Electrodynamics FS 2023

Prof. G. Isidori
Exercise Sheet 1
Ò. Lara Crosas, J. M. Lizana, M. Pesut, Z. Polonsky Issued: 24.02.2023
https://www.physik.uzh.ch/en/teaching/PHY321/FS2023.html Due: 03.03.2023

Exercise 1: In Einstein’s Footsteps (7 pt.)

In this problem, we will examine properties of the one-dimensional wave equation, given by
1 ∂2φ ∂2φ
− =0 (1.1)
c2 ∂t2 ∂x2
where φ = φ(x, t) is a some field and c is the wave velocity.

(a) Show that this equation is NOT invariant under a Galilean transformation. All of Newtonian
mechanics is founded on the basis of Galilean invariance, so how can one reconcile this for “typical”
systems which are described by the wave equation (e.g. oscillations on a string, sound waves,
etc.)? (1.5 pt.)

(b) We will be interested in the case where the reconciliation of part (a) fails, so we want to find the
“natural” symmetry of the wave equation. Begin with a general, linear coordinate transformation
! ! ! !
t t′ a b/c t
→ = , (1.2)
x x′ cg h x

where factors of c were included for convenience. Solve for three of the four variables in the
matrix above by enforcing that such a transformation is a symmetry of the wave equation. The
final variable parameterizes the transformation. (Hint: You should be able to fix some signs by
considering what happens when there is no transformation.) What are the allowed values that
all parameters (a, b, g, and h) can take? (2.5 pt.)

(c) Show that the re-parameterization

1
a= √ (1.3)
1 − u2
for u ∈ (−1, 1) is valid based on your answer for part (b). In what limit for u does the transfor-
mation Eq. (1.2) approach the identity? Fix u so that this new transformation reproduces the
Galilean transformation in this limit. (1.5 pt.)

(e) Do you recognize this transformation? Discuss the implications in regards to electromagnetism.
(1.5 pt.)

Solution to Exercise 1:

(a) A Galilean transformation is one which takes

x → x′ = x − vt, t → t′ = t . (1.4)
 The partial derivatives are then given by
∂ ∂x′ ∂ ∂t′ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ′
+ ′
= −v ′ + ′
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂t
(1.5)
∂ ∂x′ ∂ ∂t′ ∂ ∂
= ′
+ = .
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂t′ ∂x′
In the primed coordinates, the wave equation is then given by
! !
1 ∂ ∂ ∂φ ∂φ ∂2φ 1 ∂2φ v ∂2φ  v2  ∂ 2φ
− v + − v + − = − 2 − 1 − = 0 (1.6)
c2 ∂x′ ∂t′ ∂x′ ∂t′ ∂x′ c2 ∂t′ 2 c2 ∂x′ ∂t′ c2 ∂x′ 2

and so, this transformation is clearly not a symmetry of the wave equation. This is reconciled in
“typical” waves due to the fact that these waves travel through some medium like a string or a
fluid for the given examples. This wave equation as given is then only valid in the rest frame of
the medium, and the non-invariance is explained by the fact that we are now moving relative to
the medium.

(b) Playing the same game as before with this general linear transformation gives the transformed
wave equation
a2 − b2 ∂ 2 φ 2(ag − bh) ∂ 2 φ 2
2
2 ∂ φ
+ + (g − h ) =0 (1.7)
c2 ∂t′ 2 c ∂x′ ∂t′ ∂x′ 2
Imposing invariance, we find three equations

a2 − b2 = 1, ag − bh = 0, g 2 − h2 = −1 (1.8)

which are easily solved for three of the four variables. This gives four equally valid transformation
matrices
 √
a2 −1
 √ !
a ± c ± 1 + b2 b/c
 √ , √ ,
2
±c a − 1 ±a ±cb ± 1 + b2
(1.9)
 √ 
2 −1
p
h
!
± 1+g 2 ±g/c ±h c
p ,  √ 
cg ± 1+g 2 2
±c h − 1 h

We can fix the on-diagonal terms to be positive such that the transformations go to the identity
when we turn off the transformation. This also fixes the signs to be the same for b and g from
ag − bh = 0. From these, it is clear that the parameters are restricted to the regions a ∈ [1, ∞),
b ∈ (−∞, ∞), g ∈ (−∞, ∞), and h ∈ [1, ∞).

(c) In this re-parameterization, we see that

1 u
a=h= √ , b=g= √ (1.10)
1 − u2 1 − u2
which indeed satisfy the bounds from part (c) for u ∈ (−1, 1). Our transformation approaches
the identity for |u| ≪ 1. In this limit, we find

a = h = 1 + O(u2 ), b = g = u + O(u3 ) (1.11)

and we can write our transformation as

u
x → x′ = x + c u t, t → t′ = t + x (1.12)
c
 Focusing on the first equation, we see that this reproduces the Galilean transformation when
u = −v/c. The limit where |u| ≪ 1 is then equivalent to |v| ≪ c, and the second term in the
time transformation is suppressed by an additional factor of v/c, which we can neglect, thus
reproducing the full Galilean transformation.

(d) Re-writing our transformation gives

t − v x/c2 x−vt
t → t′ = p , x → x′ = p (1.13)
1 − v 2 /c2 1 − v 2 /c2
which is exactly the Lorentz transformation! Since solutions to Maxwell’s equations satisfy the
wave equation in the vacuum, that means that there is no medium for the waves to propagate
through. Therefore, the theory cannot be Galilean invariant, and must instead be symmetric
under Lorentz transformations. In other words, electromagnetism must be a relativistic theory.

Exercise 2: Potentially Relativistic (4 pt.)

(a) Write down the scalar and vector potentials corresponding to a stationary point charge at the
origin. Under a Lorentz transformation (here, “||” refers to the piece of the vector parallel to the
boost velocity),  v · x  
t′ = γ t − 2 , x′|| = γ x|| − v t (2.1)
c
show that transforming the potentials via
 v   v 
Φ′ (x′ , t′ ) = γ Φ(x′ , t′ ) − · A(x′ , t′ ) , A′|| (x′ , t′ ) = γ A|| (x′ , t′ ) − Φ(x′ , t′ ) (2.2)
c c
reproduces exactly the result of the Liénard-Wiechert potential found in class. Comment on the
form of this transformation. (2 pt.)

(b) Using the same transformation, find the scalar and vector potentials for a perfect dipole oriented
along the +z-axis moving with constant velocity v = vẑ. Verify the result using the Liénard-
Wiechert potential. (2 pt.) Hint: Use the superposition principle.

Solution to Exercise 2:

(a) We begin with the potentials for a stationary point charge in the z = 0 plane (we will use
cylindrical coordinates for simplicity)
q 1
Φ(x, t) = , A(x, t) = 0 (2.3)
4πϵ0 r
Using the transformations given (and using the rotational symmetry of the problem to orient the
velocity along the z-axis without loss of generality), we find
γq 1 µ0 γ q v
Φ′ (x′ , t′ ) = q , A′ (x′ , t′ ) = − q (2.4)
4πϵ0 4π
γ 2 (z ′ + vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2 γ 2 (z + vt)2 + ρ′ 2

which are exactly the Liénard-Wiechert potentials found in class setting z = 0. The transforma-
tion for the potential is exactly a Lorentz transformation. This is a direct consequence of the
fact that we can write a four-vector potential Aµ = (Φ/c, A).
 (b) Again, beginning with the potentials of a stationary dipole, we find

q d cos θ q dz
Φ(x, t) = 2
= , A(x, t) = 0 (2.5)
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r3
If the dipole is moving in the +ẑ-direction, we need to boost in the negative direction, so we
need to take v → −v in the transformations above, and we find

γq dγ(z ′ − vt′ ) µ0 γq dvγ(z ′ − vt′ )

Φ′ (x′ , t′ ) = , A′ (x′ , t′ ) = (2.6)
4πϵ0 γ 2 (z ′ − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2
3/2 4π γ 2 (z ′ − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2
3/2

We can find the same result by considering one positive and one negative charge offset by distance
d. Using the Liénard-Wiechert potential, we find
" #
γq 1 1
Φ′ (x′ , t′ ) = q −q (2.7)
4πϵ0
γ 2 (z ′ − d − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2 γ 2 (z ′ − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2

We can expand assuming ρ′ ≫ d to find

1 1 γd(z ′ − vt′ ) 2 ′2


q =q + 3/2
+ O d /ρ (2.8)
γ(z ′ − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2


γ 2 (z ′ − d − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2 γ 2 (z ′ − vt′ )2 + ρ′ 2

Dropping the higher order terms (since we only want to look at the perfect dipole), this reproduces
exactly the scalar potential found from boosting. The vector potential can be found in an
analogous way.

Exercise 3: Classical Atom Decay (6 pt.)

One model for the Hydrogen atom is two classical charged particles: an electron orbiting a proton.
Since the mass of the proton is much larger than the electron, you can assume that it is stationary.

(a) Find an expression for the velocity of the electron assuming a circular orbit and v ≪ c. Verify
that the latter assumption is justified using the fact that the radius of a hydrogen atom is
approximately rH = 5.29 × 10−11 m. (2 pt.)

(b) Find an expression for the total power emitted through electromagnetic radiation by this config-
uration as a function of r, as well as the change in energy, dE, for a small change in r, dr (be
careful of the sign!). (2 pt.)

(c) Using the relation between power and energy, find how long it takes the electron to radiate away
all of its initial energy. Is this a reasonable model? Why or why not? (2 pt.)

Solution to Exercise 3:

(a) Under the assumption that v ≪ c, we can treat this simply as a negatively charged particle in a
1/r potential which feels a force
q2
F=− r̂ (3.1)
4πϵ0 r2
 For circular motion, we require that this is equal to the centripetal force, so we can solve for v
using s
q 2 me v 2 q2
2
= ⇒ v= (3.2)
4πϵ0 r r 4πϵ0 me r
Plugging in numbers for all parameters using r = rH , we find
v
= 0.00728 (3.3)
c
so the velocity is less than 1% of the speed of light, so the assumption that |v| ≪ c is certainly
valid.

(b) The Larmor formula for the power emitted by an accelerating body is

µ0 q 2 a2 µ0 q 2 v 4
P = = (3.4)
6πc 6πr2 c
where we used the centripetal acceleration a = v 2 /r. Plugging in the expression of the velocity
we found in part (a) gives
µ30 c3 q 6
P = (3.5)
96π 3 m2e r4
The total energy of the electron is given by

1 q2 µ0 c2 q 2
E = me v 2 − =− (3.6)
2 4πϵ0 r 8πr
where again, we used the expression of velocity from part (a). Taking a derivative, we find

µ0 c2 q 2
dE = − dr (3.7)
8πr2
Note the relative minus sign from what you might expect. There are a couple of ways to look at
this: first, we know that the electron must lose energy when it emits EM radiation by conservation
of energy. The other way to look at it is that, when the electron emits radiation, it will slow
down, and thus its radius will decrease. So, we are really looking at negative changes in radius,
and we have basically just pulled out the minus sign.

(c) We know that power is related to energy via

dE
P = ⇒ dE = P dt (3.8)
dt
Using this along with what we found in part (b) gives

µ30 c3 q 6 µ0 c2 q 2
dt = − dr (3.9)
96π 3 m2e r4 8πr2
We can now solve for the change in time and integrate to find the time it takes for the electron
to lose all of its initial energy (this will be when it is “orbiting” at r = 0)

12π 2 m2e r2 4π 2 m2e rH

3
dt = − dr ⇒ ∆t = (3.10)
µ20 cq 4 2
µ0 cq 4

Plugging in numbers, we find

∆t ≈ 13 ps (3.11)
and we see that the electrons radiate away all of their energy extremely quickly. So this model
is absolutely not reasonable since we see atoms which have survived for basically the age of the
universe.
As an interesting exercise, we can invert this to find that, in order to have classical atoms which
survive the age of the universe, they would need to have sizes roughly

rH ≈ 16 cm (3.12)

so if atoms were classical, they would need to be macroscopic objects!