and Exploitation, through Literature.
Martin Carter Created Negritude and he shows how Europeans Oppressed and Continues to
Oppress Caribbean People. Proponents of Negritude include Earl Lovelace and Derek Walcott.
Industrialisation by Invitation is an Economic Concept Initiated to Attract FDI. It is Important for
Caribbean Development because it Finds a Way to Access Capital, Skills, Technology and
Machinery. Without Investment, Development is Stagnated.
Industrialisation by Invitation Creates an Avenue for Development. All Caribbean Economies
Suffer the same Problems. Industrialisation by Invitation Acknowledges these Drawbacks and
Attempts to Solve them. These Problems Include:
a. Lack of Money.

⦁ Caribbean Societies are Characterized by Historical Problems. Eg. Dependency Theory.

⦁ Lack of Mineral Resources and Skills / Education: The Caribbean is Heavily Dependent on
Labour Jobs that are Low Yielding and does not Empower an Individual to Earn a Proper Standard
of Living.
Industrialisation by Invitation is the Brainwork of a St. Lucian Economist: Sir Arthur Lewis. He
Creates Recommendations for Promoting Industrialisation by Invitation; which he Calls
Incentives for Investment:
a. Pre - Constructed, Ready to Use Physical Infrastructure (Eg. Buildings for Companies)
and Support Infrastructure (Eg. Road Networks, Airport, Electricity, Water).

⦁ The Guarantee of Political Stability: Stable System of Government to Promote FDI.

⦁ Lenient Taxation Policies / Tax Exemptions (Profit Ability of Company Increases) / Tax
Holidays (A Period of Time without Tax).

⦁ Subsidies: Eg. A Government can Help Set up a Company; Encouraging Others to Come as
well.
Benefits of Industrialisation by Invitation:
⦁ Employment Creation 🡪 Reduced Dependency on Government Resources 🡪 Improved
Quality of Life 🡪 Redirection of Capital 🡪 Increased Income Tax Generation 🡪 Higher Levels of
Productivity and Morale in People 🡪 Improved International Reputation.

1. Stimulates Upstream and Downstream Industries: Any New Industry Makes the
Distributional Sector Stronger.

1. New Businesses: This Increases Corporate Taxes and Spending and Creates Positive
Inertia.
Marxism and Neo – Marxism: Marxism puts forward a Socio - Political and Socio – Economic
Division between those with Power and those without. Marxism is the Philosophy that Looks at
this Division whereas Capitalism is the Actual Division.
Neo – Marxism Describes a more Subtle Situation 🡪 The Bourgeoisie Class does not have to
be Present, yet, the Control Exists. This is seen in IMF, WTO, WB Policies.
Caribbean Feminism: Feminism is an Ideology that Attempts to Find Equity for Women.
Feminism has Specific Reference to Gender and Development in the Caribbean.
Feminism is a Collection of Ideas Aimed at Attaining Visibility / Equity / Empowerment /
Opportunities for Women. Feminism does not Seek to Subordinate Men but it is about Equity.
According to Amartya Sen and Mahbub Ul Haq, the Human Development Paradigm and the
Sustainable Development Paradigm both Incorporate Empowerment. Then, Feminism is a
Platform for Empowerment.
Feminism is an Ideology that has to be Enculturated in Every Next Generation and is a
Constituent part of the Social Justice Factor of Every Society. The Caribbean comes from a
History of Social Stratification that becomes a Legacy of Division that still Occurs today.
Women are often times Subordinated in Society. Anytime a Group in Society is Alienated, there
is Creation of a Minority Class, ie, Women are Disenfranchised. They Occupy a Lesser Status.
In the Caribbean today, Women are Following an International Model; they are among more
Visible Roles in Society. Consider in the Family: Women are Opting to be Single Parents
because they are Educated, Empowered and Confident. Women of today are much more
Proactive than those in Previous Generations. Empowerment via Education becomes a Reality.
Educational Mobility = Occupational Mobility. In this Feminine Ideology, Women are seen as
just as Capable as Men in Holding Prominent Leadership Positions in Business, Society and
Politics. Eg. Kamla Persad Bissessar.
Women make Better Workers in many Areas. Eg. Business Heads 🡪 They have Analytical
Minds and Doctors 🡪 Better Attitudes. Many Women are Outperforming Men in Previously Male
Dominated Professions.
Women are Finding a Voice in Society because of the many Popular Movements and
Education. They become more Visible. Any kind of Empowerment for any Group is
Developmental in Nature.
Indo – Caribbean Thought: The East Indians are the Last Labour Group to Arrive in the
Caribbean and have been Relegated to the Stigma of Manual Labour. In the Caribbean, the
East Indian is still Attempting to Solidify Accommodation in Society.
The East Indians Contributed to the Socio – Cultural Diversity, Economic and Philosophical
Caribbean Environment. In an Economic View, The East Indians Toiled and Helped to Build the
Economy of Caribbean Societies.
The Real Impact of the East Indian can be seen in the Post – Indentureship Economy; they
Entered into Entrepreneurial Activity to be Economically Enfranchised. The East Indian Turns to
the Land for the Basis of Economic Enfranchisement.
The East Indians look at Land as the Only True Empowerment (Since Chamars couldn’t Own
Land, when they do get, they Feel Empowered). The East Indians see Ownership as a Means
of Social Mobility. The East Indians Reject the Caste System (Because it was Scripted) and
Adopt a Caribbean Social Mobility System (One was Allowed to Move!).
However, the Caste System is Operational in Marriages. Because of the Caste System and the
Concept of Untouchables, they Converted to Christianity and Islam since it was Considered
more Prestigious and Allowed Social Mobility.
The East Indians is at First Slow to Enter into Society because of Fear and Distrust (Created by
the Europeans), but overtime, the East Indian Integrates and Acquires Education. The East
Indians thus Enter into Modern Empowerment Factors.
Education becomes Mandatory for East Indian Families. Today, the East Indian is Included in
the Socio – Political Landscape of the Caribbean. The East Indian Constitutes a Race Minority
and they Promote Race Politics in the Caribbean.
Indigenous Perspectives: The Amerindians were the Initial Owners of Land Resources in the
Caribbean. However, one Group after another, Alienated, Exploited and Displaced the
Amerindian Groups. Today, the Amerindians are Considered a Minority Group in the Caribbean.
Eg. In Suriname, Jamaica, Dominica, St. Vincent, Belize have a High Concentration of
Disenfranchised Amerindians.
The Amerindians are Invisible; they Hold no Socio – Political Status and Need Empowerment
Opportunities. The Amerindians are often times the Focus of the United Nations Attention. All
Indigenous Groups Occupy the United Nations Attention since these Persons are Important for
Global Heritage.
In 2013, the United Nations Assigned the Amazon Forest as a World Heritage Site and
Amerindian Artifacts (Eg. Mayan Temple) have come to be Protected.
Module 2, Specific Objective 7
Roles and Functions of Mass Media: The Mass Media is a Diverse Concept that Encompasses
all Means (Traditional and Electronic Perspectives) of Dissemination of Information. The Mass
Media, regardless of Evolution, Performs the same Functions and Holds the Same Value to
Caribbean Development. The Mass Media can both Advance and Retard Caribbean
Development.
Functions of Media:
⦁ To Inform, Educate, Sensitize and Create Awareness.

1. To Entertain.

1. Helps to Make us Visible to Others (It Enables a Voice for the People): As an Element of
Visibility, it Allows a Form of Identity to be Created for a Region. Eg. Trinidad and Tobago 🡪
Land of Soca. Media Creates a Sense of International Identity and Allows People to Participate
in Society (Empowerment) and to Gain Restitution or Social Justice.

1. The Media / Press, via the News, can Act as a Watchdog of Democracy. The Press
Safeguards the Freedom and Rights of a People by Promoting Accountability and Transparency
in the Use of Power.

1. The Media can Work in Favour of Creating a Cultural Identity for People in Society.

1. The Media is an Employer; Promoting Upstream and Downstream Industries;

Stimulating Economic Activities.

1. The Media Allows Interaction among People; Allowing Consensus, Collaboration and
Harmony Building. It is Society Building. From a Regional Perspective, there is Unification and
Integration.

1. The Media is an Important Agent for Safeguarding a Nation's Current Level of

Development. Eg. Warning for Future Disaster such as a Tsunami.
Importance of Mass Media:
⦁ Impact of Internet Penetration: Indicates the Percentage of Internet Users in any Country
and it shows the Relationship between the Number of Internet Users in each Country with its
Demographic Data.

1. Technology as a Factor that Promotes Development: PC is a Glorified Media Promoter.

1. To Promote FDI through Creating Positive International Reputation and Visibility.

1. To Allow Talented People to have an Avenue for Expression. Eg. Art.

2. To Help Raise Social Awareness in Events in Society such as Lifestyles and
Opportunities that may be Available. By having Knowledge, People are Empowered to make
Informed Decisions.

Opportunities to Empower such as the Mobile Clinic and Library are made Aware by the Mass
Media. This Allows People to Participate and Access Opportunities.

1. To Enhance Learning / Educational Opportunities in the Formal Classroom Setting;

Providing Alternative Avenues for Learning. Any kind of Education: Social, Academic, Political
Adds to Development.

1. To Build Morale of a People through Televising of Matches and Accomplishments on a

National Basis. There is Positive Propaganda.

1. To Promote Psychological Wellness of your People through Entertainment and

Recreation; giving People a Chance to get Psychological Equilibrium.

1. To Promote the Democratic Process, ie, it becomes a Champion for Transparency and
Accountability.

1. To Promote Social Justice Issues in the Caribbean. The Likelihood of Someone being
Exploited is Minimised due to Publicity.

1. Via the Press, Opportunities for Informing the Public about Important Matters Relating to
Well Being are Created. The Media is Tasked with a Responsibility to the People to Ensure their
General Good. As such, the Press is a Powerful Tool in Shaping Opinions in Society.
1. To Act as a Platform for Lobbying. Hence, the Mass Media Works Counter to Cultural
Imperialism.
Potential Damages of Mass Media:
⦁ The Reporting of Too Much Bad News (Eg. Crime, Social Injustice, Poor Governance) can
Change a Nation's Reputation by Deterring FDI, Tourism and Promoting Internal Doubt. This can
Trigger Migration; leading to Brain Drain, Reduced Economic Activity and Taxes.

1. Long Term Negative Impacts to Tourism Sector: Tourism is a Trendy Industry; as soon
as the Magnetism of a Place is Lost, it is Hard to Restore it. Some Caribbean Countries are
even Blacklisted as Having a lot of Crime.

1. Loss of Confidence among the People and a Loss of Entrepreneurial Culture. Eg. Too
much Robberies Reported in the News will Influence People's Decisions to Open a New
Business.

1. Negative Aid Situations can be Created in the Presence of Rampant Crime.

1. The Mass Media can Work Counter to Peace by Promoting Panic ad Public Uncertainty.

1. The Erosion of Culture can Occur, hence, Cultural Imperialism can then be Sped Up.

1. The Mass Media Distracts; which Negatively Affects Productivity.

1. The Mass Media can Destroy Local Entertainment Industries: Caribbean Playwriting
didn't get off the Ground because of a Prolific American Film Industry.

1. The Mass Media can Allow for a Greater Outflow of Cash from Society. Eg. E –
Commerce, Online Shopping. Caribbean People want the Best Quality for the Best Prices. This
Leads to Unemployment in the Distributional Sector.
Module 2, Specific Objective 8
Social Justice is an Attempt by any Society to Promote Equity of Place, Treatment and
Opportunities for all Classes or Groups within Societies. Classism is the Creation and Portrayal
of Socioeconomic Classes or Groups within Society. Whenever there is a Formation of a Class,
there is Polarisation.
Classism and the Creation of Groups Essentially Perpetuate a Situation where Social Injustice
is Created; where the Human Rights and Freedom of a Group are taken away. Classism Holds
a Historical Precursor: Social Stratification.
If Classism Exists in Society, the Human Development Paradigm will never Exist. The
Sustainable Development Paradigm is also Built upon Ensuring Equity and Empowerment. So,
Two of the Pillars for Achieving Sustainable Development are Nullified.
If there is to be Progress, a Society must Place Human Dignity at the Forefront. There are
Several Notions, Avenues and Strategies for Acquiring Social Justice:
⦁ Welfare System: An Effort to Restore Social Justice by Attempting to Create Socio –
Economic Equity and Reduce Polarisation. Concepts of Social Justice based on Ideas about Welfare
deliberately Focus on the Distribution of Resources, ie, Distributive Justice in a Society which Leads
to Well – Being and Satisfaction.

The Idea for Social Justice Sees the Need for Marginalised Groups to Experience more of the
Material Rewards of Society. This Normally Refers to Socio – Economic Conditions such as
Wages, Equality of Job Opportunity, a more Humane Education System and Housing.

Obviously, this means not Treating People Equally but Treating Unequals Unequally. The
Poorer Groups are given more Subsidies and Opportunities to Upgrade their Standard of Living.
Welfare is a Notion of "Being Fair," which does not Emphasize Equality or Sameness.

Critics of the Welfare Model, however, say that it is very Expensive and Leads to Welfare
Dependency, and to varying Degrees, it is Unfair to other Groups which have to be Taxed to
Support these Measures. Some people may become so Dependent on Welfare Handouts that
they are Unable to Break out of this Dependency and Achieve Self – Reliance.
Those who Criticize Welfare Policies as "Handouts" which are too Burdensome on Taxpayers
Tend to See only a Narrow Picture. Improving a Family's Economic Circumstances goes a long
way towards Improving the Nutrition and Health of a Family.

1. Natural Rights: The Privileges that a Person is Born with. Natural Rights DO NOT Vary
from Place to Place. Every Person, Regardless of Sex, Race, etc...is Entitled to Natural Rights.
So, Natural Rights come Closest to the GENEVA Understanding of Human Rights.
The UN Declaration of Human Rights goes much Further than Natural Rights to "Entitlements"
which People should have in order to Live in a Just Society. They have more to do with Social
Living than Basic Human Rights and it seems to have become the Responsibility of
Governments and International Organizations to Ensure they are Enforced.
These Rights are really High Priority Areas which seem to be Necessary for all People to Enjoy
Similar Benefits. For Example:
a. Civil and Political Rights: The Right to Freedom of Expression, to Assemble and Form
Associations, to Participate in the Political Process and to Run for Public Office.
b. Economic and Social Rights: The Right to Education, Health Care, Fair Wages.

1. Mutual Advantage: This is Built upon Reciprocity and Truism. Hence, Mutual Advantage
is Important when it comes to Being a Member of Society. In order to be a Member, there are
certain Rules a Person must Acknowledge in an Unwritten Social Contract. If the Rules are not
Obeyed, there will be Legal Consequences. This Reflects the Functionalist Perspective.

However, it does NOT Approve of Welfare Provisions for the Poor unless the Poor are Prepared
to Reciprocate by taking Advantage of Welfare and Growing out of Poverty; which would be
Mutually Beneficial to the State and its Citizens. This is a View of Social Justice which is based
on Merit; rather than Need or Rights.

The Mutual Advantage Model of Social Justice Accepts that all Citizens are Inherently Equal
and those who are Experiencing an Inequitable Level of Socioeconomic Well – Being, should be
Helped to do so. In Return, however, they should Resolve to Grasp the Opportunities Provided
and Reduce Welfare Dependency.

Since those of the Poorer Socioeconomic Groups are less likely to want to Invest in Long –
Term Training for Rewards Several Years Later, hence, they are LESS likely to be Helped by
this Model. This way of Thinking about Social Justice Values the Goals and Norms of
Mainstream Society; such as a Capitalist System of Social and Economic Relations.
Social Justice requires Social, Economic and Political Equalisation of Opportunities. The
Achievement of these Opportunities is Challenged by our History of Division. Social Justice, as
a Paradigm, is Built upon a Human Conscience. However, there is always a Situation where
Man is Hateful towards his Fellow Man.
Structures Need to be put in Place to Promote Social Justice as part of our Legal Framework.
This Links to the United Nations Charter for Human Rights: The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. These Human Rights are called the Inalienable Rights of Man and they Constitute the
GENEVA Convention.
There are Several Articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
a. Article 3: Every Person has a Right to Life, Liberty and Security.
b. Article 5: No One shall be Subject to Torture or Cruel, Degrading Punishment.
In the Caribbean, there are Several Social Justice Issues. This means that a Portion of the
Population will be Disempowered and Disenfranchised. There are Several Issues Attracting
Negative International Attention:
⦁ Gender Discrimination: Sexism refers to Prejudices, Stereotypes and Acts of Discrimination
against People based on their Sex, and not on Individual Merits or Failures.

Eg. The Assumption that a Man is the Breadwinner in a House or even the Head of the
Household is Sexist when the only Criterion used to come to this Conclusion is that he is a Man.
It is Difficult to Identify Sexism in Daily Life because it is part of our Gender Socialisation.

1. Ageism: An Attitude towards Mainly the Elderly which Treats them as Objects with Little
Worth. Eg. Ageism Perpetuates the "Generation Gap" and Reduces the Possibility of Healthy,
Mutually Respectful Relations between the Generations.

The Older Generation has much to Contribute in Homes, Workplaces and Public Life based on
their Accumulated Knowledge, Experience and Wisdom. In effect, though, the Majority are
Sidelined, made to Retire and not seem as a Resource to Tap.

What Compounds this Problem is that Older Persons Tend to Accept the Prejudices which
Mainstream Society has about them. They Begin to Behave like Spectators to Life, Acting out a
Self – Fulfilling Prophecy.

1. Racism: Racism is the Negative (or Positive) Value Placed on a Group of People who
belong to a Particular Race or have a certain Skin Colour because they are Perceived to be
Inferior (or Superior).

Creedism refers to any form of Prejudice, Stereotype or Act of Discrimination based on Religion.
Such Beliefs and Actions are based on the Idea that a Particular Religion is Inferior (or
Superior). All Countries Subscribe to Freedom of Religion as a Basic Human Right.

However, on a Personal Level, among Individuals there will be Examples of Religious

Prejudices and Stereotypes because of our Socialisation into Believing whatever Group we
Belong to is Superior.

Eg. There is Centuries of Creedism Practised by the European Traditions, in which Christianity
was Thought to be Superior to the other Religions in the Land. The Removal of the Trinity Cross
as Trinidad and Tobago's Highest National Award was Largely a Response to the Objections of
Hindu Groups who Viewed it as a Christian Symbol.

1. Sexual Orientation: This refers to One's "Mating" Preferences. Bisexuality means

Equality of Preference for Men and Women as Sex Partners. Transgender People were either
Born as Men and are Changed into Women; usually by Surgical Operations.
Eg. One Case that made International Headlines in 2014 Concerned a Transgender 16 Year
Old Jamaican Named Dwayne who was Murdered after being Recognized at a Party in Female
Dress. His Body was Dumped in Bushes and his Murders have not been brought to Justice.
Worse still, for many Jamaicans, Dwayne was NOT the Victim of an Unprovoked Assault, but
had brought about his Own Death by Deceiving the Men whom he Danced with, until he was
Unmasked by a Woman Acquaintance (Marshall, 2014).
If a Person's Human Rights are taken away from them, there is Promotion of Exclusion rather
than Inclusion. There are certain Prominent Examples that can be Cited:
⦁ The Stern, Anti – Homosexual Position taken in Jamaica.
⦁ Racism and Race Politics.
⦁ Amerindians' Position.
Minorities are Groups that are Awarded an Inferior / Unequal Position and Negative Quality of
Life. Any kind of Minoritization Reduces Expansion of Choices, Equity, etc..
Overcoming Social Injustice: The Government must Play an Important Role to Empower People
and Restore Social Justice.
⦁ There Needs to be Positive Discrimination / Affirmative Action, ie, a Nation has to Try to
Empower so they have a Voice to Achieve Development.

1. A Government must Focus Attention on Groups such as the Disabled to make them
more Productive; by Giving them Mobility. Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, Free Transportation in
Buses for Elderly. As a Society, we have Little Regard for Persons who are Differently Abled.

1. There has to be a Revision of Language. Eg. Using Sight Impaired instead of Blind.
These Words are Stereotypical and Riddled with Negatives.

1. A Government must Attempt to Empower Sick People. Eg. In Trinidad and Tobago, the
Government Instituted Chronic Disease Assistance Programme (CDAP). Thus, to Promote
Social Justice, there must be a Redistribution of Income. Eg. Use of Box Lunch for Poor.

1. A Government has to Institute Legislation to Protect the "At Risked" in Society.

In Recent Times, the AIDS Victims have Attracted Global Attention since it is Regarded as a
Pandemic. The UN has Provided Free, Anti – Retroviral Drugs, which Slows Down the
Progression of the HIV Virus. It may be Regarded that the Social Justice Paradigm Works in
Parallel with the Millennium Development Goals such as Eradicating Poverty, Hunger, HIV and
Promoting Equity.