RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 227

THE PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING CONDITIONS OF RIPHEAN

(MESOPROTEROZOIC AND NEOPROTEROZOIC) SHALES, SILTSTONES,
AND SANDSTONES WITH TIME, SOUTHEASTERN RUSSIA (SIBERIA)

V.N. PODKOVYROV
Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology RAS, Makarova nab. 2, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
e-mail: vpodk@mail.ru
R.L. CULLERS
Department of Geology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, U.S.A.
e-mail: rcullers@ksu.edu
VICTOR P. KOVACH
Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology RAS, Makarova nab. 2, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
e-mail: vpodk@mail.ru

ABSTRACT: The mineralogy, major-element, and trace-element composition of shales, siltstones, and sandstones of the Uchur Group (Lower
Riphean) and Aimchan and Kerpyl groups (Middle Riphean) in southeastern Russia were determined. The shales and siltstones are mostly
illite to muscovite and quartz, with lesser K-feldspar, plagioclase, chlorite, carbonate, hematite, magnetite, and smectite. The sandstones
are quartz-rich and range from quartz arenites and wackes to feldspathic arenites and wackes. They contain minor rock fragments (mostly
shale or schist). Estimated CIA values (chemical index of alteration) of most shales and siltstones are fairly high (70–91) and ICV values
(index of compositional variability) are less than one, suggesting fairly intense weathering in the source and no significant input of first-
cycle material. A number of shales and siltstones of the Kerpyl Group have ICVs greater than one, suggesting that some first-cycle material
was incorporated. The Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios of the shales–siltstones tend to decrease (0.75 to 0.65 and 13.8 to 7.8, respectively) and
the Th/Sc ratios increase (0.76 to 0.95) from the Uchur to Aimchan to Kerpyl groups.
These results suggest that the average source of the shales and siltstones changed from a more tonalite-rich source in the Uchur Group
to a more granodiorite-rich source in the Kerpyl Group. The higher K-feldspar relative to plagioclase in the sandstones from the Uchur
Group is thus anomalous, and it may have been a result of removal of the plagioclase due to intense weathering or diagenesis. Previous
studies of the younger Neoproterozoic Lakhanda and Ui groups indicate that shales and siltstones have lower Eu/Eu* values than those
of the Kerpyl Group. Thus, during the Mesoproterozoic the sources changed from a high abundance of tonalite in the Uchur Group to
gradually increasing amounts of granodiorite in the Aimchan Group to more granite in the younger Lakhanda and Ui groups.
Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic (Riphean) shales in southeastern Russia have compositional trends in time similar to those from
the southeastern USA and western Urals due to similar recycling (up to 70–75% of the rock volume) of original granitoid sources coupled
with periodic input of first-cycle sediment. The Nd isotopes support mainly Paleoproterozoic (TNdDM 1.9–2.4 Ga) sources for most
groups, with Archean block erosional input (TNdDM up to 2.8 Ga with moderately negative values of εNd) only for the Aimchan rocks.
Younger Nd model ages (1500–1350 Ma) are observed in Early Upper Riphean (1025–1005 Ma) Lakhanda Group and Vendian Yudoma
Group (< 560? –542 Ma) shales and correspond to juvenile input during late Grenvillian events (1000–950 Ma rift-related mafic
magmatism along the eastern margin of the Siberia platform) and post-Rodinian (Vendian) destruction of the eastern periphery of the
Siberian craton before opening of the Paleozoic ocean. The new data support the hypothesis of the existence of the supercontinent
Rodinia (< 1050–600 Ma for the Siberian craton) but do not give direct evidence of Siberian juxtaposition to Laurentia during the Lower
and Middle Riphean.

INTRODUCTION 1998; Khudoley et al., 2001). Both lithostratigraphic (Aitken et al.,

The Uchur–Maya region (Figs. 1, 2) contains the most com-
plete thick and unmetamorphosed Riphean and Vendian (1600–
540 Ma) sedimentary successions in Siberia (Semikhatov, 1991;
Khudoley et al., 2001). The stratigraphy and sedimentology of
this intracratonic succession has been studied previously
(Chumakov and Semikhatov, 1981; Semikhatov and Serebryakov
1983). Little attention, however, was paid to the sedimentary
provenance, age, and tectonic nature of contained units as a tool
for paleo-continent reconstruction. The reconstruction of sedi-
mentology and provenance of the Riphean and Vendian sedi-
mentary rocks of southeastern Siberia provides constraints on the
possible reconstruction of Laurentia and Siberia within the su-
percontinent Rodinia (e.g., Sears and Price, 1978, 2000; Hoffman,
1991; Condie and Rosen, 1994; Frost et al., 1998; Rainbird et al.,
1978; Rainbird et al., 1996; Rainbird et al., 1998; Khudoley and
Guriev, 2003; Khudoley et al., 2001; Sears et al., 2003) and
chemostratigraphic (Bartley et. al. 2001, Podkovyrov, 2001;
Semikhatov et al., 2002) comparisons yield similarities in the
juxtaposed Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic successions of
western Laurentia–Siberia. These supracrustal successions can
be compared using the techniques of lithochemical and Nd-
isotope reconstruction of the composition and provenance of
sedimentary rocks (Sochava et al., 1994; Cullers et al., 1997;
Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000, 2002).
The provenance of sandstones can be determined from their
contained mineralogy and the ratios of quartz to feldspar to lithic
fragments (QFL diagrams) (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Ingersoll
et al., 1984; Dickinson, 1985) or the compositions or ratios of
certain accessory minerals (Basu and Molinaroli, 1991). The min-

Proterozoic Geology of Western North America and Siberia

SEPM Special Publication No. 86, Copyright © 2007
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 978-1-56576-126-1, p. 227–253.
228 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

Lakhanda Gp. main unconformities

Phanerozoic cover faults
Tzipanda Fm.
Vendian
Malgina Fm. strike and dip
Middle and Upper Riphean
Totta Fm. section location
Lower Riphean 56
and number
main faults Svetly Fm.
Nelkan marginal thrust Talyn Fm.
section location Dim Fm.
low (a) and upper (b)
Trekhgorka Fm.

FIG. 1.—Geologic and sample-location map of southeastern Siberia. Locations of sections that were sampled are shown in 1a Parts
A and B.
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA
eralogy of shales and siltstones, however, does not necessarily
represent that of the source, because clay minerals have been
formed during weathering or diagenesis. In addition, the elemen-
tal and isotopic composition of shales, siltstones, and sandstones
can be used to constrain the provenance and tectonic setting
(Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Cullers, 1994, 2000; Cullers and
Berendsen, 1998; Evans et al., 1991; McLennan et al., 1990;
McLennan et al., 1993; Roser and Korsch, 1986; Link et al., 2005).
In this study, the chemical and isotopic composition of sand-
stones and associated shales and siltstones are compared among
the Uchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl groups of Lower and Middle
Riphean age in southeastern Siberia in order to compare their
provenance. In addition, the chemical and isotopic composition
of the terrigenous rocks from these groups are compared to those
of the previously studied Lakhanda and Ui groups of Upper
Riphean age in the same basin (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000,
2002). Finally, the relative proportions of recycled vs. primary
material in the Uchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl groups are estimated
and compared to that of the Lakhanda and Ui groups to trace
source rocks and to infer tectonic setting.
GEOLOGY
Location and Types of Rocks
The Riphean sedimentary rocks are located in the southeast-
ern Siberian platform and in the frontal thrust sheets of the
Verkhoyansk thrust and fold belt (Sette–Daban range, Fig. 1).
They are, from oldest to youngest, the Uchur, Aimchan, Kerpyl,
Lakhanda, Ui, and Yudoma groups (Figs. 1, 2) ( Semikhatov and
Serebryakov 1983; Semikhatov, 1991; Khudoley et al., 2001;
Khudoley et al., 2003). The sections that are most complete occur
along the Belaya River (Fig. 1) and in other parts of the marginal
Yudoma–Maya depression (Khudoley et al., 2001). Sections in the
Yudoma–Maya platform are thinner than those along the Belaya
River. The Riphean sequence occurs in an area of about 600 km by
500 km, and it ranges up to 14 km thick (Semikhatov and
Serebryakov, 1983). The sequence is composed mostly of shales,
siltstones, sandstones, limestones, and dolostones. Basic sills are
locally present. According to the most recent scenario of basin
sedimentology given in Khudoley et al. (2001), the deposition of
the Riphean sedimentary rocks is interpreted to have occurred in
deltaic to nearshore environments (Fig. 2), except that the upper
portion of the Ui Group was deposited in deeper waters.
The terrigenous rocks of the Uchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl
groups are the focus of this paper. The provenance and sedimen-
tology of the Lakhanda and Ui Groups were discussed in detail
earlier (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000, 2002). The sandstones of
the Riphean sequence are arkosic arenites, arkosic wackes, and
quartz arenites. The mineralogy of some of the formations sug-
gests a continental-block or recycled-orogen provenance com-
posed mostly of granitoids and paleocurrents, and facies trends
suggest a provenance from the western Siberian platform
(Khudoley et al., 2001).
The Uchur Group is composed of dolostones, quartz and
arkosic arenites, shales, and siltstones, with the dolostones in-
creasing in abundance upward. Samples of the Uchur Group
were taken from the Trekhgorka (section 54, Fig. 1) and Dim
formations (sections 57 and 58, Fig. 1) in the Gornostakh anticline
along the Belaya River (Figs. 1, 2).
The Aimchan Group is composed of dolostones, quartz
arenites, shales, and siltstones, with the amount of dolomite
increasing upward. Samples of the Aimchan Group were taken
from the Talyn and Svetly formations along the Svetly River
(section 55; Figs. 1, 2).
229
The Kerpyl Group is composed of quartz and arkosic arenites,
shales, and siltstones and, in the upper part, limestones (Malgina
Formation) and dolostones (Tzipanda Formation). Samples of the
Kerpyl Group for this study were taken from the lowermost Totta
Formation, which is composed of mostly terrigenous sedimentary
rocks at the bottom and a thin admixture of carbonate layers in its
upper part. Sections 55 and 56 are located along the Belaya River
(Fig. 1), and section 74 is located along the Maya River (Fig. 1).
Previous Isotopic Age Determinations
The ages of the Riphean rocks are given in Figure 2, but they are
not well constrained. The U-Pb ages of twenty-three detrital zircon
grains from the Pioneer Formation of the Uchur Group range from
2087 to 1717 Ma (Khudoley et al., 2001). Thirty-three detrital zircon
ages from the Bik Formation of the Kerpyl Group gave U-Pb ages
from 2562 to 1244 Ma (Khudoley et al., 2001). Two grains are 2562
and 2428 Ma old; most grains range from 2050 to 1800 Ma old.
Remaining grains gave ages from 1709 to 1244 Ma. No ages of
zircon were determined from the Aimchan Group. These results
suggest, however, that the provenance of these formations in the
Uchur and Aimchan groups are mostly Proterozoic. The Malgina
Formation carbonates yield U-Pb and Pb–Pb isochron ages of 1045
± 20 Ma. The lower, Neruen Formation of the Lakhanda Group
yielded a U-Pb age of 1025 ± 40 Ma (Semikhatov et al., 2000). The
Upper Vendian Yudoma group carbonates yield a U-Pb age of 553
± 23 Ma (Ovchinnikova et al., 2003) for early diagenetic stabiliza-
tion of the carbonate system. Sm–Nd dating of mafic sills that
intrude the lower part of the Ui Group (Kandyk Formation) yields
an age of 942 ± 18 Ma (Pavlov et al., 1992), and U–Pb data yield 1005
± 4 Ma (baddeleyite; Rainbird et al., 1998), showing that the lower
Ui Group is older than 1000 Ma (Khudoley et al., 2001; Khudoley
et al., 2003). Hence, the stratigraphic gap between the Ui and
Yudoma Formations and thus the duration of the Riphean–Vendian
disconformity may exceed 400 My.
SAMPLING AND METHODS
The sedimentary formations used in this study were system-
atically sampled (V.P.) from 1985 to 1995. The samples were
collected at 5 to 15 meter intervals in thin-bedded and more
heterogeneous sequences and at 30 to 35 meter intervals in thick-
bedded and more homogeneous sequences. Collected samples
weighed 200 to 400 grams. One half of each sample was used for
thin sections or polished sections for microprobe, and the other half
was ground for chemical analysis. The < 1 µm fractions were
separated from 32 samples of shales, and they were analyzed by X-
ray diffraction in order to correlate the mineralogy and chemistry.
About two hundred and forty samples and USGS standards
were analyzed for major-element composition using X-ray fluo-
rescence in the Central Chemical Laboratory, St. Petersburg,
Russia. The FeO (total), MgO, TiO2, Na2O, and CaO, MnO, and
P2O5 precisions are better than 8 percent, and the Al2O3 and SiO2
precisions are better than 5 percent.
Eighty-two samples were also analyzed for La, Ce, Nd, Sm,
Eu, Tb, Yb, Lu, Ba, Rb, Th, Hf, Co, Sc, FeO (total), and Na2O by
neutron activation analyses at Kansas State University, Manhat-
tan, Kansas, USA. Standards are analyzed periodically, and the
results compare well with other analysts (e.g., Cullers et al., 1987).
The precision of most elements is better than 5 percent, and the
precision of Yb and Lu are better than 7 percent.
Sm–Nd isotopes were analyzed on a Finnigan MAT 261
(Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology RAS, St.
Petersburg) 8-collector mass spectrometer in static mode. Sm and
Nd were separated by extraction chromatography on HDEHP-
230 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

Thickness (m)
AGE, Ma
VENDIAN PERIOD

Yudoma GROUP

Nature of Environment of the

FORMATION Sections sediments studied portions

542 dolostones, quartz Fluvial, tidal deposits in

Ust-Yudoma 250 80 arenites, shales the lower and upper
51
limestones, Yudoma to shallow marine
<565 Aim 200 arkoses, shales in the middle portion
940? 88
79 arkoses, wackes, Deltaic to slope-fan
Ust-Kirba 104 shales, siltstones, environments with
basalts distal provenance
UPPER RIPHEAN

900 71 85
Ui

78 86 arkoses, Tidal, beach, and deltaic

Kandyk shales, siltstones environments
<1005 1300
Lakhanda

Ignikan 300 limestones Tidal, lagoonal deposits in

the lower Lahhanda to
77 72 52 limestones, dolo- shallow marine in the
1025 Neruen stones and shales upper portion
600
Tsipanda 400 dolostones
Shallow to open marine
1050 deposits
MIDDLE RIPHEAN

Kerpyl

Malgina 380 limestones

shales, siltstones, Tidal to supratidal beach or
lagoonal deposits in the lower
<1300 Totta 56 quartz and arkosic Kerpyl to shallow marine in
(1120?) 550 wackes the upper portion

Svetly dolostones and shales

Aimchan

55 Fluvial to beach environments in

600 the lower Aimchan, and grade
quartz arenites and upward into supratidal deposits
1350 Talyn wackes, shales,
700 siltstones
1360? 59
dolostones, quartz,
LOWER RIPHEAN

58
arkosic and dolomitic
Dim arenites, shales,
siltstones Open and shallow marine
57 conditions at the base to
Uchur

lagoonal, lacustrine, and

1800 dolostones fluvial envirinments
upward in the Uchur
arenites, wackes,
<1650 Trekhgorka 54 shales, siltstones,
dolostones
1100

Sandstone Shale Limestone & Basalt

Siltstone
dolostone

FIG. 2.—Stratigraphic column of Riphean and Vendian rocks in southeastern Siberia discussed in this text and shown in Figure 1.
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 231

TABLE 1.—Mineral composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean shales.

Age Group Formation Abundance of minerals

Main Minor Traces
illite 33–65% smectite apatite
Ust-Kirba quartz 20–45% magnetite ilmenite
Ui
Kandyk plagioclase 10–20% hematite rutile
chlorite 3–22 %
Upper
Riphean illite 30–65% pyrophyllite glauconite
chlorite 5–8% smectite zircon
Ignikan
Lakhanda kaolinite 3–25% calcite
Neruen
quartz 10–25% feldspars
hematite 3–12% magnetite
illite 40–70 % smectite ilmenite
chlorite 3–15 % magnetite rutile
Kerpyl Totta quartz 16–35% apatite
orthoclase 4–7%
albite 3–15%
Middle
Riphean illite 45–65 % chlorite rutile
quartz 15–39% pyrophyllite zircon
Svetley
Aimchan microcline 3–15% Cr–picotite
Talyn
hematite and
magnetite 3–8%

Lower Dim illite–muscovite 5–45% chlorite siderite

Uchur quartz 15–35% albite magnetite
Riphean Trekhgorka
microcline 3–35% dolomite

covered teflon powder following the method of Richard et al.
(1976). Total blanks of the laboratory are 0.1–0.2 ng for Sm and
0.1–0.5 ng for Nd. Accuracy of the measurements of Sm and Nd
contents are ± 0.5%, 147Sm/144Nd ± 0.5%, and 143Nd/144Nd ±
0.005%. The 143Nd/144Nd ratios are relative to the value of 0.511860
for the La Jolla standard. The εNd(T) values were calculated
using the present-day values for a chondritic uniform reservoir
(CHUR) of 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512638 and 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1967
(Jacobsen and Wasserburg, 1984). The model TDM ages were
calculated following the method of Goldstein and Jacobsen (1988).
and Podkovyrov, 2000). The shales and siltstones of the Ui group
are composed mostly of illite and quartz with lesser amounts of
feldspar, chlorite, and ferromagnesian minerals (Table 1) (Cullers
and Podkovyrov, 2002). The mineralogy described above suggests
that the shales can be divided into two types—a more K-rich with
association of white mica and alkali feldspar (Uchur and Aimchan
groups) and a less diagenetically altered illite-dominated compo-
sitions (Kerpyl, Lakhanda, and Ui shales).
Sandstones

MINERALOGY Sandstones of the Uchur Group are quartz and feldspathic

Shales
Shales of the Uchur Group (Trekhgorka and Dim formations)
contain muscovite, quartz, and alkali feldspar (usually microcline)
with minor chlorite, albite, and carbonate (Table 1). There are at
least two generations of muscovite–illite, with the index of crystal-
linity (I) varying from 0.85 to 2.5. One generation, most likely
derived directly from parent rocks, consists of larger muscovite
grains (K2O = 9.8–11.5%) with marginal recrystallization. The other
generation consists of smaller secondary illite grains (K2O = 7.7–
9.2%) formed in cleavage planes and matrix. Shales from the
Aimchan Group (Talyn and Svetley formations) contain more illite
(2M1 polytype), hematite (or magnetite), and less microcline than
those of the Uchur Group. Shales from the base of the Totta
Formation of the Kerpyl Group gradually increase upward in illite
and mixed-layer illite–smectite and albite and decrease in quartz
and microcline (Table 1). Lakhanda group shales contain mostly
2M1 illite with remnants of mixed-layer illite–smectite phases and
Fe-Al chlorite, kaolinite, quartz, and hematite (Table 1) (Cullers
arenites and quartz and feldspathic wackes (Fig. 3). Sandstones
are thus composed of mostly quartz and alkali feldspar (7 to 35
percent) with lesser plagioclase (Fig. 3), minor lithic fragments
(quartz–sericite schists; trace of granites to tonalites), opaque
minerals, and accessories such as zircon, apatite, and rutile. The
matrix is mostly illite, quartz, lesser chlorite, and in a few samples
up to 42 percent dolomite. The abundant quartz and feldspar and
minimal rock fragments of the Uchur Group sandstones indicate
a stable-craton to uplifted-basement source in tectonic discrimi-
nation diagrams.
Sandstones of the Aimchan Group are mostly quartz arenites
and quartz wackes (Fig. 3). They are composed of mainly quartz
with minor feldspar (microcline > plagioclase; Fig. 3), lithic
fragments (mostly shales and minor quartz arenites), and opaque
minerals. The main matrix mineral is illite, although chlorite is
abundant in several samples. Quartz arenites plot in the stable-
craton provenance field, whereas quartz wackes plot in the
recycled-orogen provenance field. The lack of volcanic-rock lithic
fragments, however, suggests that the provenance of the quartz
wackes is still from a stable craton.
232 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH
Stable craton greater than quartz
uplifted basement 1 1
A Aimchan
0.8 0.2
Continental-block
provenance
Uplifted basement
0.6 0.4
Recycled-
greater than orogen
stable craton Decreasing provenance
0.4 maturity or
stability
Magmatic-arc
0.2 provenance
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
feldspar
FIG. 3.—A) Quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments ternary plot of sandstones point counted from the Uchur, Aimchan, Kerpyl, and
Yudoma Groups. B) Quartz, K-feldspar, and plagioclase ternary plot of sandstones point counted from the Uchur, Aimchan,
Kerpyl, and Yudoma Groups.
Sandstones of the Kerpyl Group are mostly quartz wackes to
feldspathic wackes, although some are lithic wackes (Fig. 3). The
sandstones are composed mostly of quartz with lesser feldspars
(Fig. 3), lithic fragments (mostly shales), matrix clay minerals
(illite > chlorite), and in some cases 2–25% barite. Quartz wackes
plot in the stable-craton provenance field, whereas the more
feldspar- and lithic-rich wackes plot in the recycled-orogen prov-
enance field, which is consistent with previous studies (Khudoley
et al., 2001; Kotova and Podkovyrov, 2001).
Sandstones from the lower and part of the upper Ui Group
(Kandyk, Ryabinovsk, and Ust-Kirba formations) are mainly quartz
arenites to arkosic arenites. They consist of 47–91% quartz (mostly
monocrystalline), 2–39% feldspar (alkali feldspars ≈ plagioclase),
and minor rock fragments (mostly shale and siltstone), muscovite–
illite, chlorite, and magnetite–hematite. The quartz-rich arenites
plot in the stable-craton provenance field, whereas the more feld-
spar-rich arenites plot in the uplifted-basement field (Kotova and
Podkovyrov, 2001). In contrast, sandstones from the middle and
part of the upper Ui Group are wackes with shale to siltstone
fragments more abundant than in the arenites (Fig. 3). They are
composed of 27–54% quartz, 5–13% feldspar (plagioclase > alkali
feldspar), 2–29% rock fragments, 9–50% illite–chlorite matrix, and
lesser amounts of magnetite–hematite (Cullers and Podkovyrov,
2002, their fig. 2b). The wackes plot in the recycled-orogen prov-
enance field in a QFL diagram (Fig. 3). Abundant quartz and
greater plagioclase relative to alkali feldspar suggest that the
wackes could have been derived from plagioclase-rich source
rocks such as tonalite and granodiorite through removal of feld-
spars relative to quartz by weathering or diagenesis (Nesbitt et al.,
1996). The abundance of shale and siltstone fragments in the
wackes suggests significant recycling. Other investigators have
obtained similar results from these formations as well as from other
formations within the Ui group (Khudoley et al., 2001).
MAJOR-ELEMENT AND
TRACE-ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY
Chemical analyses of samples are given in Table 2, and the
average compositions and one standard deviation of terrigenous
quartz
Uchur
B 0.8 0.2
Kerpyl
Yudoma
0.6 0.4
0.6 0.4 0.6
0.8 0.2 0.8
1 0 1
0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
lithic fragments alkali feldspar plagioclase
rocks are given for the Uchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl groups in
Table 3. All sandstones exhibit higher SiO2 and Th/Sc values and
lower Al2O3, FeO (total), K2O, TiO2, Rb, Th, Ta, Co, Sc, Cr, and Cs
than do shales and siltstones. Quartz arenites and wackes of the
Aimchan Group have higher SiO2 concentrations, similar con-
centrations of TiO2 and FeO (total), and lower concentrations of
most other elements and lower elemental ratios than do the
arkosic arenites and wackes of the Uchur and Kerpyl groups. The
elemental concentrations of sandstones from the Kerpyl and
Uchur groups are fairly similar to one another, although the
sandstones from the Kerpyl Group contain lower light and middle
REE, K2O, Rb, MgO, La/Sc, La/Cr, K2O/Al2O3, (La/Lu)cn, and
La/Co values than do sandstones from the Uchur Group (Table
3; Fig. 4). The Eu/Eu* ratios of the Kerpyl Group are lower than
in sandstones analyzed from Uchur and Aimchan groups.
The elemental composition and elemental ratios are fairly
similar in the shales and siltstones analyzed from the Uchur,
Aimchan, and Kerpyl groups (Tables 2, 3; Fig. 4). There are,
however, some exceptions. For instance, the heavy REE, TiO2,
and CIA are higher and the CaO, MgO, and (La/Lu)cn values are
lower in the Aimchan than in the Uchur Group. Also the heavy
REE, TiO2, Th, Na2O, and Th/Cr, values are higher and the K2O,
MgO, (La/Lu)cn, K2O/Al2O3, and Eu/Eu* values are lower in the
Kerpyl than in the Uchur Group. The shales and siltstones of the
Kerpyl Group display greater negative Eu anomalies than do
similar rocks in the Uchur and Aimchan groups. The shales and
siltstones of the Uchur Group contain higher (La/Lu)cn ratios
than those of the Aimchan and Kerpyl groups.
NEODYMIUM ISOTOPE DATA
Nd isotope and selected geochemical characteristics for repre-
sentative Riphean and Vendian rocks are given in Table 4. In
order to take into account the possible disturbance of whole-rock
Sm-Nd isotopic systems in detrital sediments due to leaching and
grain-size effects (Johnsson, 1993; Cullers et al., 1997; Lev et al.,
1999) two distinctive sets of sediments were selected. One set
were shales, with higher and homogeneous REE distributions,
and the other set were sandstones containing lower and more
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 233

TABLE 2.—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Uchur Group-Lower Riphean

Trekhgornaya Formation

54-3 54-8* 54-15* 54-29 54-32 54-36 54-38* 54-39 54-41 54-48*
N latitude 61°19'54" 61°19'55" 61°19'03" 61°19'09" 61°19'20" 61°19'30" 61°19'36" 61°19'37" 61°19'43" 61°19'53"
E longitude 137°10'45" 137°10'44" 137°8'36" 137°8'16" 137°7'52" 137°7'38" 137°7'45" 137°7'47" 137°7'49" 137°7'55"
Element sandst. sandst. siltst. siltst. sandst. shale siltst. shale shale sandst.
SiO2 63.67 43.15 54.26 57.09 79.08 60.70 40.09 66.20 65.54 30.29
TiO2 0.75 0.37 0.46 0.82 0.33 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.35 0.04
Al2O3 17.62 9.02 9.79 19.61 9.09 17.90 9.38 15.40 16.16 3.31
FeO(total) 3.17 4.00 3.56 6.14 1.63 5.29 6.45 3.08 3.12 0.84
MnO 0.01 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.23 0.03 0.01 0.02
MgO 3.25 8.70 5.68 3.08 0.10 3.32 7.32 2.09 2.39 13.31
CaO 0.35 11.66 7.64 0.27 0.58 0.84 13.23 0.46 0.63 19.20
Na2O 0.14 0.05 0.06 0.55 0.79 1.60 1.03 2.22 2.12 1.08
K2O 6.81 3.36 4.10 9.15 6.55 5.03 2.04 4.40 4.40 1.02
P 2O5 0.25 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.13 0.27 0.22 0.40 0.40 0.02
LOI 3.44 15.40 13.75 2.81 0.85 3.86 19.17 3.89 4.06 30.40
Total 99.46 95.93 99.48 99.69 99.17 99.50 99.83 98.85 99.18 99.53
Rb 292 157 245 106 237 188
Ba 870 408 774 762 555 567
Th 15.6 9.1 11.2 6.5 12.2 13.4
Hf 6.3 6.7 4.9 8.2 4.5 4.9
Ta 1.3 0.85 1.4 0.70 1.1 1.1
Co 6.0 4.6 8.9 3.2 7.8 3.0
Sc 12.6 7.6 24.0 2.5 17.3 12.1
Cr 89 51 120 41 74 69
Cs 7.4 3.4 4.1 1.1 3.7 3.8
La 369 25.9 51.0 21.4 42.0 43.8
Ce 370 46.0 85.5 47.4 73.4 71.1
Nd 107 22.7 35.8 23.7 31.5 30.6
Sm 12.1 4.23 6.51 5.25 6.03 5.52
Eu 3.35 0.81 1.14 0.97 1.23 0.96
Tb 0.68 0.44 0.53 0.49 0.54 0.49
Yb 1.72 1.71 2.47 1.59 2.00 2.11
Lu 0.26 0.26 0.35 0.25 0.30 0.31
Eu/Eu* 1.231 0.694 0.683 0.693 0.778 0.644
(La/Lu)cn 140.9 9.88 14.71 8.6 14.0 14.33
La/Sc 29.3 3.4 2.1 8.6 2.4 3.6
Th/Sc 1.24 1.20 0.47 2.60 0.71 1.11
La/Co 61.5 5.6 5.7 6.7 5.4 14.6
Th/Co 2.6 2.0 1.3 2.0 1.6 4.5
La/Cr 4.15 0.51 0.43 0.52 0.57 0.63
Th/Cr 0.18 0.18 0.09 0.16 0.16 0.19
ICV 1.12 0.74# 1.24 0.96# 0.83# 0.83#
CIA 68.1 83# 49.0 83# 78# 78#
*Contains significant carbonate. #-corrected for K-metasomatism.

variable REE concentrations. Although the number of samples is
small, most of the shales and sandstones within each group (e.g.,
the Uchar Group) contain Nd-depleted mantle ages (TDM) and
εNd (Tsed) values that overlap, so that these values appear no
different between shales and sandstones within a group. The
exceptions are several samples from the Ui and Kerpyl groups in
the Maya platform.
The Nd-depleted mantle model ages (TDM) for the shales and
sandstones of the Uchar Group range from 2.13 to 2.44 Ga, and they
have moderately negative εNd (Tsed) values ranging from -3.1 to -
7.4 (Table 4). The samples used for the Nd isotope compositions
contain moderately negative Eu anomalies and low Th/Sc ratios
(0.47–0.79), suggesting that the Uchur rocks were derived from old
continental crust rather than island arcs (McLennan et al., 1993).
Shales and quartzose sandstones from the Aimchan Group
have TDM ranging from 2.23 to 2.83 Ga with εNd values from -6.0
to -10.1 (Table 4). The high La/Lu ratio, the low Th/Sc and La/Sc
ratios, and the lack of a negative Eu anomaly of the shale (sample
55-11) used for Nd isotope compositions from the Aimchan Group
are similar to many tonalities, such as those weathered to form
Archean shales (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Samples of sand-
stones used for Nd isotope compositions from the Aimchan group,
however, contain higher Th/Sc and La/Sc ratios and more promi-
nent negative Eu anomalies (0.66–0.78) than the shale. One sand-
stone has an older Archean TDM age and one has a Proterozoic age
(Table 4) that may reflect recycling of old continental crust.
Samples from the Kerpyl Group (Totta Formation; Table 4)
show broad variations in model age. There is a moderate positive
εNd +0.8 for the shale from the Maya platform (74–18, TDM 1.78
Ga), whereas other Totta shales and sandstones have a TDM
ranging from 2.11 to 2.30 Ga with εNd values ranging from -1.3
(sample 74-6, Maya plate) to -7.5 (sample 55-88, Yudoma–Maya
depression). These differences in εNd and TDM likely reflect
distinctively different sources of sediments in the western (Maya
platform) and eastern (Yudoma–Maya depression) parts of the
Middle Riphean Uchur–Maya basin.
234 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Uchur Group Aimchan Group-Middle Riphean

Dim Formation Talyn Formation, Belaya
River, Gornostakh anticline
57-27 57-40 57-45 58-7 58-13 58-17 55-1 55-8 55-13 55-16
N latitude 61°27'44" 61°28'03" 61°28'05" 61°28'11" 61°28'14" 61°28'16" 61°19'27" 61°19'32" 61°19'42" 61°19'44"
E longitude 137°8'11" 137°7'54" 137°7'50" 137°7'39" 137°7'36" 137°7'33" 137°10'15" 137°10'24" 137°10'40" 137°10'42"
Element shale shale siltst. shale siltst. shale sandst. shale siltst. shale
SiO2 56.80 58.12 60.52 59.06 58.06 61.60 88.4 55.53 58.3 58.5
TiO2 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.59 0.91 0.69 0.25 0.80 1.09 1.39
Al2O3 20.82 19.94 18.43 16.87 17.91 16.48 5.43 21.78 17.44 21.5
FeO(total) 4.02 3.20 3.36 5.60 5.54 7.15 1.68 9.06 13.00 3.31
MnO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01
MgO 3.76 2.93 3.13 4.02 4.16 3.04 0.43 1.17 1.98 1.59
CaO 0.14 0.25 0.33 0.32 0.54 0.35 0.11 0.16 0.51 0.42
Na2O 0.094 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.40 0.71 0.17 0.22 0.31 0.12
K2O 8.78 10.83 10.12 9.36 7.54 5.93 2.48 7.85 5.03 8.52
P 2O5 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.14 0.12 0.02 0.09 0.08 0.12 0.06
LOI 4.03 3.31 2.45 3.40 4.30 3.54 0.25 3.05 3.27 3.32
Total 99.26 99.51 99.19 99.51 99.49 99.52 99.30 99.71 101.09 98.74
Rb 261 289 219 288 203 77 177 264
Ba 365 523 520 666 563 554 973 1599
Th 11.6 12.7 11.4 9.8 9.2 2.7 7.3 17.4
Hf 2.4 3.9 3.5 4.3 5.0 3.8 5.2 17.7
Ta 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.4 0.90 0.29 0.77 1.6
Co 9.4 14.3 14.6 11.6 18.6 1.6 37.6 7.0
Sc 19.1 16.2 15.1 17.3 14.4 3.6 20.5 19.2
Cr 93 92 131 132 81 47 108 165
Cs 6.3 8.7 6.7 10.6 3.9 1.9 12.4 11.4
La 46.2 47.0 46.8 31.3 35.1 18.7 30.6 55.1
Ce 71.9 77.0 77.4 60.0 61.6 34.9 71.0 101
Nd 29.1 34.3 31.5 23.6 24.5 12.0 38.3 40.7
Sm 5.91 5.34 5.88 3.45 4.03 1.94 9.12 7.12
Eu 1.05 0.89 1.06 0.71 0.85 0.48 2.67 1.32
Tb 0.47 0.37 0.49 0.31 0.40 0.24 1.24 0.71
Yb 1.73 1.65 1.92 1.50 1.88 1.19 3.54 3.77
Lu 0.25 0.24 0.30 0.24 0.28 0.19 0.49 0.56
Eu/Eu* 0.692 0.689 0.707 0.766 0.768 0.825 0.941 0.658
(La/Lu)cn 18.6 19.2 15.9 13.2 12.6 10.2 6.2 9.81
La/Sc 2.4 2.9 3.1 1.8 2.4 5.2 1.5 2.9
Th/Sc 0.61 0.78 0.75 0.57 0.64 0.75 0.36 0.91
La/Co 4.9 3.3 3.2 2.7 1.9 11.7 0.81 7.9
Th/Co 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.5 1.69 0.19 2.5
La/Cr 0.50 0.51 0.36 0.24 0.43 0.40 0.28 0.33
Th/Cr 0.12 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.11
ICV 0.66# 0.57# 0.65# 0.93# 0.96# 0.94# 1.06 0.51# 0.98# 0.42#
CIA 90# 89# 89# 88# 85# 87# 63 91# 88# 88#

The two shales of the Lakhanda Group show similar variations
in Nd model age. A sample collected from the sections studied in
Maya platform (sample 77-6, Table 4) has Nd isotope characteris-
tics (TDM 1.55 Ga, eNd +0.1) reflecting an admixture of
Neoproterozoic mantle material to mature, recycled early Protero-
zoic sources (REE patterns are similar to PAAS with HREE enrich-
ment due to detrital zircon enrichment) (Cullers and Podkovyrov,
2000). The isotopic results for the shales from the Belaya river show
decreasing TDM ages from the lower (sample 52-80, TDM 1.89 Ga,
εNd -2.4) to the upper (sample 51-38, TDM 1.39 Ga, εNd +1.8) part
of the sequence that is consistent with proposed Mesoproterozoic
to Neoproterozoic additions of juvenile volcanic material
(Podkovyrov et al., 2002; Khudoley and Guriev, 2003).
The TDM ages of the Ui Group sediments are split into two
groups. In the first, there are two samples (78-21 and 71-10, Maya
platform) with a TDM of 1.76 and 1.77 Ga and εNd values of -2.5
and -3.6 (Table 4) that are interpreted as additions of juvenile
Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic material. Other Ui samples
show TDM ranging from 1.97 to 2.75 Ga, but in the latter case
(sample 71-20, Table 4) with a very high calculated 147Sm/144Nd
value of 0.1521, demonstrating a high degree of sediment recy-
cling. These samples exhibit εNd values from -2.5 to -4.7 with Eu/
Eu* between 0.53 and 0.61 and moderate to high Th/Sc and La/
Sc values that reflect the predominance of Paleoproterozoic con-
tinental-crust sources. One shale from the Vendian Yudoma
group (106-44, Mal formation) has a TDM age of 1335 Ma with εNd
-1.0, which is consistent with input of Neoproterozoic primitive
mantle material (Th/Sc 0.3 and La/Sc 0.8; Table 4) in a mixture
with detritus derived from Paleoproterozoic continental crust.
DISCUSSION
Implications of A–CN–K Diagrams
for Diagenesis and Provenance
Molar ratios of Al2O3–(Na2O + CaO)–K2O (A–CN–K plots,
Nesbitt and Young, 1982) can be used for shales to determine the
average ratios of K-feldspar to plagioclase of the provenance area
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 235

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Aimchan Group
Talyn Formation, Belaya Svetly Formation
River, Gornostakh anticline Belaya River
55-18 55-20 55-29 55-30 55-31 55-38 55-52 55-54 55-55
N latitude 61°19'46" 61°19'47" 61°19'53" 61°19'56" 61°19'58" 61°20'01" 61°20'14" 61°20'16" 61°20'17"
E longitude 137°10'44" 137°10'46" 137°10'52" 137°10'54" 137°10'54" 137°10'58" 137°11'48" 137°11'49" 137°11'49"
Element sandst. siltst. siltst. shale sandst. sandst. shale siltst. siltst.
SiO2 89.09 64.53 64.59 59.62 87.21 88.92 61.63 67.99 62.62
TiO2 0.44 0.96 0.99 1.18 0.16 0.15 0.92 0.79 0.98
Al2O3 3.00 17.71 16.79 18.89 5.62 3.92 18.02 14.47 17.29
FeO(total) 5.05 5.24 5.51 6.89 3.33 4.55 4.33 4.87 6.68
MnO 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
MgO 0.57 1.29 1.97 2.10 0.68 0.38 3.18 1.56 2.31
CaO 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.33 0.12 0.20
Na2O 0.13 0.18 0.50 0.61 0.22 0.35 0.65 0.86 0.14
K2O 0.54 6.34 5.09 5.98 1.51 0.59 6.40 5.06 6.41
P 2O5 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.05 0.16 0.05 0.08
LOI 0.25 3.04 3.10 3.78 0.25 0.25 4.00 3.60 3.18
Total 99.30 99.50 98.78 99.38 99.30 99.31 99.63 99.38 99.90
Rb 169 177 229 175
Ba 859 837 502 499
Th 14.7 15.6 11.7 11.6
Hf 8.1 6.0 3.8 4.7
Ta 1.1 1.1 1.05 0.99
Co 13.3 16.6 17.8 32.8
Sc 13.6 14.6 18.8 13.2
Cr 89 116 92 71
Cs 4.6 4.4 7.6 4.8
La 53.7 54.4 34.6 32.8
Ce 118 111 59.6 61.7
Nd 43.3 48.9 27.5 22.0
Sm 7.60 10.1 3.28 3.70
Eu 1.92 1.84 0.65 0.90
Tb 1.06 1.01 0.41 0.51
Yb 3.64 3.32 2.30 2.29
Lu 0.47 0.49 0.32 0.35
Eu/Eu* 0.80 0.660 0.65 0.779
(La/Lu)cn 11.4 11.2 10.7 9.55
La/Sc 3.9 3.7 1.8 2.5
Th/Sc 1.08 1.07 0.62 0.88
La/Co 4.0 3.3 1.9 1.0
Th/Co 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.4
La/Cr 0.60 0.47 0.38 0.46
Th/Cr 0.17 0.13 0.13 0.16
ICV 2.21 0.49# 0.67# 0.69# 1.18 1.49 0.77# 0.69# 0.72#
CIA 74 89# 88# 87# 71 73 88# 85# 90#

and whether weathering or K-metasomatism were important in
modifying their composition (Fedo et al., 1995, 1997a; Fedo et al.,
1997b). Chemical data derived from shales and siltstones were
plotted on molar A–CN–K diagrams (Fig. 5). The CaO content
incorporated in apatite (assuming that all P2O5 was present in it)
and carbonate minerals was subtracted from the CaO prior to
plotting. The CaO content in the silicate fractions was estimated
by assuming that the CaO content was equal to Na2O (after
McLennan et al., 1993). Clay minerals that formed by leaching
from plagioclase and K-feldspar should plot along lines parallel
to the A–CN side of an A–CN–K diagram (Fig. 5A, light arrow)
(Fedo, 1995, 1997a; Fedo et al., 1997b). Thus, granodiorite plots on
the plagioclase-rich side of the feldspar join and clay minerals
that formed from granodiorite should plot along the thinner of
the trace arrows shown in Figure 5A if no other process affects it.
A series of weathered rocks with kaolinite as the main clay
mineral, however, may undergo K-metasomatism to produce
illite. As a result, such samples will form a trend at right angles to
the A–K join (heavy solid arrows, Figs. 5A and 5B). The plagio-
clase to K-feldspar ratio of the source following K-metasomatism
can then still be estimated (bottom left of the heavy solid arrow).
Shales and siltstones of the Uchur and Aimchan samples
mostly plot close to the A–K boundary and do not show any clear-
cut trend back to the source composition (Fig. 5A), so that the ratio
of plagioclase to K-feldspar in the source could be anywhere from
tonalite to granite. Shales and siltstones from the Kerpyl Group
(Fig. 5B) and those associated with wackes in the part of the
younger Ui Group (Ui in Fig. 5D) more clearly have undergone
weak K-metasomatism during diagenesis, and were derived
from rocks with a high ratio of plagioclase to K-feldspar in the
source such as a tonalite to granodiorite (Cullers and Podkovyrov,
2002). However, the observed plots of shales and siltstones asso-
ciated with arenites from the Ui Group (Fig. 5C) indicate a source
rock with a moderate ratio of plagioclase to K-feldspar, e.g.,
granodiorite to granite.
K-metasomatism may produce two different paths for sand-
stones (Fedo et al., 1995). Plagioclase can be converted to K-
feldspar or kaolinite may change to illite. Petrographically, K-
236 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Kerpyl Group-Middle Riphean

Totta Formation
Gornostakh anticline,Belaya River
55-56 55-67 55-73 55-74 55-80 55-81 55-84 55-86 55-88
N latitude 61°20'17" 61°20'26" 61°20'39" 61°20'42" 61°20'56" 61°20'58" 61°21'13" 61°21'33" 61°21'55"
E longitude 137°11'50" 137°11'48" 137°12'10" 137°12'11" 137°12'27" 137°12'29" 137°12'31" 137°12'30" 137°12'35"
Element shale shale sandst. siltst. shale shale sandst. siltst. shale
SiO2 67.61 63.29 79.78 59.38 64.84 60.59 82.59 64.68 57.15
TiO2 0.90 0.83 0.25 0.98 0.85 0.82 0.28 0.87 0.94
Al2O3 14.96 17.89 8.21 18.94 17.99 19.91 6.11 15.5 20.64
FeO(total) 3.95 3.87 5.10 8.11 4.87 5.74 5.82 6.93 9.00
MnO 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.07
MgO 1.78 1.96 0.85 2.09 1.49 1.93 0.71 2.20 2.20
CaO 0.09 0.57 0.35 0.14 0.08 0.15 0.54 0.56 0.17
Na2O 0.63 0.64 1.59 1.11 1.27 1.08 0.75 1.95 1.02
K2O 5.86 6.54 1.77 5.24 4.96 6.05 1.35 3.57 4.38
P 2O5 0.04 0.30 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.06 0.19 0.12
LOI 3.21 3.40 1.39 3.28 3.06 3.99 1.26 2.60 4.05
Total 99.04 99.32 99.43 99.40 99.49 100.4 99.50 99.10 99.74
Rb 194 243 65 285 223 52 151 214
Ba 466 1118 263 1172 1198 477 609 730
Th 12.2 18.7 4.3 22.3 17.5 6.2 13.0 17.7
Hf 4.2 5.7 2.2 5.4 4.1 6.2 5.3 4.0
Ta 1.2 1.6 0.50 1.9 1.4 0.25 1.3 1.4
Co 20.4 19.9 5.3 16.7 1.4 7.2 23.9 22.9
Sc 14.4 14.6 4.0 26.5 18.2 3.6 13.4 21.1
Cr 77 75 22 92 95 30 67 121
Cs 5.6 8.8 2.3 8.7 7.8 2.0 6.4 7.2
La 33.0 41.5 15.8 51.9 48.7 16.0 35.3 49.6
Ce 61.7 78.3 37.0 106 85.6 33.2 72.6 94.2
Nd 23.6 32.2 18.5 47.6 31.1 13.4 29.3 36.2
Sm 3.90 6.24 4.13 8.78 5.08 2.54 5.64 6.57
Eu 0.98 1.31 0.79 2.05 0.94 0.43 1.30 1.34
Tb 0.57 0.83 0.54 1.53 0.46 0.25 0.88 0.72
Yb 2.52 3.20 1.33 6.11 2.74 0.87 3.14 2.72
Lu 0.36 0.48 0.20 0.92 0.44 0.135 0.47 0.42
Eu/Eu* 0.779 0.668 0.641 0.697 0.677 0.621 0.710 0.696
(La/Lu)cn 9.25 8.65 7.75 5.63 11.4 11.8 7.48 11.8
La/Sc 2.3 2.8 4.0 2.0 2.7 4.4 2.6 2.4
Th/Sc 0.85 1.28 1.08 0.84 0.96 1.72 0.97 0.84
La/Co 1.6 2.1 3.0 3.1 34.8 2.2 1.5 2.2
Th/Co 0.6 0.9 0.8 1.3 12.5 0.9 0.5 0.8
La/Cr 0.43 0.55 0.72 0.56 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.41
Th/Cr 0.16 0.25 0.20 0.24 0.18 0.21 0.19 0.15
ICV 0.65# 0.61# 1.37 0.76# 0.59# 0.61# 1.63 1.02# 0.74#
CIA 92# 92# 61 92# 92# 92# 62 80# 85#

feldspar does not appear to have replaced plagioclase in most of
our samples. The matrix in the wackes and the shales contains
abundant illite, so they may have undergone K-enrichment. Cer-
tainly the sandstones in the Kerpyl and Ui groups plot along the
same general trend as do the shales and siltstones, and that trend
intersects the feldspar join at a high ratio of plagioclase to K-
feldspar (Fig. 5B, D), although the trend is less clear-cut for the Ui
Group arenites. The sandstones of the Uchur and Aimchan groups
also plot in the same region as the associated shales and siltstones.
The above results are not completely consistent with the
present modes of the sandstones. The sandstones of the Uchur
Group are composed mostly of alkali feldspar and little plagio-
clase. This is not consistent with the tonalite to granodiorite
source predicted using the trace-element ratios as described
below. Thus, weathering or diagenesis must have removed much
of the plagioclase from the original source and left mostly K-
feldspar in the sandstones. In contrast, sandstones of the Kerpyl
Group and wackes of the Ui Group contain more plagioclase
relative to alkali feldspar than do sandstones of the Uchur Group,
consistent with a source with high ratio of plagioclase to alkali
feldspar as suggested from the A–CN–K diagrams. Evidently
diagenesis or weathering did not destroy nearly as much of the
plagioclase in the Kerpyl Group as in the Uchur Group. There is
so little feldspar in the Aimchan quartz arenites and quartz
wackes that comparisons of modes and predicted sources using
the A–CN–K diagram are not useful.
Relation of CIA to Weathering Intensity
The CIA (chemical index of alteration = 100[Al 2O 3/
(Al2O3+CaO+Na2O+K2O)] can be read from the A–CN–K dia-
gram (Fedo, 1997a; Fedo et al., 1997b; Nesbitt and Young, 1982)
(Fig. 5). The CIA values for unweathered rocks are about 50.
Unmetasomatized shale plotting in Figure 5A and 5B would have
a CIA of about 88. The CIA is lowered by K-metasomatism. The
CIA of the shales prior to K-metasomatism can be estimated by
extrapolating the metasomatized shale back from the CIA along
the heavy solid line in Figure 5A (Fedo et al., 1995).
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 237

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Kerpyl Group
Totta Formation, Yudoma Maya trough

56-1 56-6 56-9 56-11 56-12 56-13 56-16* 56-18* 56-19* 56-20
N latitude 61°23'05" 61°23'01" 61°22'57" 61°22'52" 61°22'52" 61°22'53" 61°22'53" 61°22'54" 61°22'55" 61°22'55"
E longitude 137°12'28" 137°12'37" 137°12'53" 137°13'10" 137°13'10" 137°13'11" 137°13'14" 137°13'17" 137°13'20" 137°13'22"
Element sandst. sandst. sandst. siltst. sandst. sandst. sandst. shale shale siltst.
SiO2 81.73 81.52 65.79 73.66 66.84 76.97 52.59 39.27 46.24 63.98
TiO2 0.55 0.47 0.89 0.61 0.93 0.55 0.87 0.53 0.63 0.90
Al2O3 8.91 8.30 14.31 11.55 15.29 10.37 14.34 10.95 11.38 16.09
FeO(total) 2.72 3.20 8.30 4.80 5.52 3.34 6.71 5.02 5.20 7.48
MnO 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.28 0.12 0.07
MgO 0.44 0.52 2.09 1.20 1.77 1.02 2.81 2.13 3.82 1.97
CaO 0.73 0.67 0.42 0.56 0.24 1.17 7.63 19.15 13.42 0.15
Na2O 2.36 2.82 1.93 2.32 1.92 2.29 1.16 1.60 1.49 1.66
K2O 0.83 0.50 2.81 2.09 3.54 1.83 4.00 2.35 2.51 3.55
P 2O5 0.06 0.07 0.24 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.17 0.09 0.11 0.10
LOI 1.16 1.38 2.69 2.20 3.35 1.85 9.18 18.13 14.58 3.15
Total 99.52 99.49 99.50 99.11 99.50 99.50 99.50 99.50 99.50 99.10
Rb 33 123 82 141 167
Ba 94 474 245 451 461
Th 16.0 10.7 8.7 11.8 15.3
Hf 17.8 5.5 6.5 6.0 4.1
Ta 0.91 1.1 0.83 1.3 1.3
Co 1.8 14.1 8.8 10.5 11.6
Sc 5.1 12.1 6.5 12.2 16.4
Cr 32 67 39 67 85
Cs 1.2 3.7 3.3 5.5 6.5
La 28.0 39.0 20.1 36.3 37.3
Ce 55.0 78.9 44 70 79.4
Nd 26.3 37.2 19.8 29.2 36.7
Sm 5.39 8.40 3.90 6.22 7.35
Eu 0.77 1.56 0.87 1.06 1.28
Tb 0.51 1.10 0.59 0.76 0.98
Yb 2.67 2.92 2.23 3.08 3.79
Lu 0.40 0.43 0.34 0.45 0.58
Eu/Eu* 0.535 0.621 0.748 0.584 0.570
(La/Lu)cn 7.04 9.13 5.84 7.99 6.4
La/Sc 5.5 3.2 3.1 3.0 2.3
Th/Sc 3.14 0.88 1.34 0.97 0.93
La/Co 15.6 2.8 2.3 3.5 3.2
Th/Co 8.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3
La/Cr 0.88 0.58 0.52 0.54 0.44
Th/Cr 0.50 0.16 0.22 0.18 0.18
ICV 1.11 1.28 1.35 1.05# 1.11 1.31 0.90#
CIA 59 57 67 70# 67 57 88#

The shales and siltstones from the Kerpyl Group are the only
samples that may be corrected for K-metasomatism with cer-
tainty. The present range of CIA values for the samples from the
Kerpyl Group is from 62 to 86. Following correction for K-
metasomatism these values are 70 to 90 (Table 2). These results
suggest that weathering was moderately intense. Interestingly,
the high ratio of plagioclase to K-feldspar of sandstones of the
Kerpyl Group, as well as of wackes of the Ui Group, suggests that
they were the least weathered or altered by diagenesis.
The range of CIA values for shales and siltstones of the Uchur
and Aimchan groups prior to metasomatism is 61 to 72 (Fig. 5).
There is less certainty about how to correct the CIA values for
these samples since there is no clear-cut way to identify the source
from A–CN–K data (solid heavy lines, Fig. 5A). The trace-element
data discussed below, however, suggest that there must be a
significant amount of tonalite to granodiorite in the source for
these two groups, suggesting that the provenance has a high ratio
of plagioclase to K-feldspar. If this interpretation is correct, then
the new CIA value 78 to 91 can be obtained (following the
hypothesized weathering trend shown in Figure 5A, light line),
suggesting that weathering and subsequent diagenesis were
more intense during transport and deposition of shales and
siltstones of the Uchur and Aimchan groups than those for the
Kerpyl Group. This result would suggest that the Uchur and
Aimchan sandstones were subjected to greater weathering and
diagenesis than the sandstones in the Kerpyl and Ui Groups. The
relatively high calculated CIA values of the shales and siltstones
of the Uchur and Aimchan groups (Tables 2, 4) are similar to those
of the Lakhanda Group (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000).
Relation of ICV to Recycling and Weathering Intensity
One approach to estimating the amount of primary source
relative to weathered minerals in shales and siltstones is to use
the index of compositional variability (ICV = [Fe2O3 + K2O +
Na2O + CaO + MgO + TiO2]/ Al2O3) (Cox and Lowe, 1995; Cox
et al., 1995). The ICV values tend to be highest for detrital
ferromagnesian minerals (biotite = 8; amphibole and pyroxene
238 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks.

Kerpyl Group
Totta Formation, Totta Formation-Maya Platform
Yudoma Maya trough
56-22 56-25 56-28 74-31 74-29 74-26 74-25 74-23 74-20 74-17
N latitude 61°22'55" 61°22'55" 61°22'55" 57°43'09" 57°43'09" 57°43'09" 57°43'09" 57°43'10" 57°43'10" 57°43'10"
E longitude 137°13'23" 137°13'24" 137°13'26" 135°26'55" 135°26'55" 135°26'55" 135°26'55" 135°26'55" 135°26'55" 135°26'55"
Element siltst. shale siltst. shale sandst. sandst. sandst. siltst. shale sandst.
SiO2 55.6 61.11 61.02 64.75 71.79 78.66 64.95 52.56 61.08 71.23
TiO2 0.54 1.00 0.91 0.89 0.76 0.31 0.94 0.68 0.88 0.48
Al2O3 14.55 16.48 15.15 15.38 11.77 8.52 14.98 12.25 17.06 10.62
FeO(total) 18.36 10.4 11.28 6.70 6.47 4.90 7.51 23.03 7.68 7.80
MnO 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.15 0.04
MgO 4.26 2.36 3.00 1.61 1.34 0.81 1.66 4.68 2.03 2.38
CaO 0.17 0.23 0.45 0.69 0.46 1.56 0.58 0.49 0.40 1.35
Na2O 0.80 1.89 1.98 1.67 2.30 2.20 2.40 0.36 1.48 2.82
K2O 0.91 3.30 2.91 3.66 2.09 1.21 2.86 0.43 4.60 0.38
P 2O5 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.32 0.09 0.04 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.12
LOI 4.10 3.27 3.32 3.76 2.41 1.24 3.36 4.87 4.06 2.29
Total 99.52 100.19 100.13 99.50 99.49 99.50 99.49 99.50 99.51 99.51
Rb 64 182 161 184 90 127 46 233 22
Ba 89 421 334 401 2031 363 163 468 211
Th 9.5 16.4 14.6 16.1 14.8 14.1 11.5 18.0 9.0
Hf 2.8 4.9 4.3 4.3 9.3 6.8 2.6 4.4 5.9
Ta 0.83 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.6 0.84
Co 53.0 21.9 42.3 13.1 8.4 19.8 60 14.2 8.9
Sc 10.7 19.6 24.3 15.7 8.8 13.6 15.9 16.5 5.0
Cr 52 103 112 75 46 98 70 76 30
Cs 2.1 7.9 7.5 9.0 2.6 4.7 2.2 12.2 0.7
La 42.7 25.4 39.4 47.1 27.1 39.0 24.8 46.1 17.9
Ce 98.0 56.2 81.2 96.1 59.9 72.1 45.5 93.9 44.6
Nd 43.7 27.5 33.5 46.1 32.2 30.1 15.0 40.3 16.5
Sm 8.95 5.87 7.01 10.1 7.36 6.21 2.12 8.25 4.50
Eu 1.56 1.22 1.44 2.13 1.45 1.15 0.42 1.45 0.92
Tb 1.04 0.97 1.05 1.66 1.04 0.95 0.45 1.14 0.74
Yb 2.94 4.18 3.96 4.61 3.63 4.46 2.15 3.77 2.48
Lu 0.40 0.64 0.55 0.66 0.52 0.64 0.32 0.56 0.36
Eu/Eu* 0.611 0.621 0.616 0.639 0.615 0.564 0.553 0.574 0.627
(La/Lu)cn 10.6 3.97 7.16 7.1 5.2 6.1 7.8 8.2 5.0
La/Sc 4.0 1.3 1.6 3.0 3.1 2.9 1.6 2.8 3.6
Th/Sc 0.89 0.84 0.60 1.03 1.68 1.04 0.72 1.09 1.80
La/Co 0.8 1.2 0.9 3.6 3.2 2.0 0.4 3.2 2.0
Th/Co 0.2 0.7 0.3 1.2 1.8 0.7 0.2 1.3 1.0
La/Cr 0.82 0.25 0.35 0.63 0.59 0.40 0.35 0.61 0.60
Th/Cr 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.21 0.32 0.14 0.16 0.24 0.30
ICV 1.80# 1.10# 1.37# 0.91# 1.34 1.61 1.26 2.48# 0.88# 1.85
CIA 88# 83# 81# 81# 63 52 65 86# 88# 59

= 10–100) and feldspars (plagioclase = 0.6; alkali feldspar = 0.8–
1) and lowest for minerals that form during weathering (kaolin-
ite = 0.03–0.05; montmorillonite = 0.15–0.3; illite-muscovite =
0.3). Thus, the ICV values for siltstones and shales with abun-
dant relatively unweathered detrital minerals should be greater
than one. In contrast, siltstones and shales composed of abun-
dant clay minerals have an ICV less than one. Most terrigenous
sedimentary rocks with ICV values greater than one tend to
occur in first-cycle deposits (Pettijohn et al., 1987), whereas
sedimentary rocks with ICV values less than one usually form
where intense weathering and minimal tectonic uplift have
occurred (Cox and Lowe, 1995). Some first-cycle shales and
siltstones, however, formed during intense chemical weather-
ing may form abundant clay minerals and thus contain ICV
values less than one (Johnsson, 2000).
The K2O values for shales and siltstones that may have under-
gone K-metasomatism have been adjusted following arguments
presented earlier in this paper. The ICV values of the shales–
siltstones from the Uchur and Aimchan groups are all less than
one (Table 2), so likely there was minimal first-cycle input.
Alternatively, intense weathering drove the ICV values down. A
number of shale–siltstone samples from the Kerpyl Group have
ICV values greater than one (Table 2). Thus, many of these
terrigenous rocks appear to consist of first-cycle material, espe-
cially in the eastward Belaya River sections. The results are
similar for the Kerpyl Group and part of the younger Ui Group,
in which the ICV values of many of the shales and siltstones are
also greater than one (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002). In contrast,
the shales of the Lakhanda Group have ICV values less than one
(Cullers, 2002; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000) and are thus more
similar to those of the Uchur and Aimchan groups (Table 4).
Trace-Element Compositions
Trace-element ratios such as Th/Sc, Eu/Eu*, and (La/Lu)cn or
La–Th–Sc and La–Th–Co triangular plots can be used to estimate
the average composition of the provenance of the shales and
siltstones (Cullers 1994, 1995, 2000; Girty et al., 1996; McLennan
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 239

TABLE 2 (continued).—Chemical composition of the differences in the elemental ratios among the shales–siltstones
Lower and Middle Riphean sedimentary rocks. or sandstones in the different groups. Most notably the aver-
age (La/Lu)cn ratios of the shales and siltstones of the Uchur
Kerpyl Group Group are significantly higher than those from the Aimchan
Totta Formation-Maya Platform and Kerpyl groups (Fig. 6C). Also, the Th/Sc ratio is signifi-
cantly higher and the Eu/Eu* is significantly lower in the
74-14 74-11 74-9* 74-6 74-3*
shales–siltstones of the Kerpyl Group than in the Uchur and
N latitude 57°43'10" 57°43'10" 57°43'10" 57°43'11" 57°43'11"
E longitude 135°26'56" 135°26'56" 135°26'56" 135°26'56" 135°26'57"
Aimchan groups (Fig. 6A, B). Finally, the Eu/Eu* and (La/
Element shale shale sandst. sandst. sandst. Lu)cn ratios of the sandstones of the Uchur Group are signifi-
SiO2 62.59 74.53 67.56 57.95 43.07 cantly higher than those of the Kerpyl Group (Fig. 6D, F).
TiO2 0.95 0.51 0.01 0.08 0.01 Samples with high Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios are character-
Al2O3 16.49 9.05 1.64 7.09 2.18 istic of some Proterozoic tonalites (Anderson and Cullers,
FeO(total) 6.46 8.00 4.39 28.19 13.20 1987). Lower Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios are characteristic
MnO 0.02 0.01 0.40 0.04 1.52
of granitoids with higher ratios of K-feldspar to plagioclase
MgO 1.99 1.11 0.86 3.33 2.58
CaO 0.35 0.61 12.89 0.35 18.84
(e.g., Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002). This suggests that the
Na2O 1.83 2.00 0.01 0.05 0.01 Uchur Group contains a significantly greater amount of mate-
K2O 4.46 1.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 rial derived from a tonalite source with high (La/Lu)cn and
P 2O5 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.09 0.06 high Eu/Eu* than the Kerpyl Group (Fig. 6A, F).
LOI 4.28 1.99 11.71 2.23 18.05 Detailed modeling of end-member compositions of the
Total 99.48 98.89 99.54 99.45 99.57 source rocks for the shales and siltstones of the Uchur to
Rb 258 45 20 Kerpyl groups cannot be done, because the plots of individual
Ba 571 1930 78
Th 17.2 8.9 1.6
samples are rather scattered (Fig. 7) and no potential source-
Hf 5.1 6.4 0.5 rock fragments have been found. The large scatter in such
Ta 1.7 0.91 plots as (La/Lu)cn vs. Eu/Eu* suggests that the composition of
Co 17.7 14.6 174 the granitoid source was variable, so that only a generalized
Sc 19.6 5.0 6.6 range of end-member compositions can be hypothesized. This
Cr 98 38 23 result contrasts markedly with the rather linear range of
Cs 13.6 1.4 0.2 compositions of certain elemental-ratio plots (e.g., Eu/Eu* vs.
La 46.2 22.3 18.0
Ce 93.9 51.9 35.9
Th/Sc) in the Ui Formation discussed by Cullers and
Nd 40.5 28.8 14.5 Podkovyrov (2002).
Sm 8.12 6.74 2.63 The shales of the Lakhanda Group and shales associated
Eu 1.49 1.35 0.50 with the arenite sandstones in the Ui Group contain signifi-
Tb 1.23 0.83 0.27 cantly lower Eu/Eu* than the shales associated with wackes
Yb 4.11 2.49 0.72 in the Uchur, Aimchan, Kerpyl, and Ui groups (Table 5; Fig.
Lu 0.63 0.37 0.11 6A; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002). This observation sug-
Eu/Eu* 0.568 0.689 0.68
(La/Lu)cn 7.3 6.0 16.4
gests that there was a significant amount of granitoid with
La/Sc 2.4 4.5 2.7 lower Eu/Eu* in the source of the Lakhanda and those Ui
Th/Sc 0.88 1.78 0.24 shales associated with arenite than in the source for other
La/Co 2.6 1.5 0.1 shales analyzed in this study. In addition, the Th/Sc ratios of
Th/Co 1.0 0.6 0.0 shales from the Kerpyl, Lakhanda, and arenite-associated Ui
La/Cr 0.47 0.59 0.78 groups (Fig. 6) are all ~ 1, whereas shales from the Uchur,
Th/Cr 0.18 0.23 0.07 Aimchan, and the wacke-associated Ui groups are mostly <
ICV 0.88# 1.49# 4.11
CIA 69# 88# 90
1. The Eu/Eu* and Th/Sc ratios for the Kerpyl, Lakhanda,
and arenite-associated Ui groups are the same (Fig. 7) as
those ratios for sedimentary rocks that have been hypoth-
esized to have been derived from granitoids from old conti-
et al.,1993), because those derived from silicic rocks generally nental crust (McLennan et al., 1993). The Eu/Eu* and Th/Sc
contain higher concentrations of La and Th, lower concentrations of ratios for the Uchur, Aimchan, and wacke-associated Ui
Co, Sc, and Cr, and more negative Eu anomalies than those derived groups suggest that these groups could have been derived
from basic rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Cullers, 1995). The from sources with more granodiorite and tonalite (Table 5;
range of elemental ratios (Eu/Eu*, La/Lu, La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Fig. 7).
Th/Co, La/Cr, and Th/Cr) in the shales, siltstones, and sandstones
used to determine provenance generally fall in the range of similar Trend of the Compositions of Riphean
published data derived from fairly silicic rather than basic rocks Sedimentary Rocks with Time
(Table 5, Fig. 6). The log of the elemental ratios among the groups is
compared using the Student t-test or the Welch test depending on Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic shales in the south-
whether or not the standard deviations among the compared samples western USA (Cox et al., 1995) display changes in Eu/Eu*,
are the same or different, respectively. The data sets were compared Th/Sc, and (La/Lu)cn ratios similar to those of Siberia. For
using the log of the ratios to exclude the constant-sum influence example, the Eu/Eu* decreased with time in the southwest-
(Cardenas et al., 1996). Samples with significant carbonate materials ern USA from an average of 0.84 (1.79 Ga) to 0.67 (1.7 Ga) to
are included in these ratios, because the ratios appear not to be 0.57 (1.6 Ga) and then remains the same in younger Protero-
affected by abundant carbonate (Cullers, 2002). zoic and Phanerozoic shales. These results were explained
Most of the above elemental ratios are similar among the shales, by increasing input from granitoids with significantly more
siltstones, and sandstones of the Uchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl negative Eu anomalies followed by recycling in the younger
groups (Table 3; Fig. 6). There are, however, some significant rocks (Cox and Lowe, 1995). The low ICV values (< 1) in most
240 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

TABLE 3.—A comparison of chemical compositions of the Riphean sedimentary rocks.

All Uchar,
Uchar Group Aimchan Group Kerpyl Group Kerpyl Group Aimchan,
Kerpyl
shales– shales– shales- shales-
Element siltstones (12) sandstones (4) siltstones (9) sandstones (4) siltstones (19) sandstones (15) Element siltstones (35)
SiO2 58 ± 7 54 ± 22 61 ± 4 88 ± 1 60 ± 8 70 ± 8 SiO2 60 ± 7
TiO2 0.67 ± 0.15 0.20 ± 0.17 1.0 ± 0.19 0.25 ± 0.13 0.80 ± 0.16 0.49 ± 0.33 TiO2 0.81 ± 0.20
Al2O3 16.6 ± 3.6 9.6 ± 5.6 18.2 ± 2.3 4.5 ± 1.2 15.4 ± 3.1 9.5 ± 4.3 Al2O3 16.4 ± 3.2
FeO(total) 4.7 ± 1.5 2.4 ± 1.4 6.5 ± 2.9 3.7 ± 1.5 9.3 ± 6.5 6.1 ± 2.7 FeO(total) 7.3 ± 5.2
MnO 0.035 ± 0.06 0.043 ± 0.04 0.026 ± 0.025 0.018 ± 0.001 0.067 ± 0.066 0.16 ± 0.39 MnO 0.048 ± 0.060
MgO 3.8 ± 1.5 6.3 ± 5.9 1.9 ± 0.6 0.52 ± 0.13 2.3 ± 0.97 1.5 ± 0.9 MgO 2.7 ± 1.3
CaO 2.1 ± 4.1 7.9 ± 9.2 0.24 ± 0.15 0.14 ± 0.03 2.1 ± 5.2 3.2 ± 5.6 CaO 1.6 ± 4.2
Na2O 0.77 ± 0.80 0.52 ± 0.50 0.40 ± 0.27 0.22 ± 0.10 1.41 ± 0.5 1.76 ± 0.93 Na2O 0.99 ± 0.72
K 2O 6.8 ± 2.8 4.4 ± 2.8 6.3 ± 1.2 1.3 ± 0.9 3.6 ± 1.8 1.6 ± 1.3 K 2O 5.2 ± 2.5
P 2O 5 0.17 ± 0.13 0.13 ± 0.09 0.088 ± 0.03 0.083 ± 0.030 0.097 ± 0.058 0.097 ± 0.056 P 2O 5 0.13 ± 0.09
LOI
Rb 232 ± 45 199 ± 131 197 ± 45 77 171 ± 76 75 ± 47 Rb 193 ± 68
Ba 549 ± 123 816 ± 76 712 ± 204 554 649 ± 481 494 ± 597 Ba 632 ± 361
Sr
Th 11.2 ± 1.5 11.5 ± 1.8 13.1 ± 3.6 2.7 14.9 ± 3.9 9.8 ± 5.0 Th 13.5 ± 3.6
Zr
Hf 4.6 ± 1.2 7.3 ± 1.3 7.6 ± 5.2 3.8 4.6 ± 1.1 6.7 ± 4.9 Hf 5.2 ± 2.6
Ta 1.12 ± 0.19 1.00 ± 0.42 1.10 ± 0.27 0.29 1.33 ± 0.31 0.96 ± 0.42 Ta 1.22 ± 0.29
Co 10.3 ± 5.0 4.6 ± 2.0 20.9 ± 11.8 1.6 22 ± 16 6.9 ± 4.3 Co 18.5 ± 13.8
Sc 15.9 ± 4.6 7.6 ± 7.1 16.7 ± 3.2 3.6 16.2 ± 5.7 7.9 ± 3.9 Sc 16.2 ± 4.9
Cr 94 ± 29 65 ± 34 107 ± 33 47 80 ± 24 46 ± 26 Cr 89 ± 28
Cs 5.7 ± 2.6 4.3 ± 4.5 7.5 ± 3.6 1.9 6.9 ± 3.4 2.5 ± 1.8 Cs 6.7 ± 3.2
La 41 ± 8 195 ± 246 44 ± 12 18.7 38 ± 10 26 ± 10 La 40 ± 10
Ce 69 ± 12 209 ± 228 87 ± 26 34.9 77 ± 20 54 ± 17 Ce 77 ± 20
Nd 29.3 ± 4.7 65.4 ± 59 36.8 ± 10.1 12 33.2 ± 9.3 24.2 ± 8.7 Nd 32.8 ± 8.5
Sm 5.2 ± 1.1 8.7 ± 4.8 6.8 ± 2.8 1.94 6.5 ± 2.1 5.3 ± 2.0 Sm 6.2 ± 2.1
Eu 0.97 ± 0.17 2.2 ± 1.7 1.55 ± 0.74 0.48 1.23 ± 0.37 0.85 ± 0.38 Eu 1.21 ± 0.46
Tb 0.45 ± 0.08 0.59 ± 0.13 0.82 ± 0.33 0.24 0.93 ± 0.35 0.68 ± 0.31 Tb 0.77 ± 0.36
Yb 1.89 ± 0.29 1.66 ± 0.09 3.14 ± 0.67 1.19 3.41 ± 1.0 2.46 ± 1.27 Yb 2.92 ± 1.05
Lu 0.28 ± 0.04 0.26 ± 0.01 0.45 ± 0.09 0.19 0.51 ± 0.16 0.36 ± 0.18 Lu 0.43 ± 0.15
Eu/Eu* 0.71 ± 0.05 0.96 ± 0.38 0.75 ± 0.11 0.83 0.65 ± 0.025 0.61 ± 0.04 Eu/Eu* 0.69 ± 0.08
(La/Lu)cn 13.6 ± 3.1 75 ± 94 9.8 ± 1.9 10.2 7.8 ± 2.2 8.5 ± 3.6 (La/Lu)cn 9.9 ± 3.5
La/Sc 2.7 ± 0.6 19 ± 15 2.7 ± 1.0 5.2 2.6 ± 0.8 3.6 ± 0.9 La/Sc 2.6 ± 0.8
Th/Sc 0.76 ± 0.24 1.92 ± 0.96 0.82 ± 0.28 0.75 0.95 ± 0.32 1.50 ± 0.75 Th/Sc 0.87 ± 0.30
La/Co 5.3 ± 3.8 34.1 ± 39 3.2 ± 2.6 11.7 4.1 ± 8.3 4.3 ± 4.6 La/Co 4.2 ± 6.3
Th/Co 1.5 ± 1.2 2.3 ± 0.42 0.97 ± 0.82 1.7 1.5 ± 3.0 1.8 ± 2.7 Th/Co 1.4 ± 2.2
La/Cr 0.46 ± 0.12 2.3 ± 2.5 0.42 ± 0.11 0.4 0.50 ± 0.13 0.62 ± 0.15 La/Cr 0.48 ± 0.13
Th/Cr 0.13 ± 0.04 0.17 ± 0.01 0.13 ± 0.04 0.06 0.19 ± 0.04 0.23 ± 0.13 Th/Cr 0.16 ± 0.05
ICV 0.81 ± 0.14 1.18 ± 0.08 0.66 ± 0.17 1.48 ± 0.52 1.05 ± 0.50 1.39 ± 0.23 ICV 1.12 ± 0.36
CIA 85 ± 4 59 ± 14 88 ± 2 70 ± 5 85 ± 7 61 ± 5 CIA 75 ± 11

(Number of samples of major elements are in parentheses; fewer samples for trace elements)

shales of the Uchur, Aimchan, Kerpyl, Lakhanda, and Ui groups
suggest that these rocks were derived from mostly recycled
sediment. This is consistent with presence of shale and siltstone
lithic fragments in the sandstones. There may have been peri-
odic input of first-cycle sediment (ICVs > 1; in Fig. 8) in some
shales and siltstones of the Kerpyl , Lakhanda, and Ui groups.
Source areas were likely granitoids with low Eu/Eu* and La/Lu
ratios and high Th/Sc ratios.
Some of the trends in time observed in the shales and
siltstones also show up in the sandstones (Fig. 6D–F). For
instance, the Eu/Eu* of the sandstones, like the shales and
siltstones, is higher in the Uchur and Aimchan groups than in
the Kerpyl and Ui groups. Only the (La/Lu)cn of the sandstones
from the Uchur Group is higher than the rest of the groups,
because of a very high ratio in one sample. Sandstones are more
variable in composition than the corresponding shales and
siltstones in the same area, likely because of the more variable
mineralogy in the more locally derived sandstones than in the
less locally derived shales and siltstones, reflecting less efficient
mixing of the coarser sediment than of the finer sediment
(Cullers, 2000). Thus, more weight for the composition of the
provenance should be placed on the trace-element ratios of the
shale and siltstone compositions and less on the sandstone
compositions.
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 241

TABLE 3 (continued).—A comparison of chemical compositions of the Riphean sedimentary rocks.

1 2
All Uchar, Ui Group Lakhanda Group
Aimchan, Shales
Kerpyl associated
with wacke Belaya Maya
sandstones (22) Element arenites (21) shales (7) arenites (19) wackes (10) Element shales (13) shales (12)
70 ± 16 SiO2 60.7 ± 5.5 60.3 ± 4.0 82.0 ± 11 74.0 ± 6.0 SiO2 58.9 ± 4.4 53.1 ± 6.5
0.40 ± 0.31 TiO2 1.06 ± 0.19 1.14 ± 0.28 0.31 ± 0.27 0.71 ± 0.36 TiO2 1.253 ± 0.095 1.54 ± 0.19
8.7 ± 4.5 Al2O3 17.8 ± 2.0 17.4 ± 1.6 6.5 ± 4.5 10.6 ± 2.6 Al2O3 21.1 ± 1.7 23.7 ± 2.4
5.0 ± 2.7 FeO (total) 6.3 ± 2.4 7.1 ± 1.4 2.4 ± 1.7 4.7 ± 1.9 FeO (total) 7.27 ± 4.09 8.29 ± 8.0
0.11 ± 0.32 MnO 0.042 ± 0.03 0.061 ± 0.03 0.06 ± 0.05 0.08 ± 0.05 MnO 0.015 ± 0.017 0.035 ± 0.047
2.2 ± 3.0 MgO 2.01 ± 0.63 2.53 ± 0.60 1.34 ± 1.1 1.84 ± 0.73 MgO 1.57 ± 0.49 0.76 ± 0.28
3.5 ± 6.1 CaO 0.37 ± 0.26 0.76 ± 0.44 2.3 ± 3.5 1.1 ± 0.6 CaO 0.40 ± 0.28 0.28 ± 0.09
1.25 ± 1.0 Na2O 1.65 ± 0.59 1.53 ± 0.23 1.04 ± 1.03 2.5 ± 0.5 Na2O 0.55 ± 0.35 0.18 ± 0.15
2.0 ± 1.9 K 2O 4.4 ± 1.0 4.7 ± 0.7 1.5 ± 1.3 1.7 ± 0.9 K 2O 4.1 ± 1.3 3.2 ± 1.0
0.10 ± 0.06 P 2O 5 0.24 ± 0.17 0.26 ± 0.19 0.17 ± 0.13 0.26 ± 0.17 P 2O 5 0.081 ± 0.038 0.053 ± 0.023
LOI 4.6 ± 0.7 3.8 ± 1.2 2.6 ± 2.3 2.0 ± 0.5 LOI 4.23 ± 0.71 8.54 ± 1.65
96 ± 74 Rb 209 ± 39 195 ± 46 63 ± 47 66 ± 32 Rb 175 ± 42 140 ± 33
552 ± 524 Ba 567 ± 135 544 ± 106 372 ± 200 311 ± 171 Ba 396 ± 106 284 ± 89
Sr 49 ± 21 67 ± 32 76 ± 83 67 ± 41 Sr 63 ± 39 89 ± 43
9.4 ± 5.1 Th 17.6 ± 2.8 13.4 ± 4.2 8.5 ± 5.7 8.3 ± 4.3 Th 22.8 ± 5.1 21.1 ± 2.9
Zr 270 ± 75 287 ± 38 365 ± 347 283 ± 35 Zr 261 ± 53 288 ± 65
6.5 ± 4.3 Hf 8.3 ± 1.6 6.4 ± 0.7 10.3 ± 9.0 8.4 ± 3.3 Hf 8.6 ± 2.2 8.4 ± 1.8
0.91 ± 0.43 Ta 1.68 ± 0.20 1.36 ± 0.39 0.83 ± 0.41 0.77 (0.25) Ta 2.1 ± 0.4 2.0 ± 0.3
5.9 ± 4.0 Co 15.5 ± 10 19 ± 6 6.5 ± 5.2 11.3 ± 4.0 Co 15.7 ± 10 15.2 ± 9.3
7.5 ± 4.1 Sc 17.4 ± 3.4 18.7 ± 6.7 6.3 ± 4.3 8.7 ± 3.0 Sc 23.1 ± 5.8 23.4 ± 1.8
49 ± 25 Cr 104 ± 36 74 ± 27 29 ± 13 45 ± 27 Cr 109 ± 31 102 ± 14
2.8 ± 2.2 Cs 8.5 ± 2.4 7.2 ± 0.8 1.6 ± 1.2 1.6 ± 1.1 Cs n.a. n.a.
54 ± 100 La 52 ± 11 32 ± 10 30 ± 23 29 ± 10 La 60.6 ± 15 55.3 ± 9.3
78 ± 93 Ce n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
30 ± 26 Nd n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
5.6 ± 2.8 Sm 7.9 ± 2.3 6.9 ± 1.2 5.3 ± 3.3 4.9 ± 1.2 Sm 9.4 ± 4.0 8.3 ± 1.8
1.03 ± 0.80 Eu 1.30 ± 0.36 1.38 ± 0.32 0.94 ± 0.50 1.0 ± 0.2 Eu 1.54 ± 0.73 1.51 ± 0.37
0.63 ± 0.30 Tb n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
2.22 ± 1.17 Yb n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
0.33 ± 0.16 Lu 0.66 ± 0.09 0.56 ± 0.12 0.42 ± 0.21 0.40 ± 0.11 Lu 0.78 ± 0.22 0.84 ± 0.19
0.69 ± 0.19 Eu/Eu* 0.55 ± 0.04 0.63 ± 0.06 0.60 ± 0.10 0.68 ± 0.05 Eu/Eu* 0.531 ± 0.094 0.575 ± 0.048
8.7 ± 3.3* (La/Lu)cn 7.9 ± 1.2 5.6 ± 1.0 7.0 ± 2.8 7.2 ± 1.9 (La/Lu)cn 8.0 ± 1.1 6.8 ± 1.1
6.3 ± 7.4 La/Sc 3.0 ± 0.5 1.7 ± 0.4 6.7 ± 5.7 4.2 ± 3.2 La/Sc 2.66 ± 0.44 2.36 ± 0.31
1.54 ± 0.76 Th/Sc 1.02 ± 0.12 0.72 ± 0.13 1.79 ± 0.9 1.1 ± 0.79 Th/Sc 1.0 ± 0.2 .90 ± 0.10
10.4 ± 18 La/Co 4.1 ± 1.6 1.8 ± 0.8 11.8 ± 16 3.2 ± 2.4 La/Co 5.30 ± 3.1 5.60 ± 4.36
1.8 ± 2.3 Th/Co 1.4 ± 0.5 0.76 ± 0.36 2.8 ± 2.9 0.88 ± 0.69 Th/Co 2.0 ± 1.3 2.1 ± 1.6
0.89 ± 1.0 La/Cr 0.55 ± 0.20 0.44 ± 0.08 1.15 ± 0.85 0.77 ± 0.46 La/Cr 0.57 ± 0.13 0.54 ± 0.07
0.21 ± 0.12 Th/Cr 0.18 ± 0.04 0.18 ± 0.02 0.31 ± 0.16 0.21 ± 0.12 Th/Cr 0.21 ± 0.03 0.21 ± 0.03
1.39 ± 0.30 ICV 1.07 ± 0.2 1.25 ± 0.16 1.41 ± 0.44 1.62 ± 0.32 ICV 0.81 ± 0.21 0.62 ± 0.30
63 ± 7 CIA 69 ± 2 66 ± 1 62 ± 5 58 ± 4 CIA 78 ± 7 85 ± 3

1 2
*-without high one From Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002 From Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000

SUMMARY OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE
RIPHEAN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Overview
Available geochronological (U-Pb zircon) and Nd isotope
data indicate that the continental crust of Siberia was formed
during several Archean (3.8–3.5 and 3.1–2.8 Ga) and
Paleoproterozoic (2.4–2.0 Ga) events (Rosen et al., 1994; Kotov et
al., 1995; Kovach et al., 1996; Kovach et al., 2000; Frost et al., 1998;
Larin et al., 1997; Kotov, 2003). The Riphean Uchur–Maya sedi-
mentary basin formed mainly under the influence of sources
close to eastern blocks of the Aldan shield (Khudoley et al., 2001;
Kotova and Podkovyrov, 2001; Podkovyrov et al., 2002). Rocks
similar to those now exposed in the East Aldan granulite–gneiss
megablock (Rosen et al., 1994) and Batomga block to the south-
west of the Uchur–Maya basin are possible nearby sources for
sediments. These blocks are composed mainly of granitoids
(including tonalities and trondjemites), metamorphosed terrig-
enous (including metawackes) and carbonate rocks, basalts, and
andesites (Kotov et al., 1995; Kotov, 2003). The Nd isotope data
have mainly Early Proterozoic protolith ages for these potential
source rocks (Kovach et al., 2000; Kotov, 2003). Late Proterozoic
Nd model ages (1.0–1.4 Ga) obtained for some low-grade meta-
242 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

1000
1000
A D
Rock/Chondrite

Rock/Chondrite
Uchur Group 100 Kerpyl Group-Yudoma-Maya Depression
100

10 10

1 1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

1000 1000

B E

Rock/Chondrite
Rock/Chondrite

Aimchan Group Kerpyl Group-Maya Platform

100 100

10 10

1 1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

1000

C
Rock/Chondrite

Kerpyl Group-Belaya River

100

10

1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

FIG. 4.—The chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the samples.

morphosed sediments in the Batomga block may reflect a late
Proterozoic core-forming event (Kovach et al., 2000).
The eastern part of the Aldan shield contains possible sources
for the Riphean and Vendian sediments with TDM ages of mainly
2.0–2.4 Ga (Kotov, 2003). The U-Pb ages for detrital zircons in
Riphean and Vendian sedimentary rocks, however, range mostly
in ages that are older than 2.3 Ga or else are distributed between
1.7 Ga and 2.05 Ga (Rainbird et al., 1998; Khudoley et al., 2001;
Khudoley et al., 2003).
Uchur Group
The rocks of the Uchur Group were formed in a shoaling-
upward, possibly lacustrine basin from sediment to the west to
northwest, possibly in a failed intracratonic rift basin (Khudoley
et al., 2001; Podkovyrov et al., 2002). Detrital zircon ages from one
sample from the Uchar Group (Khudoley et al., 2001) could be
interpreted to have formed as a result of mixing from two sources
(about 2050 Ma and 1725 Ma). The 2050 Ma rocks that could be
sources are the East Aldan megablock (TDM 2.0–2.4 Ga), Katugin
granite intrusions (2066 Ga), and gabbro–diorite–trondjemite
intrusions of the Ungra (2016 ± 5 Ma). The 1725 Ma sources for the
Uchur rocks may include anorogenic granites and volcanics of
the Ulkan complex (1700–1704 Ma; Larin, 1997). Most of the
Uchur–Maya shales and sandstones plot in the field of passive
margins (including intracontinental basins) in a K2O/Na2O vs.
SiO2/Al2O3 plot (Fig. 9, PM field), consistent with previous re-
sults (Kotova and Podkovyrov, 2001).
The ICV values (< 1) derived from shales and siltstones of the
Uchur Group in this study suggest that detrital material was
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 243

TABLE 4.—Neodymium isotope data and selected geochemical characteristics for the
Uchur–Maya Riphean and Vendian sedimentary rocks.
147 /144
Section Group Formation Age (Ma) Sm Nd Sm Nd eNd(T) TNd(DM) Eu/Eu* (La/Lu)cn Th/Sc La/Sc
and sample
number
Sandstones
Yudoma–Maya depression
85/12 Ui Malosachara 990 4.35 21.8 0.1205 -3.7 1971 0.73 3.5 1.3 1.52
55/73 Kerpyl Totta 1150 4.28 20.1 0.1288 -5.1 2302 0.62 8.6 1.1 4.94
55/32 Aimchan Talyn 1180 1.63 7.50 0.1314 -10.1 2833 0.66 6.7 1.1 2.82
55/2 Aimchan Talyn 1230 1.77 10.13 0.1055 -6.7 2233 0.78 15.5 2.26 15.6
58/15 Uchur Dim 1420 2.69 14.23 0.1141 -6.1 2429 0.70 8.4 0.79 3.92
57/25 Uchur Dim 1480 4.14 25.3 0.0990 -7.4 2436 0.72 22.9 0.69 4.77
54/17 Uchur Trekhgorka 1520 2.25 10.65 0.1279 -3.2 2418 0.91 6.2 0.68 4.05
Maya platform
78/37 Ui Kandyk 980 1.43 6.11 0.1418 -4.7 2334 0.53 5.1 1.2 4.88
71/20 Ui Kandyk 970 1.37 5.46 0.1521 -6.2 2745 0.73 2.8 2.65 10.9
71/10 Ui Kandyk 990 6.64 41.4 0.0970 -3.6 1753 0.56 21.9 1.4 6.44
74/6 Kerpyl Totta 1180 3.32 20.1 0.0998 -1.3 1777 0.68 16.4 0.24 2.73
74/21 Kerpyl Totta 1120 6.10 26.4 0.1393 -4.2 2344 0.62 5.2 1.68 3.08
Shales
Yudoma–Maya depression
106-44 Yudoma Mal 555 3.88 20.18 0.1161 -1.0 1335 0.68 7.9 0.3 0.8
85-20 Ui Malosachara 990 8.21 35.02 0.1416 -2.5 2117 0.61 6.5 0.88 2.43
51-38 Lakhanda Ignikan 1015 7.28 49.47 0.0889 1.8 1393 0.49 6.3 1.03 3.39
52-80 Lakhanda Neruen 1025 13.65 67.41 0.1224 -2.4 1889 0.52 6.8 0.94 2.69
55-88 Kerpyl Totta 1170 7.25 40.73 0.1075 -7.5 2262 0.70 11.8 0.84 2.35
55-68 Kerpyl Totta 1160 8.98 47.70 0.1138 -4.7 2107 0.54 6.8 0.88 3.1
55-11 Aimchan Talyn 1220 5.87 29.74 0.1193 -6.0 2314 0.99 20.2 0.24 0.9
57-40 Uchur Dim 1470 4.92 32.80 0.0907 -6.4 2304 0.69 19.2 0.78 2.90
54-29 Uchur Trekhgorka 1510 6.43 42.53 0.0914 -3.1 2129 0.68 14.7 0.47 2.13
Maya platform
78-21 Ui Kandyk 1025 6.24 36.15 0.1044 -2.5 1755 0.59 8.3 0.94 2.6
77-6 Lakhanda Neruen 1025 7.73 46.30 0.1009 0.1 1553 0.56 6.8 0.97 2.65
74-18 Kerpyl Totta 1250 8.47 43.66 0.1173 0.8 1777 0.58 9.7 0.84 2.4

recycled or that intense weathering of first-cycle material drove
the ICV values down. The provenance for the shales and silt-
stones was likely tonalites to granodiorites that contained high
Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios and low Th/Sc ratios (Fig. 8).
Associated arenites and wackes contain abundant quartz relative
to feldspar (detrital and regenerated K-feldspar > plagioclase).
Thus, weathering or diagenesis may have been intense enough to
remove much of the original plagioclase. One possible reason for
K-feldspar resistance may be slower K-feldspar leaching com-
pared with plagioclase, as documented in modern semiarid and
arid weathering environments (Girty et al., 2003). It is assumed
that in Early Riphean time weathering and recycling of sedimen-
tary material occurred predominantly in dry conditions, with
higher CO2 in the atmosphere and high alkalinity (pH > 7) in
surface water. Significant transport of detrital minerals occurred
by wind saltation, providing exceptional preservation of detrital
K-feldspar grains (Sochava et al., 1994; Podkovyrov et al., 2001).
hypothesized to be from the same direction as those of the Uchur
Group (Semikhatov and Serebryakov, 1983). The Nd isotope data
show that possible sources should include not only
Paleoproterozoic (TDM 2.2-2.3 Ga; Table 4), but also Archean
complexes (TDM 2.83 Ga, sample 55-32, Talyn Formation; Table 4).
The low ICV values (< 1) of the shales and siltstones again suggest
that the sediment was recycled or intensely weathered. High CIA
values of the shales and siltstones and the presence of only quartz
arenites or quartz wackes suggest that chemical weathering
could have been intense. Lower (La/Lu)cn ratios in shales and
siltstones of the Aimchan Group suggest that the amount of
tonalite in source areas might be less than that in the source of the
Uchur Group. In addition, the low Th/Sc and high Eu/Eu* ratios
in some shales with TDM of 2.2–2.3 Ga implies potential input
from basic sources as well as tonalite (basalts and andesites in
Fedorovka Formation; gabbro-diorite intrusions of the Ungra
complex).

Aimchan Group Kerpyl Group

The Aimchan, Kerpyl, and Lakhanda group sediments were
deposited in lakes or shallow, supratidal to deltaic, open marine
or lacustrine, waters in an expanding intracratonic basin
(Khudoley et al., 2001). Deposition likely occurred within a
continental block rather than a continental margin in a shallow
sea. The provenance of the Aimchan Group sediments has been
Detrital zircons from the sediments of the Kerpyl Group range
from ~ 1900 to ~ 2000 Ma (Khudoley et al., 2001). The Nd isotope
characteristics from the Kerpyl Group suggest different sources
for the samples in this study. The two samples from the Maya
platform (samples 74-6 and 74-18; Table 4) show lesser TDM (1.78
Ga) with εNd ranging from -1.3 to +0.8 (at 1250–1180 Ma). Other
244 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

CIA A CIA A
shales with arenites
90 90 arenites

80 A 80 C
70 70

60 60

50 50 50 50 50 50
T Gd G T Gd G

Uchur Gp. and Ui Group

Aimchan Gp.

CN K CN K

CIA A CIA A
shales with wackes
90 90 wackes
80 B 80 D
70 70

60 60

50 50 50 50 50 50
T Gd G T Gd G

Kerpyl Group Ui Group

CN K CN K
FIG. 5.—A) A–CN–K compositions of shales and siltstones (open symbols) and sandstones (closed symbols) of the Uchur
(squares) and Aimchan (circles) groups. Light solid line represents possible weathering trend of granodiorite (Gd) if no K-
metasomatism is involved. Heavy solid lines represent possible weathering trends combined with K-metasomatism from
tonalite (T) or granite (G). B) Composition of shales and siltstones (open symbols) and sandstones (closed symbols) of the
Kerpyl Group (triangles). The heavy solid line represents possible weathering trend combined with K-metasomatism from
tonalite (T). C) A–CN–K compositions of terrigenous rocks of the Ui group—shales and siltstones associated with the
arenites (open symbols). D) A–CN–K compositions of terrigenous rocks of the Ui group—shales and siltstones associated
with the wackes.

samples have TDM ranging from 2.11 to 2.34 Ga, with εNd values
ranging from -4.2 (74-21, Maya plate) to -7.5 (55-88, Yudoma–
Maya depression). These results suggest that there are distinc-
tively different sources of sediments in the western and eastern
parts of the Middle Riphean Uchur–Maya basin. The Nd data
suggest that there was some first-cycle input from these sources,
as is also suggested by detrital zircons with ages as low as 1300 Ma
(Khudoley et al., 2001). The somewhat lowered CIA values of the
shales and siltstones and the enrichment of plagioclase relative to
K feldspar in sandstones suggest that weathering may not have
been as intense for sediments in the Kerpyl Group as it was for
older sediment. The nature of the source also changed dramati-
cally compared to the older rocks. Shales and siltstones contain
significantly lower Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios and higher Th/
Sc ratios than those of the older sediment, consistent with more
granodiorite–granite and less tonalite and basic rocks in the
provenance.
Lakhanda Group
Only shales and no sandstones were deposited in the Lakhanda
Group, perhaps due to a low rate of erosion and sedimentation
(Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000; Khudoley et al., 2001). The ICV
values of most shales are less than one, and the CIA values are
relatively high, again suggesting intense weathering of first-cycle
sediment or recycled sediment (Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2000).
However some shales have ICV values greater than one, suggest-
ing some first-cycle input. Some of these samples display a
marked shift of TDM from 1.89 Ga (sample 52-80, Yudoma–Maya
depression) in the lowermost Lakhanda group to 1.55 Ga (sample
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 245

A D

B E

C F

FIG. 6.—A comparison of selected elemental ratios. A) Average Eu/Eu* values for shales and siltstones and their 95% confidence
intervals. B) Average Th/Sc ratios for shales and siltstones and their 95% confidence intervals. C) Average (La/Lu)cn ratios for
shales and siltstones and their 95% confidence intervals. D) Average Eu/Eu* values for sandstones and their 95% confidence
intervals. E) Average Th/Sc ratios for sandstones and their 95% confidence intervals. F) Average (La/Lu)cn ratios for sandstones
and their 95% confidence intervals.
246 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

TABLE 5.—The range of elemental ratios of shales and siltstones in this study, compared to
those of fine fractions derived from silicic and basic source rocks.

Uchar Aimchan Kerpyl 1 2

Ui Group Lakhanda Group
Group Group Group Range of fine Range of fine Range of
associated associated fractions from fractions from Proterozoic
3 4
with with Belaya silicic sources basic foliated tonalites
3
arenites wackes (13) Maya (12) sources
Eu/Eu* 0.64–0.78 0.65–0.94 0.55–0.78 0.54–0.59 0.55–0.71 0.35–0.61 0.51–0.67 0.32–0.83 0.70–1.02 0.70–1.09
La/Sc 1.8–3.6 1.5–3.9 1.3–4.5 2.2–4.0 1.3–3.2 1.7–3.3 2.0–2.8 0.70–27.7 0.40–1.1 1.3–3.7
Th/Sc 0.47–1.1 0.36–1.08 0.60–1.78 0.80–1.15 0.58–0.95 0.01–0.04 0.03–0.04 0.64–18.1 0.05–0.4 0.20–1.1
La/Co 1.9–4.6 0.81–7.9 0.4–34.8 1.05–6.70 0.80–3.0 0.69–1.8 0.94–1.4 1.4–22.4 ––––––– –––––––
Th/Co 0.5–4.5 0.19–2.5 0.2–12.5 0.41–2.1 0.3–1.30 0.11–0.17 0.13–0.22 0.30–7.5 ––––––– –––––––
Th/Cr 0.07–0.19 0.07–0.17 0.13–0.25 0.11–0.24 0.16–0.22 2.81–6.36 2.71–5.56 0.067–4.0 0.002–0.045 –––––––
1 2 3 4
from Cullers and Podkovyrov (2002); from Cullers and Podkovyrov (2000); from Cullers (2000); from Anderson and Cullers (1987).

77-6, Maya plate; Table 3) that corresponds to the addition of
juvenile material to the “usual” Paleoproterozoic sources in the
Lakhanda basin. Sample 51-38, with lower TDM =1.39 Ga, low ICV
(0.88), and comparably high La/Sc ratio, is from the upper,
Ignikan succession (Yudoma–Maya depression; Table 3). It falls
off this trend, marking a possible Middle Riphean granite source.
As a whole, the Eu/Eu* ratios observed in the lower Lakhanda
Group are the lowest of the Riphean shales and siltstones, sug-
gesting granodiorites to granites as dominant sources (Cullers
and Podkovyrov, 2000).
Ui Group
The lower and upper beds of the Ui Group consist of shales
and siltstones associated with quartz arenites to arkosic arenites
that were deposited in subtidal to supratidal, beach, and deltaic
environments (Khudoley et al., 2001; Cullers and Podkovyrov,
2002). The middle Ui Group is composed of shales to siltstones
associated with wackes deposited in deep water (Khudoley et
al., 2001).
The lower arkoses of the Ui Group had sources from the west
and the east, whereas the upper arkoses had sources from only
the east. In contrast, wackes were derived from local sources
within the basin (Khudoley et al., 2001). The Nd isotope data
suggest TDM sources of 1.75–1.76 Ga in the lower Kandyk Forma-
tion, 2.33 Ga in the Maya platform, and 1.97–2.11 Ga in the upper
Ui Group in theYudoma–Maya depression (Table 3). This rela-
tionship precludes addition of Upper Riphean to Vendian mantle
material in the sediments, although most detrital zircons had U-
Pb ages ranging from 1050 to 1500 Ma (Khudoley et al., 2001). A
number of analyzed shales and siltstones in the Ui group have
ICV values greater than one and can be interpreted as first-cycle
sediment. The fairly high CIA values of the shales and siltstones
suggest that they formed by intense chemical weathering (Cull-
ers and Podkovyrov, 2002). The Eu/Eu* and Th/Sc ratios of the
shales and siltstones associated with the arenites are the same as

1,8

1,6

1,4 Granite Source

Yudoma Group
1,2
Ui Group
Th/Sc

1 Lakhanda Group

0,8 Kerpyl Group

Aimchan Group
0,6
Uchur Group
Granodiorite-tonalite Source
0,4
(Open symbols -
0,2 Basic Source Maya plate)

0
0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1
Eu/Eu*

FIG. 7.—Plot of Th/Sc vs. Eu/Eu* for shales. The wide scatter suggests a wide range of composition in source rocks that include
tonalities, granodiorites, and granites. The composition of the hypothesized tonalitic source are similar, for example, to the
Penokean foliated tonalites in Wisconsin, USA (Anderson and Cullers, 1987). Also the plotted granitic to granodioritic sources
fall within the range of those observed in other granitoids such as the San Isabel batholith in Colorado, USA (Cullers et al., 1992).
Most of the Kerpyl, Lakhanda, and shales of the Ui groups likely were derived from mostly granite–granodiorite with only up
to a small percent tonalite. The Uchur and some of the Aimchan group shales could have been derived from up to 50 to 75 percent
tonalite.
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 247

granite basic

YUD.
sources
UST-YUDOMA
UY UST-KIRBA
KANDYK
AIMC. KERPYL LAKH.

IGNIKAN
NERUEN

TOTTA

SVETLY
TALYN
UCHUR

DIM

TREKHGORNAYA

0 0.5 1 1.5 0,7 0,8 0,9 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

ICV CIA Eu/Eu*

basic granite basic granite

YUD.

sources sources
UST-YUDOMA
UST-KIRBA
AIMC. KERPYL LAKH. UY

KANDYK
IGNIKAN
NERUEN

TOTTA

SVETLY
TALYN
UCHUR

DIM

TREKHGORNAYA

0 0.5 1 1.5 0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6

Th/Sc (La/Lu)cn La/Sc

FIG. 8.—Temporal trends of ICV, CIA, Eu/Eu*, Th/Sc, (La/Lu)cn, and La/Sc ratios from the Uchur–Maya succession.

those of the Lakhanda Group, suggesting a similar granodiorite
to granite source. Relatively high Eu/Eu* ratios and lower Th/Sc
ratios of the shales and siltstones associated with wackes suggest
a locally derived tonalite to granodiorite source (Cullers and
Podkovyrov, 2002).
Yudoma Group
There are few shales in the predominantly carbonate Yudoma
Group, so discussion of provenance and weathering for only one
analyzed sample of the Yudoma Group (sample 106-44, Mal
formation) is not very useful. Evidently the TDM age of 1335 Ma
with εNd of -1.0 (at 555 Ma) is consistent with some input of
primitive mantle material (Th/Sc = 0.3 and La/Sc = 0.8; Table 3)
in detritus derived mainly from continental crust of this age (U-
Pb ages of zircons groups in Yudoma sandstones are near 2.0 Ga;
Khudoley et al., 2001).
COMPARISON WITH OTHER
PROTEROZOIC SHALES
The observed chemical changes with time are similar to those
in other Proterozoic shales, such as those exposed in the Colorado
province of the southwestern USA, explained by recycling of
original tonalite-rich sources with periodic input of first-cycle
input of granites (Cox et al., 1995). The geochemical and model
248 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH
SiO2/Al2O3
K2O/Na2O
FIG. 9.—Plot of K2O/Na2O vs. SiO2/Al2O3 ratios for most of the shales and sandstones. The figure is after Roser and Korsch (1986).
Some samples contain higher K2O/Na2O ratios than 10 and plot off the graph in the region of passive margins (PM = passive
margin; ACM = active continental margin; A1 = continental volcanic arc; A2 = oceanic volcanic arc).
Nd ages data for Riphean and Vendian sedimentary sequences
(12–15 km thick) in the western slope of the Urals indicate a more
stable source composition (granodiorite to granite dominate)
derived from post-Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks
closer to the average upper-continental-crust composition (Maslov
et al., 2004a; Maslov et al., 2004b; Maslov et al., 2005) as proposed
by Taylor and McLennan (1985). Up to 70–80% of the material
constituting terrigenous rocks of the Riphean stratotype was
likely recycled more than once before final deposition (Maslov et
al., 2005). This is consistent with data for the Riphean terrigenous
rocks in the Uchur–Maya sequences (Podkovyrov et al., 2001;
Podkovyrov et al., 2002).
The comparison of average major-element and some trace-
element concentrations or elemental ratios in the Riphean and
Vendian shales (Table 6) of the Uchur–Maya region (UM) to those
of the Riphean–Vendian cover of the Siberian platform and shales
of the Australian (PAAS), North American (NAP), China (CP),
and Russian (RP) plates display similar post-Archean fine silici-
clastic rock compositions in Proterozoic sedimentary successions
(Fig. 10). The average of shales from the southeastern part of the
Siberian plate differ from the others in their higher K2O, FeOtotal,
Rb, Th, Zr, Hf, and the light REE concentrations. These values
lead to higher La vs. Th/Cr and La vs. Th/Cr ratios, especially in
comparison with average North American shale (Fig. 10B). These
features, taking into account the lower observed Eu/Eu* ratio
(0.58) in the UM shales, probably reflect predominance of granite-
rich sources and more intense weathering and recycling of Sibe-
rian plate sediments during the Riphean, compared with cratonic
cover shales of the other continents.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PALEOTECTONIC
RECONSTRUCTIONS
Recent paleotectonic reconstructions of the Mesoproterozoic
and Neoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia suggest that
Laurentia and Siberia were juxtaposed since Paleoproterozoic
time (Sears and Price, 1978; 2000; Piper, 1987; Hoffman, 1991;
Link et al., 1993; Condie and Rosen, 1994; Rainbird et al., 1998;
Khudoley et al., 2001). Late Proterozoic sedimentary basins in
southeastern Siberia and western North America (successions
A, B, and C; Link et al., 1993) contain a thick succession of
siliciclastic and carbonate rocks that accumulated in intracra-
plate
tonic basins formed by incipient-rift-extension and passive-
continental-margin settings. This suggests a linkage between
Siberia and Laurentia (Link, 1986; Rainbird et al., 1998; Sears
and Price, 2000; Sears et al., 2003; Khudoley et al., 2001; Khudoley
et al., 2003). However, we believe that the real picture is more
complex. A significant part of Siberia is composed of 2.4–2.0 Ga
continental crust with pre-Riphean anorogenic complexes
(Akitkan, Ulkan) formed at 1.74–1.71 Ga (Larin et al., 1997a). In
contrast, continental crust of northern Laurentia was formed
mainly during 2.8–2.6 and 1.9–1.8 Ga events, with cryptic 2.3–
2.1 Ga crust being widespread only in the Wopmay orogen and
the western Cordillera (Reed et al., 1993). Subsequent Protero-
zoic crustal growth occurred during convergent accretion of
largely juvenile crust (1.74–1.60 Ga) and intrusion of 1.48–1.32
anorogenic granitoids (Bowring and Karlstrom, 1990).
These discrepancies are reflected in the Mesoproterozoic his-
tory of the Uchur (< 1.65–1.36 Ga) and 1.47–1.40 Ga Belt basin in
western North America. The Belt successions contain both
Laurentian and non-Laurentian detrital zircons with 1920–1460
Ma ages, but the abundant 1610–1500 Ma and 1480–1440 Ma
source ages are unknown in southeastern Siberia (Ross et al.,
1992; Khudoley et al., 2001; Khudoley et al., 2003; Leupke and
Lyons, 2001; Podkovyrov et al., 2001; Ross and Villeneuve, 2003).
In contrast to the Mesoproterozoic record, the Neoproterozoic
sedimentary history of the Siberian and North American succes-
sions (sequences B and C; Link et al., 1993) formed after Rodinia
aggregation during Grenville orogenesis (1300–1050 Ma) have
common features (Sears and Price, 2003). Late Keweenawan
(Grenvillian) magmatic events about 1000–950 Ma and associ-
ated rift-related siliciclastic sedimentation are widespread and
well documented on the southeastern (Ui Group succession) and
southern margins of the Siberian craton (Rainbird et al., 1998;
Khudoley et al., 2001; Khudoley et al., 2003; Podkovyrov et al.,
2002; Harlan et al., 2005). A more detailed correlation of subse-
quent Neoproterozoic miogeoclinal successions of Siberia
(Semikhatov and Serebrykov, 1983; Bartley et al., 2001) and North
America (Dickinson, 2004), deposited either in rift basins or on
the craton, requires further precise paleomagnetic (Pavlov et al.,
1992; Gallet et al., 2000; Shasillo et al., 2005), U-Pb geochronologi-
cal (detrital zircon and K-feldspar, Link et al., 2005), and Nd and
Sr isotope and paleontological investigations. In view of new
paleomagnetic data (Shatsillo et al., 2005) we consider that juxta-
 RIPHEAN PROVENANCE AND WEATHERING, SIBERIA 249

TABLE 6.—A comparison of average shale chemical compositions of the Siberian,

North American, Russian, Australian, and China platforms.

3
Siberian plate 1 Siberian plate. all Russian plate North China
PAAS 5
Uchur–Maya Riphean–Vendian American plate
2 4
Region shales Plate
N = 104 N = 23 N = 795 N = 617 (9791) N = 40 N = 44
**
SiO2 59.75 62.8 59.25 52.38 59.48 61.03
TiO2 1.08 1 1.00 0.85 0.72 0.92
Al2O3 18.39 18.9 19.07 15.3 15.51 16.47
FeOSUM 7.18 6.3 6.11 5.83 5.19 6.11
MnO 0.04 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.08
MgO 2.06 2.2 2.44 3.02 2.62 2.03
CaO 0.69 1.3 0.79 5.55 3.33 2.11
Na2O 1.00 1.2 1.10 0.82 1.05 1.13
K 2O 4.44 3.7 4.30 3.89 3.64 3.84
P 20 5 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.16
LOI 5.25 6.0 5.07 11.51 8.5 5.15
Rb 190 160 126 125
Ba 570 650 415 636 483
Th 16.8 14.6 11.5 12.3 9
Zr 236 210 224 200
Hf 7.3 5 6.2 6.3
Ta 1.64 1.12
Co 16.5 23 16 26 13
Sc 18 16 16.8 14.9 17
Cr 96 110 80 124 64
La 47 38 39 39 42
Ce 99 80 75 68 86
Nd 40.5 32 34.0 34.40 38.5
Sm 7.8 5.6 6.80 6.70 7.7
Eu 1.34 1.1 1.55 1.39 1.58
Tb 0.98 0.77 1.03 0.89 1.00
Yb 3.44 2.8 2.66 3.21 3.13
Lu 0.62 0.43 0.45 0.49 0.46
Eu/Eu* 0.58 0.66 0.70 0.69 0.70
La/Sc 2.62 2.40 2.32 2.62 2.47
Th/Sc 0.94 0.91 0.68 0.83 0.53
La/Co 4.3 1.65 2.44 1.50 3.23
Th/Co 1.36 0.63 0.72 0.47 0.69
La/Cr 0.52 0.35 0.49 0.31 0.66
Th/Cr 0.18 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.14
1 2
Taylor and McLennan (1985); from databank “Precsed” (10,660 analyses), 57 formations, IGGP RAS;
3 3 4
Ronov and Migdisov (1996); Gromet et al. (1984); Gao et al. (1991).
** SiO2 – LOI – in mass %, Rb – Lu – in ppm

position of southern Siberia to northern Laurentia (cf. Rainbird et
al., 1998) is the best model among other contrasting reconstruc-
tions (see Khudoley et al., this volume).
CONCLUSIONS
The shales, siltstones, and sandstones of Riphean and Vendian
reference successions in the Uchur–Maya region, southeastern
Siberia, were analyzed for the petrography, elemental, and Nd
isotope compositions. The sandstones are quartz rich and range
from wackes to arenites, an observation that suggests a conti-
nental-block to recycled-orogen provenance. The sources of
arenites are characterized by episodes of tectonic activation and
sediment recycling in platform environments. The ICV values
of most samples are less than one, so most analyzed specimens
are likely composed of recycled material; some samples in the
250 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH

FIG. 10.—The concentrations of A) major elements and B) trace elements or elemental ratios of the average Mesoproterozoic and
Neoproterozoic shales of the Uchur–Maya region (UM) are compared to those of the Riphean–Vendian cover of the Siberian
platform (SP) and average shale compositions of the Australian (PAAS), North American platform (NAP), and China (CP)
platform covers.

Kerpyl (< 1220–1050 Ma) and Ui (1005–950 Ma) groups have ICV
values greater than one, suggesting some first-cycle input. The
Eu/Eu* and (La/Lu)cn ratios of the shales–siltstones tend to
decrease and the Th/Sc ratios increase from the Uchur (< 1650–
1360 Ma) to Aimchan (1350–1270? Ma), Kerpyl, Lakhanda (1025–
1005 Ma), and Ui groups. These results suggest that the geochemi-
cally typical post-Archean average source for the shales changed
from an initially more tonalite-rich composition to gradually
increasing contributions from granodiorite–granite during this
time. This chemical trend with time would be produced from
recycling of original tonalite-rich or granodiorite sources and
periodic input of first-cycle material derived from granites. This
is similar to trends observed in Proterozoic shales in southwest-
ern USA (Cox et al., 1995) and in Riphean stratotype sequences
in the western Urals (Maslov et al., 2005).
Nd isotopes support predominantly Paleoproterozoic (TNdDM
1.9-2.4 Ga) sources for most groups, with additional Archean-
block erosional input (TNdDM up to 2.8 Ga) only for the Aimchan
rocks. A mixture of Paleoproterozoic and younger
Mesoproterozoic sources is indicated for shales in the Lakhanda
and Vendian (< 565–542 Ma) Yudoma groups. Neoproterozoic
Nd model ages in Yudoma Group shales are interpreted as
reflecting Vendian uplift and destruction of predominantly
Paleoproterozoic sources on the eastern periphery of the Siberian
craton with variable input of Neoproterozoic mantle material
during Rodinia destruction (< 650 Ma; Podkovyrov et al., 2001).
There is a marked similarity between the Neoproterozoic
history of sedimentary basins in southeastern Siberia and west-
ern North America, formed in intracratonic and passive-margin
settings. We favor direct Siberia and Laurentia conjugation in
Neoproterozoic time, only after aggregation of Rodinia during
Grenville orogenesis (1300–1050 Ma; Hoffman, 1991; Bartley et
al., 2001; Semikhatov et. al., 2002). Grenville orogenesis post-
dated deposition of the Urchur, Aimchan, and Kerpyl Groups in
the Uchur–Maya basin but may have provided a source for
juvenile sediment in the ca. 1025 Ma Lakhanda Group. Post-1000
Ma rift-related magmatic events are recorded in the Ui Group
(Rainbird et al., 1998; Khudoley et al., 2001; Podkovyrov et al.,
2001). These data support the hypotheses of the existence of the
Neoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia (< 1050–600 Ma for the
Siberian craton) but do not give direct evidence for the configu-
ration of Siberian juxtaposition to Laurentia during the
Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the crew of the Kansas State University for irradi-
ating our samples and the Department of Mechanical–Nuclear
Engineering for the use of their counting equipment for neutron
activation analyses and L.N. Kotova for technical assistance in
the course of preparation of this paper. We also thank M.A.
Semikhatov, A.K. Khudoley, A.B. Kotov, and A.M. Larin for
helpful discussion and Prof. G. Girty for a constructive review.
The wise tolerance and editorial advice of R.S. Lewis and Prof.
P.K. Link are greatly appreciated. The research of V.N.
Podkovyrov was supported by the Russian Foundation for
Basic Research, grant 04-05-65002.
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254 V.N. PODKOVYROV, R.L. CULLERS, AND VICTOR P. KOVACH