The Endocrine System

ENDOCRINE • Second control system of the body

SYSTEM
The endocrine system maintains
homeostasis by releasing
chemicals called hormones, and it
controls prolonged or continuous
processes such as growth and
development, reproduction, and
metabolism.
• Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are
released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes
– Reproduction
– Growth and development
– Mobilization of body defenses
– Maintenance of much of homeostasis
– Regulation of metabolism

The Endocrine System HORMONES: Overview

Animals rely on systems for regulation • Hormones are produced by specialized cells
• Endocrine System
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular
–ductless gland which secrete chemical
signals directly into blood fluids
• chemical travels to target tissue • Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• slow, long-lasting response
• These hormones regulate the activity of
• Nervous System
–system of neurons, CNS
other cells
• transmits “electrical” signal to
target tissue
• fast, short-lasting response

HORMONES: Chemistry of Hormones HORMONES: Chemistry of Hormones

1. Amino acid-based hormones
1. Amino acid-based hormones – Proteins, peptides, or amines
– Ex. Dopamine, GnRH, Insulin
– Proteins, peptides, or amines
– Ex. Dopamine, GnRH, Insulin
2. Steroids –derived hormones
– Made from cholesterol -> pregnenolone
– Ex. estrogen, testosterone
3. Prostaglandins (Fatty acid-derived hormones)
– Arachidonic Acid
– made from highly active lipids
– Ex. eicosanoids
 HORMONES: Chemistry of Hormones HORMONES: Chemistry of Hormones

2. Steroids –derived
hormones
– Made from cholesterol ->
pregnenolone
– Ex. estrogen, testosterone

HORMONES: Chemistry of Hormones HORMONES: Mechanisms of Hormone Action

3. Prostaglandins • Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target

(Fatty acid-derived cells or organs)
hormones) • Target cells must have specific protein receptors
– Arachidonic Acid • Hormone binding influences the working of the cells
– made from highly
active lipids
– Ex. eicosanoids

HORMONES: Effects Caused by Hormones HORMONES: Mechanisms of Hormone Action

• Changes in plasma membrane permeability or

electrical state
• Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
• Activation or inactivation of enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis

DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION SECONDARY MESSENGER

SYSTEM
 HORMONES: Mechanisms of Hormone Action HORMONES: Mechanisms of Hormone Action

DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION SECONDARY MESSENGER

SYSTEM

Control of Hormone Release Control of Hormone Release

• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the release of more
hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached • Positive feedback
reinforces the
stimulus and leads to
an even greater
response.

Control of Hormone Release: Control of Hormone Release:

Hormonal Pathways Endocrine Gland Stimuli
Pathway Example Pathway Example Pathway Example

1. Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

Stimulus Low blood Stimulus Suckling Hypothalamic
Stimulus
glucose
neurohormone
Receptor released in
protein response to

2. Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

Pancreas Sensory Sensory neural and
secretes neuron neuron hormonal
glucagon ( ) Hypothalamus/ signals
Hypothalamus
Endocrine posterior pituitary
cell
Blood
vessel
Neurosecretory
cell
Posterior pituitary
Neurosecretory
cell Hypothalamus
3. Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
secretes prolactin-
secretes oxytocin Blood releasing
Blood ( ) vessel hormone ( )
vessel
Target
effectors Liver

Anterior
Target Smooth muscle pituitary
Glycogen effectors in breast secretes
Response
breakdown, prolactin ( )
glucose release Endocrine
into blood cell
Blood
(a) Simple endocrine pathway Response Milk release
vessel

(b) Simple neurohormone pathway

Target
effectors Mammary glands

Milk production
Response

(c) Simple neuroendocrine pathway

 Control of Hormone Release: Control of Hormone Release:
Endocrine Gland Stimuli Endocrine Gland Stimuli

1. Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands 2. Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

• Changing blood levels of certain
ions stimulate hormone release
• Endocrine glands are
activated by other
hormones

Control of Hormone Release:

Endocrine Gland Stimuli Location of Major Endocrine Organs
3. Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

• Nerve impulses stimulate

hormone release
• Most are under control of
the sympathetic nervous
system

Figure 9.2c

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamic Control of the Endocrine System
• The hypothalamus is the interface between the
nervous system and the endocrine system and is
the master gland of the endocrine system.
• It controls and oversees most endocrine
functions.
• It is located in the inferior region of the
diencephalon just superior to the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus
Mechanisms of Hypothalamic Control
The hypothalamus controls most endocrine activity in
three ways:
1. Controls release of regulatory hormones from the
anterior pituitary gland
2. Secretes oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) from the posterior pituitary gland
3. Controls the stimulation and secretion activities of
the adrenal medulla
 Hypothalamus
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Non-tropic Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
• Prolactin (PRL)
– Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth
– Function in males is unknown
• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
– Acts on neurons, inhibiting hunger
• ß –endorphin
– bind to receptors in the brain and dull
the perception of pain.
Pituitary Gland
• Also called the hypophysis
• Located just inferior to the hypothalamus
• Housed within the sella turcica of the sphenoid
bone
• Connected to the hypothalamus by a thin stalk
called the infundibulum
• Divided into anterior and posterior lobes
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH)
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of
energy
• Disorders:
• Gigantism
• Acromegaly
• Pituitary dwarfism
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Tropic Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
– Stimulates the production and secretion of
steroids of the adrenal cortex
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Pituitary - Hypothalamus Relationship Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
• Oxytocin
• Release of hormones is controlled by – Stimulates contractions of
releasing and inhibiting hormones produced the uterus during labor
by the hypothalamus – Causes milk ejection
• Antidiuretic hormone
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones that
(ADH)
are transorted to neurosecretory cells of the
– Can inhibit urine production
posterior pituitary – In large amounts, causes
• The posterior pituitary is not strictly an vasoconstriction leading to
endocrine gland, but does release hormones increased blood pressure
(vasopressin)

Thyroid Gland Thyroid Gland

• Found at the base of the Thyroid Hormone
throat
• Major metabolic hormone
• Consists of two lobes and a • Composed of two active iodine-containing
connecting isthmus hormones
• Produces two hormones – Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid
follicles
– Thyroid hormone
– Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at
(triiodothyronine (T3) and
target tissues
thyroxine (T4))
– Calcitonin

Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Glands

• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
Calcitonin
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
• Decreases blood – Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
calcium levels by – Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more
causing its calcium
deposition on bone
– Raise calcium levels in the blood
• Antagonistic to
parathyroid
hormone
• Produced by C
(parafollicular) cells
Figure 9.9

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
– Produced in outer adrenal cortex
– Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and
electrolyte balance
– Target organ is the kidney
– Production stimulated by renin and aldosterone
– Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Sex hormones
– Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
– Androgens (male) and some estrogen* (female)
*also synthesized in the ovary
Adrenal Glands
• Two glands
– Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers
– Medulla – inner neural tissue region
• Sits on top of the kidneys
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
– Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
– Promote normal cell metabolism
– Help resist long-term stressors
– Released in response to increased blood levels of
ACTH
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
• Produces two similar hormones
(catecholamines)
– Epinephrine
– Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal
with short-term stress
 Roles of the Hypothalamus and Adrenal Glands in
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla the Stress Response

Figure 9.12

Pancreatic Islets Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar

• The pancreas is a mixed gland

• The islets of the pancreas
produce hormones
– Insulin – allows glucose to cross
plasma membranes into cells
from beta cells
– Glucagon – allows glucose to
enter the blood from alpha
cells
– These hormones are
antagonists that maintain blood
sugar homeostasis

Figure 9.14

Imbalances of Pacreatic Hormones Pineal Gland

• Found on the third ventricle of the brain
• Secretes melatonin
– Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
– May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions

Figure 9.14
 Thymus
• Located posterior to the sternum
• Estrogens
• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
– Matures some types of white blood cells
– Important in developing the immune system
Hormones of the Ovaries
– Stimulates the development of secondary
female characteristics
– Matures female reproductive organs
– Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized
egg
– Helps maintain pregnancy
– Prepares the breasts to produce milk

Hormones of the Ovaries Hormones of the Ovaries

• Progesterone
– Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle
– Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
uterus

Hormones of the Ovaries

Hormones of the Testes Hormones of the Testes
• Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-
producing
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important androgen
– Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
– Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
– Required for sperm cell production

ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM

END OF LECTURE