RESEARCH ARTICLE

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A Paper-Based Triboelectric Touch Interface: Toward Fully

Green and Recyclable Internet of Things
Jesper Edberg,* Ulrika Boda, Mohammad Yusuf Mulla, Robert Brooke, Sandra Pantzare,
Jan Strandberg, Andreas Fall, Konstantin Economou, Valerio Beni, and Astrid Armgarth

the origin and processing of materials,

The transition to a sustainable society is driving the development of green production of electronics components,
electronic solutions designed to have a minimal environmental impact. One usage, and disposal/destruction. With
promising route to achieve this goal is to construct electronics from biobased the trend of the internet-of-things (IoT)
materials like cellulose, which is carbon neutral, non-toxic, and recyclable. steadily growing, electronic devices are
being integrated into every aspect of our
This is especially true for internet-of-things devices, which are rapidly growing everyday lives.[4–6] As the number of con-
in number and are becoming embedded in every aspect of our lives. Here, nected devices increases, so does the
paper-based sensor circuits are demonstrated, which use triboelectric problem of electronic waste.[7,8] For this
pressure sensors to help elderly people communicate with the digital world reason, there is a drive to develop green
using an interface in the form of an electronic “book”, which is more intuitive IoT electronics to minimize this grow-
ing problem. One way to tackle the prob-
to them. The sensors are manufactured by screen printing onto flexible paper
lem is to build electronics based on bio-
substrates, using in-house developed cellulose-based inks with mass sources such as wood.[9–11] This re-
non-hazardous solvents. The triboelectric sensor signal, generated by the newable source of the material is car-
contact between a finger and chemically modified cellulose, can reach several bon neutral as opposed to synthetic ma-
volts, which can be registered by a portable microcontroller card and terials based on petroleum such as plas-
transmitted by Bluetooth to any device with an internet connection. Apart tics, and it has the added advantage of
being biodegradable which means that
from the microcontroller (which can be easily removed), the whole system can it will not contribute to landfills and
be recycled at the end of life. ocean microplastics, which never fully
breaks down and can bioaccumulate and
biomagnify.[12] Besides being used as
1. Introduction a structural material, wood derivatives
such as cellulose and lignin can also have an electronic or
Green electronics is the collective term for technologies where electrochemical function; properties which have been used
the full environmental impact is considered and where nega- to manufacture bio-based electronics such as batteries,[13,14]
tive effects have been minimized or eradicated.[1–3] This includes supercapacitors,[15,16] sensors,[17] and energy-harvesters.[18] This

J. Edberg, U. Boda, M. Y. Mulla, R. Brooke, S. Pantzare, J. Strandberg, U. Boda

V. Beni, A. Armgarth Linköping University
RISE Research Institutes of Sweden Department of Science and Technology (ITN)
Digital Systems Laboratory of Organic Electronics
Printed-, Bio- and Organic Electronics SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
Bredgatan 35, SE-602 21 Norrköping, Sweden A. Fall
E-mail: jesper.edberg@ri.se RISE Research Institutes of Sweden
J. Edberg, U. Boda, M. Y. Mulla, R. Brooke, S. Pantzare, A. Fall, V. Beni Bioeconomy & Health, Smart Materials
Digital Cellulose Center Drottning Kristinas väg 61, SE-114 28 Stockholm, Sweden
Bredgatan 35, SE-602 21 Norrköping, Sweden K. Economou
Linköping University
Department of Culture and Society
Division of Culture
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
Society
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adsr.202200015
Design and Media (KSFM)
© 2022 The Authors. Advanced Sensor Research published by SE-601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
DOI: 10.1002/adsr.202200015

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new research field goes under different names including paper
electronics or digital cellulose.
Besides the materials being used, the method of producing
electronics is also important to be considered “green”. This in-
cludes the energy consumption and chemicals used for process-
ing. Printed electronics (PE) is the method of producing elec-
tronic components using traditional or novel printing methods
with the use of functional inks.[19–22] PE has several advantages
over classical electronics manufacturing such as low processing
temperatures (resulting in lower energy consumption) and less
hazardous chemicals (such as strong acids used for metal etch-
ing). Therefore, PE can be considered “greener” as compared to
classical electronics.
One more environmental aspect of IoT is the energy used to
power distributed devices.[23,24] Since it is not practical to use ca-
bles connected to the power grid, most IoT devices rely on bat-
teries for power. However, batteries have a limited lifetime, and
replacing them is often not an option if the devices are placed in
remote locations, embedded into larger systems, or just because
of the sheer number of the devices. For this reason, much re-
search is focused on developing energy-autonomous systems that
can harvest power from their surroundings.[24,25] These power
sources can be light, heat, movement, or RF radiation, to name
a few. One of the more recent energy harvesting technologies is
triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) which can convert mechan-
ical energy into electrical energy.[26,27] These devices share many
characteristics with piezoelectric energy harvesters, but they can
be constructed from a wider range of materials and can generally
harvest more power than by using the piezoelectric effect. TENG
has been explored for a large number of applications, including
sensing and human-machine interactions.[28]
In this work, we have developed flexible, printed, and paper-
based triboelectric touch/pressure sensors working as a human-
machine interface for IoT applications. TENG devices have
shown great promise as an electronic interface for body param-
eters such as pressure upon touch,[29,30] eye movement,[31] or
as hearing aids.[32] Typically, printed electronics use plastic sub-
strates since they have a flat surface and are less sensitive to am-
bient conditions such as humidity. However, since plastic is cur-
rently one of our biggest waste problems, the transition to more
sustainable materials is crucial.[33] To this end, we produced the
sensors and circuits on paper substrates, which can be made to
be biodegradable (as to not contribute to bioaccumulation of mi-
croparticles) and CO2 neutral. Besides the substrate, also the tri-
boelectric material which generates the sensor signal was based
on cellulose, and a printable cellulose ink was developed. We used
printed carbon for the conducting lines and charge collectors to
build metal-free electronics. We explored both commercial car-
bon inks as well as an in-house developed carbon ink that uses
nanocellulose as the binder. Also, we used only environmentally
friendly solvents for the developed inks to further minimize the
environmental impact, but also to lower the hazard risks for hu-
mans during production. The sensors were further demonstrated
in a portable electronics application in the form of an electronic
book for elderly people, with content produced in collaboration
with the seniors themselves or with relatives, allowing for the
personalization of both the content and the contexts of use. Since
many elderly people have a difficult time using modern digital de-
vices such as smartphones or tablets, this book, which is called
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the MediaBook, is designed to be used as a more intuitive and
user-friendly interface to other digital medias.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Sensor Structure and Signal-To-Noise Ratio
Although many types of touch sensors exist (i.e., resistive and
capacities), triboelectric sensors have the advantage that they are
self-powered, that is they produce their own signal (voltage) upon
pressure stimuli.[26] This is different from for example resistive
or capacitive sensors which require that a continuous stimulus
(a current or a voltage) is delivered from the measurement appa-
ratus and the sensor response is continuously recorded. Subse-
quently, triboelectric sensing has the advantage that the readout
electronics can be in a low-power “deep sleep state” until it is
awakened by an interrupt generated after touch. In this work,
a triboelectric touch-sensor using wood-based materials in the
sensing layer, the electrical conductors, as well as the substrate,
was developed and produced using widely employed mass fabri-
cation technique of screen printing (Figure 1a).
The sensors reported herein are based on single electrode
mode (illustrated in Figure 1b) TENG.[34] This consists of a con-
ductive layer called the charge collector (in this work the carbon
electrodes), and a dielectric layer called the electrification layer,
friction layer, or simply triboelectric layer (in this work the nitro-
cellulose coating).[35,36] Triboelectric signals are generated when
a free-standing electrification layer (in this work human skin)
comes into contact with the device electrification layer, inducing
in this way a transfer of surface charges between the two mate-
rials. When the layers are separated, the surface charges persist,
and the sign (positive or negative) of the accumulated charge will
depend on the relative position of the two materials (cellulose and
skin) in the so-called triboelectric series (Figure 1c) with the mate-
rials higher in the series giving, upon contact, electrons to those
lower in the series.[37] Finally, since the charge collector is con-
nected to the electrical ground, the accumulated charges will in-
duce a current (to balance the charges at the electrification layer),
which becomes the sensor signal.
One issue with the use of cellulose to detect, via triboelectric
devices, the touch of a finger is that a low voltage is typically gen-
erated since cellulose, wood, paper, and other bio-based materi-
als are positioned close to the human body (i.e., skin) in the tri-
boelectric series.[38,39] Subsequently, in this work cellulose was
replaced with nitrocellulose (NC), which is more electronegative
and hence has a position lower down in the triboelectric series
(Figure 1c).[40,41] This separation is enough to generate a voltage
large enough to be useful for sensing applications while being
not too large to damage the low-power electronics employed for
readout.
Figure 1d shows the schematics of two different sensor cir-
cuits, one with circular sensor electrodes and one with an inter-
digitated structure, that were designed and evaluated. The circu-
lar design most closely resembles that of the generalized struc-
ture shown in Figure 2a, as it consists of just a single charge
collector and electrification layer. The problem with this design
is that for portable electronics applications, there is not always
an obvious ground point to connect to. This can lead to a large
amount of electronic noise, which can make it difficult for the
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Figure 1. a) Schematic of the sensor concept. b) Schematic of TENG single-electrode mode with material cross sections. c) Triboelectric series. d)
Schematics of two different sensor circuit patterns. e,f) Voltage response to finger tapping TENG sensor, with two different sensor structures. g) Sensor
noise level for the two designs, with/without NC coating and with/without a finger statically pushing on the sensor (open vs. holding).
readout electronics to detect a clear signal. To investigate the
effect of the ground point on the noise level, a second design
based on two electrodes (sensing electrode and ground electrode)
finger-like structure (interdigitated electrodes, IDEs) was created
(Figure 1a). In early measurements with the circular design, it be-
came apparent that less noise was generated when touching the
sensor if the user was also touching a metal wire connecting to
the electrical ground of the measurement equipment. However,
holding a ground cable is not practically useful in any real-life ap-
plication, so, the idea behind the interdigitated structure was to
mimic this configuration while only touching the electrode area.
When a finger comes in contact with the IDE sensor, it will bridge
the gap between the electrodes, thus creating a similar setup to
holding the ground cable and thereby generating a more stable
electrical signal. The “fingers” in the sensor electrodes were made
wider (1.26 mm, to maximize contact area) than the ground “fin-
gers” and were coated with nitrocellulose, while the ground elec-
trodes (0.66 mm) were uncoated, that is, only carbon. The over-
all circuit design was made to fit in the MediaBook (see the sec-
tion “Portable electronics and wireless communication” as well
as Supporting Information), where each sensor is connected to a
contact pad by a conductor line. The contact pads are further used
to connect to the electronic readout system. Figure 1e,f shows the
generated voltage from the two different sensor structures when
tapping with a finger. Interestingly, the signal strength from the
two sensor structures is very similar (≈2 V in the positive voltage
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direction), even though they have very different electrode areas
(3.14 cm2 for circular and 1.24 cm2 for IDE). This voltage level is
more than enough for reading out the signal, but not too large,
which could damage the readout electronics in portable applica-
tions (see section “Portable electronics and wireless communica-
tion”).
The sensor in this work generates short voltage spikes upon
contact, so, it is important that no signals are generated when no
finger is touching or when a finger is touching statically (pushing
for a long time rather than tapping with the finger) since this
would make the application trigger at the wrong time. For this
reason, an investigation into the sensitivity of the printed circuits
to electronic noise was conducted. Figure 1g shows the electronic
noise level (background noise) for the two sensor designs (inter-
digitated and circular) with or without NC coating on top, and
with or without a finger pushing down statically on the sensor. A
similar noise level (≈75–100 mV) was observed for both sensor
designs, with and without NC coating, when no finger was touch-
ing. For the IDE design, the noise would decrease to <50 mV
when pushing with a finger. This is because the body becomes
grounded through contact with the bare carbon electrode fingers,
which reduces noise. In contrast, the circular design had a large
increase in noise level upon contact with a finger, reaching values
of 400–500 mV. While the voltage generated by the sensors in
Figure 1e,f shows large variations due to the irreproducible pres-
sure when tapping with a finger, the values are still comparable
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Figure 2. a) Molecular structure of the NC ink components. b) Photographs of NC inks using propylene glycol (left) and dipropylene glycol (right) as
solvents. c) Rheology data of NC ink with different solid content. d) Photograph of a printed circuit on a paper substrate. e) Sheet resistance data for the
different carbon inks, and carbon coated with different number of layers of NC. f) Resistance of printed carbon conductor lines during bending tests at
different bending radii, with “Rest” indicating the values between bending tests.

at ≈2 V peak voltage in the positive direction. Taking this value
as the “signal value”, the signal-to-noise ratio (Vsignal /Vnoise ) of
the IDE design is ≈46 while for the circular design it was ≈4.
This shows that a tenfold increase in signal-to-noise ratio can be
achieved using the IDE design rather than the “classical” single
electrode design which is most often reported in literature. While
the signal level in Figure 1e is large enough to not be confused
with any noise generated by the surroundings or by holding
the sensor, this might not be the case for a gentler tapping than
what was used to record this dataset. Since the sensor signal
is proportional to applied pressure (see section “Triboelectric
characterization”), the noise level sets the limit to how small
pressure can accurately be registered. The electronic noise data
in Figure 1g was derived from Figure S1 (Supporting Informa-
tion). A video of sensors generating voltage peaks on a portable
oscilloscope can be seen in Video S1 (Supporting Information).
2.2. Ink Formulation and Printing
While NC has been used in the past in triboelectric
applications,[18,40] to the best of our knowledge it has not
been used in a printed electronics manufacturing process. NC is
usually prepared by treating cellulose with a mixture of nitric and
sulfuric acid, as depicted in Figure 2a and has historically been
used in many products such as ping pong balls and celluloid
film. Since NC does not dissolve in water, an organic solvent
was needed. While NC can easily be dissolved in acetone, this is
not a suitable solvent for screen-printing due to its low boiling
point which can cause rapid evaporation, leading to drying of
the inks in the printing frames, causing clogging. Furthermore,
acetone can also damage the screen printing frames, and the
produced volatiles are hazardous to humans. Instead, we looked
for a higher boiling point solvent with no hazards. Propylene
glycol (boiling point of 188,2 °C) and dipropylene glycol (boiling
point (230,5 °C) were investigated as they are both non-toxic.
When performing solvent exchange from acetone to propylene
glycol (see Experimental Section) the polymer sedimented at the
bottom of the vial. However, when trying the even higher boiling
point dipropylene glycol, this time, a stable solution could be
obtained. Figure 2b shows photographs of inks prepared with
propylene glycol (left) and dipropylene glycol (right). In the left
photograph, the white NC can be seen to sediment at the bottom
while no residues could be found in the perfectly transparent
dipropylene glycol mixture.
The ink was prepared with different concentrations of NC (10,
20, 30, and 40 mg ml−1 ) and their rheological properties were
characterized using a rheometer. In screen printing, the ink
should have the property that the viscosity decreases at applied
shear force, so-called shear thinning.[42] This ensures that the
ink flows easily during printing but becomes more viscous after
printing which prevents it from spreading. Figure 2c shows
the rheology graphs of viscosity vs. shear speed. The lowest ink
concentration had a very low viscosity which did not change

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with increased shear speed. With increasing concentration, the
desired shear thinning appears, and at 40 mg ml−1 , the ink was
viscous enough to easily handle while also printing well due to
the lowering of viscosity at higher shear speed. Even higher con-
centrations resulted in inks that were too viscous to be printable
(no further characterization was done on these). The 40 mg ml−1
concentration was therefore used for the printing of the sensors.
The printed circuits consisted of carbon conductors and charge
collectors, an NC electrification layer, and a lacquer layer meant
to protect the carbon lines from scratches during the assembly of
the MediaBooks. The lacquer layer however turned out to not be
necessary (although it was used for most prints) since the printed
carbon showed good adhesions to the paper. The frames used for
the printing can be seen in Figure S2 (Supporting Information).
Figure 2d shows a photograph of a printed sensor circuit on a pa-
per substrate. Since the NC remains transparent after printing, it
cannot be seen easily by the naked eye. However, the presence of
NC was confirmed by measuring the electrical surface resistance.
Three different types of carbon inks were used in the study: two
commercial inks and one in-house prepared. The in-house pre-
pared carbon ink (which we call CNF-C in the manuscript) is wa-
ter based and uses cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) as the ink binder.
In contrast, commercial carbon inks are solvent based and use
synthetic binders. Figure 2e shows the sheet resistance of the dif-
ferent carbon inks used with a different number of NC layers on
top. One or two layers of NC show an unchanged sheet resistance,
however, at three layers the resistance reached values outside the
measurement range (>10 MΩ sq−1 .) indicating a full coverage
with no pinholes. The three carbon inks show a large variation
in resistance, with the in-house prepared ink having the highest
resistance. The commercial 7102 carbon ink was used for its com-
paratively low sheet resistance to see if this would influence the
sensor performance, and a commercial stretchable carbon was
used to see if it would perform better during the bending of the
substrates. Since the printed sheets need to be bent during the as-
sembly into the MediaBook device, bending tests were performed
on conductor lines using the three carbon inks. The results can
be seen in Figure 2f where the lines were bent around rods with
different bending radii. As can be seen from the graph, the re-
sistance of the conductor lines did not change to any significant
degree for any of the carbon prints. However, it should be noted
that the bent area is only a small part of the total length of the
line.
The paper substrates used for most of the investigations in
this work are not 100% cellulose-based (which is the case for
most papers which usually contain different fillers) but contained
wet-strength polymers. This paper was used since it had an ideal
thickness, mechanical properties, and heat resistance to fit into
the final application (see the section “Portable electronics and
wireless communication”). However, due to the unknown origin
of the additive, the recyclability of the paper sheets becomes ques-
tionable. In order to show that the sensor sheets can be made
truly recyclable, we further manufactured the circuits on paper
containing 100% cellulose (see Figure S3, Supporting Informa-
tion). We showed that these sensors performed as well as the
ones printed on the wet-strength paper (Figure S3a,b, Supporting
Information) and demonstrated that the carbon conductors and
NC can be washed away by first wetting the sheets followed by
mechanical force (rubbing). It should be noted that the inks did
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not dissolve in water (Figure S3d, Supporting Information) but
that the combination of wetting and rubbing was needed (Figure
S3e,f, Supporting Information). Since this kind of washing step
(wetting and mechanical force) is typical for paper recycling to
remove inks and other additives (a process known as de-inking),
we believe that the technology is truly recyclable. Also, beyond
recyclability, paper made from only cellulose will naturally biode-
grade if it ends up in landfills or in the sea.
2.3. Triboelectric Characterization
While the sensors were demonstrated to work with direct con-
tact with skin (Figure 1), performing repeatable quantitative mea-
surements require an automated setup. To this end, a measure-
ment setup with a linear actuator arm and an adjustable stage
was constructed (see Experimental Section and Figure S4, Sup-
porting Information). The frequency of the linear actuator of the
arm could be controlled and acted as a replacement for the finger.
The triboelectric sensors were placed on the base plate attached
to a movable stage which position could be controlled with a pre-
cision using a micromanipulator screw. By adjusting the position
of the plane, the impact force of the arm on the sensor could be
controlled. The relative impact force was measured using a com-
mercial piezoelectric sensor placed behind the reusable adhesive
over which samples were mounted. This piezo sensor however
does not provide absolute force values but allowed us to adjust
the position of the base plate such that the relative impact forces
were consistent in all measurements. A piece of natural leather
was attached to the actuator arm to mimic the contact between
the sensor and a finger.
Sensors with different number of layers of printed NC were
produced and the generated peak-to-peak voltage (Vpp ) was
recorded. The results in Figure 3a shows that even one layer of
NC is enough to produce a signal. However, the generated volt-
age increases with the number of layers up to 3 layers and then
stabilizes. This indicates that the first and second layers do not
cover completely the underlaying carbon electrode, which is in
agreement with the sheet resistance data from Figure 2e. If there
are pinholes present in the NC coating, some charges that accu-
mulate on the surface during TENG operation can be discharged
through the holes to the carbon charge collectors. This loss in
surface charge will also results in a lower generated voltage. It is
therefore important to have a full coverage of the electrification
layer to achieve optimum performance.
The voltage response of circular and interdigitated sensors was
also studied, and these can be seen in Figure 3b,c, respectively.
Both sensors’ structures show similar voltage magnitude and
an asymmetry in the positive and negative voltage peaks (also
observed in Figure 1e,f using a finger). Such asymmetry is of-
ten observed in TENGs and has been explained by an adhesion-
induced impulsive separation.[43] Figure 3d shows the mean volt-
age generated by the two types of sensor designs and using two
types of carbon ink with a large difference in sheet resistance
(see Figure 2f). For the interdigitated sensors, no difference in
voltage level could be seen by using carbon inks with higher or
lower resistance. This shows that the in-house prepared aque-
ous cellulose-based ink can be used without loss in performance,
and so the commercial ink using synthetic binders and the or-
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Figure 3. a) Mean Vpp of interdigitated sensor with different numbers of printed NC layers. b) Voltage response of circular sensor. c) Voltage response
of interdigitated sensor. d) Mean Vpp for different sensor structures and different carbon inks. e) Vpp of a sensor with different load resistance. f) Vpp of
a sensor with different relative pressure, measured by the response of a piezo sensor.
ganic solvent was not used in further measurements or in the
final application. While the circular designs show larger voltage
values, the large error bars in the circular sensor using CNF-C
carbon make it difficult to draw any conclusions. It does however
appear like the circular design with its larger surface area could
have an advantage when it comes to the produced voltage. How-
ever, it should be noted that the values shown in the figure are the
peak-to-peak voltage values. Figure S5 (Supporting Information)
shows that there is a difference in the ratio between the positive
and negative voltage peaks for the two sensor designs, with the in-
terdigitated being more asymmetrical. This means that the volt-
age peak in only the positive direction is more similar between
the two designs. Since this is the level, which is measured in
the MediaBook application, there is little advantage in using the
circular design. Instead, the interdigitated design with its high
signal-to-noise ratio was deemed to be the more advantageous
design.
The voltage that can be measured upon impact depends on
the load over which it is measured. Typically for TENG, a load be-
tween 1–100 MΩ is required to achieve maximum voltage and
power.[44] Figure 3e shows the Vpp of an interdigitated sensor
which was measured while varying the load resistance. The ef-
fective load is the parallel connection of the external load and
the internal load of the measurement equipment (10 MΩ), which
limited the values to 5 MΩ in our setup. We can see that the volt-
age increases more sharply for the smaller values of the load and
then decreases to finally give a linear increase. This is likely due
to the limited input impedance of the measurement equipment
and indicates that the voltage can be higher if the impedance of
the measurement equipment is increased. This also gives im-
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portant design information when choosing the impedance in the
portable readout electronics for the MediaBook. Figure S6 (Sup-
porting Information) shows the calculated peak power values for
the same data as in Figure 3e.
Finally, we investigated if the voltage signal was dependent on
the impact force of the actuator. This is the case for piezoelectric
sensors which work by compressing the material, but not neces-
sarily for TENG devices which work on a different physical prin-
ciple. Figure 3f shows Vpp versus the voltage of the piezoelectric
pressure sensors placed behind the triboelectric sensor. We can
see that the two voltage signals have a linear dependence. Since
the piezoelectric sensor generates a voltage that is linear to the
applied pressure, this shows that also the TENG device has a lin-
ear response to pressure and can be used for such applications.
One important question is the lifetime of the touch sensors.
Since the triboelectric effect is based on friction, any such system
will eventually degrade. But the rate of degradation will largely
depend on the choice of materials, architecture, mode of oper-
ation, as well as the applied force. Since paper is generally not
a very durable material compared to synthetic materials such as
plastics, this question of durability becomes even more impor-
tant. Figure S7 (Supporting Information) shows the voltage re-
sponse of a sensor during 50 000 cycles in the actuator setup.
The frequency was set to 2 Hz to mimic the tapping speed of a
finger, and the voltage response was periodically measured (ini-
tial values, after 20 000, 40 000, and 50 000 cycles). Surprisingly,
no degradation was visible from the voltage signal during the first
40 000 cycles, and after the full 50 000 cycles, there was even an in-
crease in the signal strength. One possible explanation is that the
friction causes a roughening of the nitrocellulose surface which
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Figure 4. Scanning electron microscopy images of different printed carbon layers (a–f) and different number of NC layers on carbon (g–j).
increases the effective contact area. For further details on how
the frequency of operation affects the triboelectric signal, see Fig-
ure S8 (Supporting Information) and the associated discussion in
Supporting information.
The performance of the sensors in this work was compared
with recent similar publications on triboelectric touch sensors.
Table S1 (Supporting Information) lists the materials (triboelec-
tric material, charge collector, and substrate) and generated volt-
age of 8 previous publications. The literature survey was limited
to only publications where the single electrode mode was used
and where the main theme was TENG as a touch sensor. Among
the reviewed publications, there was none that used biobased ma-
terials in any of the layers. Typically, synthetic materials like poly-
dimethylsiloxane and poly(ethylene terephthalate) were used for
the triboelectric layer and substrate respectively, and metals or
metal oxides were used for the charge collectors. The generated
voltage of the prior art sensors was in the same order of mag-
nitude as this work, with the exception of two references where
up to 100 V could be generated. It should however be noted that
for sensor applications, such high voltages will be problematic,
as they can damage the readout electronics, and more complex
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circuits with voltage dividers will be needed to circumvent this
issue.
2.4. Scanning Electron Microscopy
The microscopic structure of the three types of printed carbon
on paper, as well as NC coatings on carbon was investigated us-
ing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Figure 4a–f shows the
structure of the two commercial screen-printing carbons (7102
and CI-2051), as well as the in-house, made carbon ink (CNF-C)
which used cellulose nanofibrils as the binder. At low magnifi-
cation (Figure 4a–c), it is clear that the CNF-C carbon is thin-
ner than the commercial carbons as the underlying fibers of the
paper substrate can be seen. However, although the films were
thin, the higher magnification image (Figure 4f) shows that the
coating is continuous at microscopic scale and without apparent
pinholes, like the commercial inks (Figure 4d,e). Even though
the CNF-C carbon conductors were thin, and the resistance of
the obtained conductor lines was considerably higher (Figure 2),
the continuous coating ensures good triboelectric performance
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Figure 5. a) Sensor response read by a microcontroller with two sensor channels connected and transmitted to the computer by Bluetooth. The sensors
were pressed with the backside of a finger to eliminate the effect of finger moisture which gave varying results. b) Sensor response while tapping or
holding a sensor with constant pressure. c) Schematic of the MediaBook operation flow. d) Photographs of the MediaBook front cover, e) inside the book,
f) and the embedded MCU card. g,h) Photographs of MediaBook in operation as pushing the buttons activated and changes a photograph slideshow
in the computer (see Video S2, Supporting Information).

as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3d shows that there is little differ-
ence in the magnitude of the triboelectric signal for the differ-
ent carbon ink types, and Figure S5 (Supporting Information)
shows that there is no difference in the peak ratio between the
carbon with the lowest and highest resistance. The combined re-
sults show that the cellulose-based carbon performs as good as
commercial inks in the triboelectric sensors with an added ad-
vantage of not containing any synthetic binders and using envi-
ronmentally friendly solvents.
SEM of the NC-coated structures (Figure 4g–j) indicates that
nitrocellulose makes the surface more insulating with the in-
creasing number of coated layers, based on the diminishing pres-
ence of granular brighter conducting carbon particles visible,
while the surface appears increasingly smooth due to the non-
conductive material on top. At two layers of nitrocellulose in Fig-
ure 4h, several dark pinholes can be seen. At 3 layers only a single
pinhole can be seen and at 4 layers no pinholes were detected.
This explains the results from Figure 2e and Figure 3a which
showed an increase in sheet resistance and voltage respectively
with the number of layers up to 3–4 layers after which little dif-
ference was detected. Figure S9 (Supporting Information) shows
the thickness of the printed coatings of carbon and nitrocellulose
(combined thickness) with respect to the number of printed NC
layers. The graph shows that the carbon layer is ≈4 μm thick, but
that there appears to be no increase in the thickness as the nitro-
cellulose is added. Since the nitrocellulose ink has a high concen-
tration (40 mg mL−1 ), it is unlikely that the thickness should be
undetectable. It is more likely that the carbon electrode is porous
enough that it absorbs the ink during printing, instead of only
ending up on the top. This explains why there is not complete
coverage after just a single print. With the increasing number of
prints, the pores get filled in by the NC and eventually cover all
the carbon at the top surface after 3–5 printed layers.
2.5. Portable Electronics and Wireless Communication
In the TENG characterization so far, the triboelectric response
was measured using an oscilloscope, which is an advanced,
costly, and bulky equipment. To demonstrate the feasibility of
using the paper-sensors in real-life IoT applications, we here
show the integration with a low-cost and low-power portable
electronics card equipped with wireless BLE (Bluetooth Low
Energy) communication. Figure 5g shows a photograph of the
in-house developed printed circuit board (PCB) with a microcon-
troller used for collecting data from the sensors. Figure 5a shows
the data from the microcontroller when two sensor channels
of the interdigitated structure were connected. The two sensors
(TENG1 and TENG2) were positioned close to each other as
indicated in the photograph in Figure S10 (Supporting Informa-
tion). When tapping TENG1 with a finger, clear voltage signals
were registered while only a small crosstalk could be detected in

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the neighboring TENG2 channel, and vice versa. While the two
sensors were located with a few centimeters distance from each
other, the corresponding conductor lines were only millime-
ters apart. Even so, the electronic crosstalk can be considered
negligible, which is of great importance when using multiple
sensors in a circuit. No additional amplifying electronics was
needed to capture the signals which were registered directly by
the analog inputs of the microcontroller Figure 5b further shows
the signals from TENG1 when tapping compared to applying a
constant pressure using a finger. Moreover, as described in the
previous section, the TENG voltage was just enough to trigger
signals to be measured by (analog to digital converter) ADC of
the microcontroller, while not too high which could damage the
microcontroller. Only a small capacitive electronic noise could be
registered during the constant pressure, showing that the good
signal-to-noise level of the interdigitated sensors persist also for
the portable electronics readout. It can be noted that the signal in
Figure 5a is slightly lower than that shown for finger tapping in
Figure 1f. This difference is likely due either to the difference in
input impedance between the oscilloscope and the portable elec-
tronics or by a difference in finger moisture at the two measure-
ment times. However, the most important property of the sensor
signals is that they can be clearly distinguished from any noise or
crosstalk.
Although the developed sensors can have a wide range of uses,
the printed circuits were designed to be used for a particular IoT
application, namely as the human-machine interface in an elec-
tronic album, shaped and designed like a picture book with card-
board pages. This “MediaBook” is meant to be used as an intu-
itive interface to electronic media content for elderly people. The
rationale behind the idea is that elderly people sometimes have
difficulties using electronic interfaces like the touch screens on
smartphones and tablets which limits their possibilities of uti-
lizing modern technology. This is both a problem of hand/eye
coordination, but also because capacitive touch displays are not
optimized for the dryer skin of elderly people, sometimes leading
to a poor sensitivity. There can also be a mental barrier to over-
come with elderly people using technology that seems foreign to
them.[45] For this reason, the MediaBook was developed to bridge
the gap and let people of all ages get the benefits that modern
technology and media can offer. The book, seen in one version in
Figure 5e,f, has touch buttons on each page along with text and
photographs. As shown in the flow diagram of Figure 5c, pushing
a button on a page will generate a voltage signal which is regis-
tered by the microcontroller on the PCB embedded in the book.
The card further sends a signal to an external media by a wireless
Bluetooth connection (see Figure S11, Supporting Information)
for a schematic of the microcontroller card). Figure S12 (Sup-
porting Information) shows the integration of the printed circuits
into the MediaBook and the connection to the readout electron-
ics. The media platform can for example be a smartphone or a
tablet (or any other device with an internet connection), which
will activate video and/or music connected to the information on
the book page. The MediaBook concept is meant to be used in
research on how elderly people interact with digital technology,
and while that research lies outside the scope of this work, the
reader can find more information about the planned work on the
referenced webpage.[46] Figure 5g,h shows the MediaBook being
used to control photograph slideshow on a computer by wireless
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communication. A video of this can be found in Supporting In-
formation (Video S2, Supporting Information).
3. Conclusion
In this work, we have developed and manufactured a bio-
based and metal-free touch-sensor circuits working as a human-
machine interface. Functional inks, containing active materi-
als employing environmentally friendly solvents, were developed
and the touch sensor circuits were patterned on flexible pa-
per substrates using screen printing. The carbon-based electrical
conductor circuits showed a negligible difference in resistance
when bending down to 2 mm radius. Strong triboelectric signals
of several volts could be generated by the sensors when coming
in contact with skin, and the novel design enhanced the signal-
to-noise ratio by an order of magnitude. Beyond touch sensitivity,
the sensors also demonstrated a linear response to applied pres-
sure, which could widen the possible application areas of such
paper-based TENG sensors. We further combined the sensors
into a portable low-power electronic sensor readout platform that
could record signals and transfer information by wireless Blue-
tooth communication. This setup was further integrated into an
electronic paper-based “book” which will be used as a more in-
tuitive human-machine interface for elderly people that struggle
with modern technology. Besides the easily detachable readout
PCB, we showed that the whole electronic system can be dis-
posed as paper trash at end of life. Overall, we have shown the
feasibility of manufacturing fully bio-based and environmentally
friendly green electronics to be used in IoT applications. This is
a necessary step to reduce the growing threat of electronic waste
and to become more sustainable with respect to materials and
the manufacturing of electronics in general.
4. Experimental Section
Ink Preparation: The carbon ink using CNF binder (CNF-C) was pre-
pared by adding carbon black (CB) powder to premade CNF suspensions
then mixed by high-pressure homogenization. Carboxymethylated CNF
with a degree of substitution of 0.1, homogenized 1 pass at 1700 bar, was
used. This 1 wt.% CNF gel was diluted to 0.4 wt.% by adding deionized
water and gently stirring it overnight. CB powder was added to 1 L of the
diluted gel to a ratio of 15:1 CB to the dry mass of CNF and homogenized,
2 passes at 400 bar. This provided a total solid content of 6.4 wt.%. The ink
preparation method and composition were previously reported in greater
detail.[47]
The nitrocellulose ink was prepared by first dissolving nitrocellulose
blotting paper (GE Healthcare Life Science, No. 10600002) into acetone
at a concentration of 80 mg ml−1 while stirring with a magnet bar. Propy-
lene glycol or dipropylene glycol was added to the mixture and stirred un-
til homogenous. The acetone was subsequently evaporated by heating at
70 °C while stirring. The final concentration of the ink was 10, 20, 30, or
40 mg ml−1 depending on the added amount of propylene/dipropylene
glycol.
Rheological profiles were recorded with an MCR 102 rheometer from
Anton Paar. A cone and plate geometry (D: 50 mm, 1°) with a gap distance
of 0.102 mm was used for all the measurements (environmental condition:
temperature 21 ± 1 °C and RH% of ca- 45–50). The samples were pre-
sheared (1 s-1 in 60 s) before viscosity profiles were produced.
Printing: The sensors were printed on paper sheets from Ahlström-
Munksjö (Spantex primer foil, 120 g m−2, and SULPACK NL 41G) in a
DEK Horizon 03iX flatbed screen printer and were cured in a Natgraph
Air Force UV Combination Dryer. The screen mesh was typically 120–34
© 2022 The Authors. Advanced Sensor Research published by Wiley-VCH GmbH

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threads cm−1 . Carbon inks used were 7102 from DuPont, CI-2051 from
EMS/Marabu and the in-house developed C:CNF ink described previously;
all inks were cured at 130 C for 90 s. in a belt oven. Dielectric patterning was
made with UV-curable ink UVSW 170 (Marabu). The final nitrocellulose
coating was applied by screen printing the developed nitrocellulose ink.
The ink was thermally cured (120 C, 90 s) in the belt over. The nitrocellulose
ink was applied onto the carbon in either 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 layers.
Resistance Measurements: Sheet resistance measurements were per-
formed on an Ossila four-point probe. The resistance limit of the measure-
ment equipment was 10 MΩ sq−1 . When this sheet resistance is shown in
the figures it indicates that the measured resistance was above this limit.
Resistance during bending was measured using a Hewlett Packard
32201A multimeter in a two-probe configuration. The three longest con-
ductor lines (sensors 11–13 in Figure 1) were cut out and used for the
bending tests. Bending tests were performed using a cylindric bending
tester using cylinders of different radii (between 2 and 8 mm). The effect
of the bending was evaluated by measuring the resistance of the traces
before and after each bend (starting with the largest radius).
Triboelectric Measurements: Triboelectric characterization, that is, volt-
age response upon mechanical impact, was performed using an in-house
build setup (see Figure S4, Supporting Information). The setup consisted
of two parts, 1) A backplane mounted over a stationary base with a mi-
crometer screw to adjust lateral distance 2) a linearly oscillating arm. The
plate had an adhesive pad where the sensors were attached, while the mov-
able arm had a piece of leather attached to the contacting surface to simu-
late human skin. Behind the sticky pad, a piezoelectric sensor was placed
to measure the impact of the arm on the sample. The triboelectric sensors
and the piezoelectric impact sensor were connected to two channels of a
digital oscilloscope (Keysight InfiniiVision DSOX2004A) to measure the
generated voltage. The triboelectric sensors were also connected in par-
allel to a resistor decade box to measure the generated voltage with dif-
ferent load resistance. 10 MΩ resistance was used for the measurements
unless otherwise stated. The linear actuator was connected to the function
generator of the oscilloscope allowing control of the oscillatory frequency
and waveform. 7 Hz frequency and a sinusoidal waveform were used for
all measurements unless otherwise stated. See Figure S8 (Supporting In-
formation) and the associated discussion in Supporting Information for
more details on the choice of frequency.
Scanning Electron Microscopy: SEM was carried out with a Zeiss
Sigma 500 Gemini. The printed structures on paper were each mounted
on a carousel sample holder and grounded using copper tape. For the
carbon surfaces in Figure 4a–c, 3 eV and SE2 detector was used. For
the carbon surfaces in Figure 4d–f, 4 eV and InLens detector were used,
except for the CNF carbon ink image that used 3 eV. For imaging of
the nitrocellulose coating imaging in Figure 4g–j, 1 eV and an InLens
detector were used. The SE2 detector utilized secondary electrons to
mainly provide information about surface topology. The InLens detector
instead used backscattered electrons that gave information based on
atomic weight and conductivity. In the samples here, carbon was the
main constituent in both the conducting and insulating layers. However,
insulating materials will appear dark or smooth, as seen with multiple
nitrocellulose layers, and the bright speckles observed here were the
conducting carbon particles that were not fully coated.
Microcontroller Card: Building the IoT node, ultra-low power micro-
processor CC2640R2 from Texas instruments was integrated, using BLE5
as the wireless communication protocol. Voltage response was measured
using a high-impedance analog-to-digital converter. Due to the fast sen-
sor response, the sampling rate of the ADC was set to ≈80k Samples s−1 .
Also, to prevent parasitic capacitances, the ADC inputs were reset before
a measurement was performed. Collected data was thereafter wirelessly
transmitted to a receiver in real time. Depending on the application, the
sent data could be selected to include either the amplitude of a sensor or
which sensor that were touched.
Supporting Information
Supporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from
the author.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge funding from Vinnova through the
Digital Cellulose Competence Center (DCC), Diary number 2016–05193,
the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (Smart Intra-body network;
grant RIT15-0119), and the Norrköping municipality fund for research and
development (Accessibility and remembering – storytelling and innovative
media use in elderly care homes, 2020. Grant: KS 2020/0345). The work
was also supported by Treesearch.se. The authors thank Patrik Isacsson
and co-workers at Ahlstrom Munksjö for providing the paper substrates
and for valuable know-how as part of the collaboration within DCC, as well
as Erik Gabrielsson, Daniel Simon, Elisabet Cedersund, and Lars Herlogs-
son for their involvement in the work on the original Mediabook platform.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author Contributions
J.E. conceived the main idea, developed the NC-ink, assisted in the printing
process, and performed the triboelectric measurements. U.L. performed
the printing fabrication and the SEM measurements. Y.M. built the tri-
boelectric measurement setup and assisted in measurements. R.B. per-
formed the printing fabrication and NC-ink characterization. S.P. worked
on the electronics card of the Mediabook. J.S. performed the bending tests.
A.F. formulated the CNF-based carbon ink. K.E., V.B., and A.A. supervised
the project. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the cor-
responding author upon reasonable request.
Keywords
cellulose, green electronics, printed electronics, sensors, triboelectric
nanogenerators
Received: August 16, 2022
Revised: October 25, 2022
Published online: November 25, 2022
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