TEAM BASED PROJECT PENGETAHUAN BAHAN

Dosen Pengampu: Dr. Widya Dwi Rukmi Putri, STP., MP.

Disusun oleh:

Vito Kurnia Pradipto 225100100111004

Carissa Salsa Febiolla 225100107111016
Clive Nathan Pangestu 225100107111040
Yusuf Steven Bargi Aritonang 225100107111060

UNIVERSITAS BRAWIJAYA
MALANG
2023
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 1 of 10

Review
THE RAW MATERIALS, VARIABILITY, COMPOSITION, AND
PRODUCTION PROCESS OF CASSAVA CHIPS

Vito Kurnia Pradipto1, Carissa Salsa Febiolla1, Clive Nathan Pangestu1, Yusuf Steven Bargi
Aritonang1*
1
Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Brawijaya, Malang City

*Corresponding Author: ysbargiarios@gmail.com

Abstract: Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a starchy root vegetable native to South America. Cassava
is a very good source of carbohydrates, energy, and some vitamins and minerals, hence it is a major
staple food in many developing countries. Cassava is one of the most important agricultural
commodities in Indonesia. However, one challenge that is often faced is that cassava is highly
perishable due to its high water content. Therefore, producers have turned to processing cassava into
value-added products, such as cassava chips. Cassava chips are one of the most popular processed
cassava products in Indonesia. There are different raw materials and production methods to produce
cassava chips, and each method can result in a different composition of the final product. With an in-
depth understanding of these various factors, manufacturers can produce cassava chips that meet high
quality standards and produce products that are favored by consumers.

Keywords: Cassava chips, Raw materials, Composition, Production

Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 2 of 10

1. Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a starchy root vegetable native to South America. Cassava is a
very good source of carbohydrates, energy, and some vitamins and minerals, hence it is a major staple
food in many developing countries. Cassava is one of the most important agricultural commodities in
Indonesia. According to data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS), cassava production in
Indonesia in 2020 reached more than 28 million tons. However, one challenge that is often faced is
that these cassava tubers have a limited shelf life and tend to spoil easily. Therefore, to capitalize on
this cassava potential, many producers in Indonesia have turned to processing cassava into value-
added products, such as cassava chips.
Cassava chips are one of the most popular processed cassava products in Indonesia. According
to data from the Indonesian Cassava Chips Industry Association (AIKSI), the cassava chips industry
in Indonesia is growing rapidly with more than 200 producers creating various brands and product
variants. Consumption of cassava chips in Indonesia also continues to increase, with estimated
production reaching 350 thousand tons in 2020. Cassava chips have a variety of diverse flavors,
including spicy, salty, sweet, and many more, so they are highly preferred by Indonesians as a favorite
snack.
There are different production methods to produce cassava chips, and each method can result in
a different composition of the final product. In addition, the type of cassava used can also affect the
quality and composition of the product. With an in-depth understanding of these various factors,
manufacturers can produce cassava chips that meet high quality standards and produce products that
are favored by consumers.

2. Raw Materials
2.1 Cassava
The production of cassava chips relies on fresh raw cassava as the primary commodity. The
criteria for selecting cassava varieties suitable as raw materials for cassava chips involve freshness,
freedom from pests and diseases, and undamaged, medium-sized fruit. Local cassava varieties that
meet these requirements include manggu, mentega, gajah, putih, and emas cassava. The manggu
variety stands out for its exceptional ability to produce crispy and tender cassava chips. With a starch
content of around 20-30%, Manggu cassava is superior to other varieties with higher starch content
that causes bitterness in taste. The tubers can be harvested 8-10 months after planting. On the other
hand, fresh cassava tubers are highly perishable due to their high moisture content and have a short
post-harvest period of less than 72 hours. Consequently, effective preservation techniques and timely
utilization become crucial to maximize the utility of this valuable root vegetable in regions where it
serves as a dietary staple.
Raw cassava is primarily composed of 60% water and 38% carbohydrates. The carbohydrates
being in the form of starch, with 17% amylose and 83% amylopectin in its starch composition. It also
contains approximately 75.38% resistant starch. Amylose becomes a resistant starch by
crystallisation, as a result of chain elongation by double helical formation between amylose
molecules. These elongated chains become folded and form tightly packed structures which are
stabilised by hydrogen bonds (Eerlingen and Delcour, 1995). Amylopectin can form resistant starch
but it is a slower and less stable process. The protein content in cassava ranges from 0.7% to 1.3%.
The total amino acid content of cassava is approximately 0.254 g per 100 g and lysine content is
approximately 0.010 g per 100 g (Ngiki et al., 2014). Cassava is deficient in lipids, containing just
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 3 of 10

0.1%, and has mostly saturated fatty acids. The low level of lipids in cassava means it is also a poor
source of fat soluble vitamins. Other journalists also found it had low levels of vitamin A, B1, B2 and
niacin but has a very high level of vitamin C. A single serving of 100 g of raw cassava provides 160
kcal of dietary energy and 25% of the daily value (DV) of vitamin C, but does not contain any
significant micronutrient content. However, cassava also contains both antinutritional and toxic
factors. Cassava contains cyanogenic glucosides, specifically linamarin and lotaustralin, which can
release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) upon hydrolysis, posing a threat to human and animal health. Proper
processing and preparation in the post-harvest process of cassava are necessary to remove these toxic
substances for safer consumption.
2.2 Garlic
Garlic is a bulbous flowering plant in the Allium genus. Its close relatives are the onion, shallot,
leek, chive, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to Central Asia and has been cultivated
for thousands of years. It is now grown all over the world and is a popular ingredient in many cuisines.
Garlic can be used in a variety of ways. It can be eaten raw, fried, or roasted. It is very commonly
used in soups, stews, sauces, and marinades as it not only works as an aromatic, it also gives the food
a unique taste. Garlic powder and garlic salt are also popular ways to add garlic flavor to food.
Garlic powder on dry matter basis contained 4.55, 73.22 and 15.33 mg/100g of moisture,
carbohydrate and crude protein, respectively. The crude fat was 0.72 mg/100g while crude fiber and
ash were 2.10 and 4.08 mg/100g, respectively. Garlic contains appreciable amounts of carbohydrates
and protein suggesting that it can be ranked as carbohydrate and protein-rich spice. The low fat
content does not qualify garlic as an oil plant; however, the oil can be extracted for use as essence or
essential oil (Yusuf, 2018).
Garlic produces various sulfuric compounds, such as allicin, ajoene, diallyl polysulfides,
vinyldithiins, and S-allylcysteine, as well as enzymes, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reaction
products. These compounds contribute to its pungent flavor and unique scent when garlic cells are
damaged. Garlic's high concentration of these compounds, particularly allicin, which activates heat
receptors, makes it potent and earned it the nickname "stinking rose." Consuming garlic can lead to
garlic breath, as its sulfur compounds metabolize into allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), which is released
through the skin and breath. Garlic can also turn green or blue when pickled or cooked under specific
conditions due to interactions between sulfur compounds and amino acids. This color change is
harmless.
2.3 Salt
Salt is a type of mineral that is essential for life. It is found in nature in the form of rock salt and
sea salt. Salt can also be produced commercially by evaporating seawater or brine. Typically, salt
manifests itself as transparent, colorless crystals or as a white, ice-like crystalline powder. Salt
typically crystallizes in a cube-shaped isometric system and has a solubility of 35.6 g/100 g at 0°C
and 39.2 g/100 g at 100°C in water. It is slightly soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Its melting point is 801°C and it begins to evaporate slightly above its boiling point
of 1,413°C. On the Mohs hardness scale, salt has a hardness of 2.5 and a specific gravity of 2.165.
Salt is not flammable and has low toxicity.
Salt is a versatile substance that serves multiple purposes, including seasoning and preserving
food, amplifying flavor, and preventing spoilage. Beyond culinary applications, salt plays a crucial
role in various industrial processes such as paper, soap, and glass production, as well as serving
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 4 of 10

functions in water treatment and snow removal. Additionally, salt finds its way into the medical
realm, featuring in products like saline solutions and sports drinks.
Table salt, also known as sodium chloride (NaCl), primarily consists of sodium and chloride ions.
Some table salts that are marketed as "lite" or "low-sodium" may contain small amounts of potassium
chloride (KCl) as a substitute for some of the sodium chloride. According to (Greenfield et al., 1984),
table salts contains sodium on an average of 16.6 mmol/kg and potassium on an average amount of 4
mmol/kg. Table salt also has a supposedly ratio of Na:K of 4.15. Moreover, it can absorb moisture
from the atmosphere above 75% relative humidity, as it is hygroscopic. If the humidity level is below
75%, salt will dry out. Salt's natural form may contain trace amounts of impurities, including
magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium bromide. These impurities can potentially
modify the crystal's typical transparency and convert it into hues of yellow, red, blue, or purple.
2.4 Palm Oil
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the fruit of the oil palm tree. It is the most widely
used vegetable oil in the world, and is found in a wide variety of products, including food, cosmetics,
and biofuel. Palm oil is a versatile oil with many desirable properties. It is high in saturated fat, which
gives it a solid texture at room temperature, making it ideal for use in spreads and baked goods. It is
also resistant to oxidation, which gives products a longer shelf life. Palm oil is also relatively
inexpensive to produce, which makes it a popular choice for food manufacturers. Palm oil contains
as much as two types of vitamins which are A and E according to (Clegg, 1973). Palm oil contains a
significant amount of vitamin A because not only palm oil contains vitamins, but it also contains
caretonoids. In palm oil it is stated that curotenes both of the alpha and the beta type constitutes 85-
90% of the total caretonoids, and from this we know that both alpha and beta carotene possesses
provitamin A thus is why palm oil contains a significant amount of vitamin A. Not only does palm
oil contain vitamin A it also contains vitamin E which stated by (Clegg, 1973) contains vitamin E
activity between 210 and 460 IU/g according to his data research. According to (Clegg, 1973)’s
research it is stated that palm oil depending on its spesies contains varying amount of a set of fatty
acids. The fatty acids that are named are Lauric, Myristic, Palrnitic, Stearic, Arachidic, Palmitoleic,
Oleic, Linoleic and Linolenic. As mentioned before different species of palm oil may produce
different amount of fatty acids, and as such a drossbreed version may be conducted to find the best
species for a better yield amounts of said fatty acids.

3. Commodities Used in the Production of Cassava Chips

The production of cassava chips relies on fresh cassava as the primary commodity. Factors that
impact the quality of fresh cassava include its level of moisture, the presence of dirt or fertilizer, the
size and shape of the cassava, and the thickness of its skin. Additionally, citations should be
consistent, quotes clearly marked, and filler words avoided. These factors are important as cassava
is a significant source of nutrition, containing between 35-40% calorific content, 2.5% protein, and
1% fat. Technical abbreviations such as "calorific content" should be explained when first used. The
criteria for selecting cassava varieties suitable as raw materials for cassava chips involve freshness,
freedom from pests and diseases, and undamaged, medium-sized fruit (Ceballos et al., 2006)
Local cassava varieties that meet these requirements include manggu, mentega, gajah, putih, and
emas cassava. The manggu variety stands out for its exceptional ability to produce crispy and tender
cassava chips. With a starch content of around 20-30%, Manggu cassava is superior to other varieties
with higher starch content that causes bitterness in taste. The technical abbreviation 'Manggu' must
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 5 of 10

be explained upon first use. The tubers can be harvested 8-10 months after planting and have an
average starch content of 32%, making them a suitable candidate for cassava chips.

4. Compositional, Physical, Biochemical and Chemical Variability of Cassava

The composition of cassava is influenced by factors like the specific tissue type (storage roots or
leaves), agro-ecological conditions, genotype, and environmental variations. It is noteworthy that
cassava roots have a relatively lower protein content compared to other energy sources like corn and
wheat. In fact, the average crude protein content of cassava roots in all accessions is 3.06%. The low
protein content of cassava roots poses a potential threat to the livelihoods of millions of people. This
risk stems from the dependence of these people on cassava as a primary source of nutrients and the
risk of developing chronic protein deficiency. To evaluate the quality of cassava cultivars, one may
review their cyanogenic potential and macro and micronutrient composition. It is noteworthy that the
cyanogenic potential of cassava cultivars varies depending on both genotype and environmental
factors.
Cassava is an annual plant with striking, almost fan-shaped leaves, resembling those of castor
bean, but divided into five to nine lobes. The fleshy roots of cassava are reminiscent of dahlia tubers
and can vary in size and shape, depending on the variety. Different cassava varieties range from low
plants to branched bushes and slender unbranched trees. The physical properties of cassava roots can
be affected by environmental conditions such as drought. The mass, length, diameter and thickness
of the skin at the head, middle and tail of cassava, ranged from 64-1480 g, 110-500 mm, 15-70, 17.5-
76.0 and 12.5-67.0 mm, and 1.5-5.0, 1.3-5.9 and 1.1-5.9 mm, respectively, while the PPW (proportion
of skin to weight) ranged from 12.80-38.13%.
Cassava biochemical variability can vary depending on genotype, environmental variation and
tissue type. Cassava accessions have been evaluated for biochemical traits such as crude fat, saponin,
ash, fiber, and cyanide content. Cassava is a good source of dietary fiber as well as vitamin C, thiamin,
folic acid, manganese, and potassium. The quality of cassava cultivars can be assessed by their
cyanogenic potential and macro- and micro-nutrient composition. The nutritional value of cassava is
determined by plant part (root or leaf), cultivar, age, geographical location and environmental
conditions. Cassava tubers are a good source of energy, with carbohydrate content ranging from 32%
to 35% based on fresh weight (FW) and 80% to 91% based on dry matter (DM). Starch content varies
by genotype, with improved varieties yielding 73-85% on a dry root weight basis. The high starch
content (18-24% amylose and 70% amylopectin) allows for easy digestion. Bitter cultivars have low
levels of glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose, while sweet cultivars have sucrose concentrations of
more than 17%. The lipid content of cassava roots varies between 0.1% and 0.3% of fresh weight.
The protein content is low, ranging between 1% and 3% of dry matter and 1.5 mg/100 g fresh weight.
Cassava cultivars with high moisture and reducing sugar content can be used as raw materials for the
ethanol, organic acid, lactic bacteria and biofuel industries. On the other hand, fresh cassava tubers
are highly perishable due to their high moisture content (33-72%) and have a short post-harvest period
of less than 72 hours. Cassava is then processed into shelf-stable primary products such as flour, chips
and pellets shortly after harvest.
The chemical diversity of cassava depends on the genotype, environmental changes, and tissue
type. Evaluating the cyanogenic potential and macro- and micronutrient composition can help to
assess the quality of a cassava cultivar. The micronutrient concentrations in tubers display less
variability than their leaf counterparts, across cultivars and locations. Except for low zinc content in
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 6 of 10

leaves from two northern locations, the zinc and iron content in leaves usually surpasses the published
ranges for cassava. The discrepancies in iron and zinc concentrations among cultivars highlight the
potential of breeding programs to amplify the micronutrient density of the crop.
Cassava is a frequently eaten root crop, found among several plants that contain cyanogenic
glycosides (α-hydroxynitrile glucosides). These compounds release toxic cyanide (HCN) when plant
tissues are crushed or chewed, causing cell disruption. Improper processing of cassava can result in
severe illness or even death among consumers. The chance of poisoning from cassava is complicated
by varying cyanide levels influenced by environmental factors such as drought, which increases
cyanogenic potential, and soil nutrient availability. Furthermore, reduced levels of vital nutrients
serve as another confounding variable in regions and time periods where cassava is a primary food
source. For example, cassava leaves and tubers contain a low amount of the sulfur-containing amino
acids methionine and cysteine, which are essential for detoxifying ingested cyanide.

5. The Effect of Raw Materials Variability

5.1 The Variability of Raw Materials of Cassava Chips
The only variety that suitable to make cassava chips is pacar cassava and also manggu cassava.
This variety is very suitable because this variety have high amount of coarse fiber and ash, which is
2.70% and 1.19% (Candra dkk, 2020). That compound makes this two variety the desired
characteristic in cassava chips, such as crispiness and can hold its shape when its being fryed. The
amount of the starch in this variety also high at around 27%-35% (Nurdjanah dkk, 2007)that can also
make the chips gonna be crispy. Starch can be gelatinazed and make crispy layer on the outside. But
there are some modification in the raw materials that can enhance the value of cassava chips. This
modification are adding edible coating, soaking in sodium bicarbonate or calsium hydroxide, and pre-
heating before frying.
5.2 Raw Material Variability and Their Impact on Cassava Chips Characteristics
By adding edible coating, such as methyl cellulose (MC) or hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose
(HPMC) can decrease the amount of oil that being absorbed (Praseptiangga dkk 2020). This means
that chips gonna be more healthy than the usual chips. Edible coating will coat the surface of the chips
and gonna block some of the oil to absorbed by the chips. But, the coating also can trapped the water
content in the cassava and can’t be evaporate when being heated. The chips will be not as crispy as
the usual ones (Rosanna dkk, 2015).
Soaking the cassava in sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or calsium hydroxide (CaOH2) will be
produce CO2 gas in the cassava. This gas is penetrated the inside of cassava and stayed in the pores.
When the cassava being fried them that gas will be coming out quickly in the oil.(Rahmawat dkk,
2022) The pore that leaved by the CO2 will make the crunchy texture. The texture of cassava will be
softer after soaking process. This soft texture also adding the crunchiness of chips. This effect will be
doubled up by boiled the solution of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3) or calsium hydroxide (CaOH2).
5.3 Raw Material Variability and Their Impact on Cassava Chips Processing
The coating process in cassava chips is done by dipping it for 5 to 8 seconds in methyl cellulose
(MC) or hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) solution. After that the cassava will be dried in
open air for 10 minutes. This coating process is repeated for one more time for maximized output.
The solution is heated continuosly so equally distributed, clear, and perfectly disolved (Deglas, 2018).
Futhermore, for make the chips even crispier the cassava can be boiled in sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3) or calsium hydroxide (CaOH2) before the frying (Rosanna dkk, 2015).
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 7 of 10

6. Production Process
6.1 Preparation
First, the main raw material, 2 kg of cassava is peeled and sliced into a thin chip-like shape.
Submerge the freshly cut cassava into a bowl of hot water. The water that was used for rinsing is then
throwed away into a drain and the cassava is then repeatedly washed until the water that is submerging
the cassava begins to clear up and shows no sign of cloudiness within the water, and the cassava is
no longer has a slippery surface to it, drain the water again. Newly soft pounded 32 grams of garlic
paste,and add 1 tbsp of salt is then added onto the previously cleaned cassava. Mix it well and wait
15 minutes for the garlic paste and the cassava to properly incorporate themselves into the cassava.
6.2 Frying
A large amount of palm oil is then added into the frying pan (make sure to add enough so that
the cassava chips can be fully submerged), the oil is then heated until it reaches a nice and hot
temperature of 3500F. Garlic paste will then be removed from the chips surface that has been mixed
with garlic and salt before, then pour the chips gently into the frying pan. Deepfry until until the chips
has a golden brown like colour to it and pour the newly fried chips into a strainer until all the excess
oil is removed, an addition of salt is then sprinkled onto the chips. At this point you can already eat
it.

7. Composition
7.1 Nutritional Composition of Cassava Chips
Cassava chips are high in calories, with approximately 450-500 calories per 100 grams serving.
This is primarily due to the high carbohydrate content and the oil used in frying the chips. Cassava
chips are rich in carbohydrates, providing about 65.80 ± 0,023 g/100 g. Cassava chips can contain a
significant amount of fat, usually around 18.18 ± 0,017 g/100 g, primarily from the oil used in frying.
The fat contained also includes essential fatty acids with 6.70 g/100 g of omega 6 fatty acid and 0.06
g/100 g of omega 3 ALA fatty acid. Cassava chips contain a moderate amount of dietary fiber, around
3-4 grams per 100 grams serving. Fiber aids in digestion and can help to control blood sugar levels.
Micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals are also contained in cassava chips. Vitamins in cassava
chips includes 6.2 mg/100 g of vitamin E, and multiple vitamin B with vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, B6
levels of 0.05 mg/100 g, 0.03 mg/100 g, 1.20 mg/100 g, 0.89 mg/100 g, and 0.13 mg/100 g,
respectively. Minerals contained in cassava chips includes K, P, Mn, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Se, and Cu, but
not in a significant amount. Sodium from NaCl (salt) is contained as well in cassava chips on a
average level of 0.10 g/100 g (Montagnac et al., 2008).
7.2 Antinutritional Composition of Cassava Chips
There are several anti-nutritional factors found in cassava, such as cyanogenic glucosides, tannin,
phytates, oxalates, and saponins. These anti-nutrients can have a negative impact on the human body.
However, the levels of these anti-nutrients be reduced through proper processing methods (Mariam
and Woldeyes, 2020).
Cyanogenic glucosides are the most toxic of the anti-nutrients found in cassava. Cassava contains
two main types of cyanogenic glucosides: linamarin and lotaustralin. The processing steps in the
production of cassava chips can help to reduce the levels of cyanogenic glucosides by up to 90%, to
10-20 miligrams per 100 grams cassava chips, whereas the lethal dose of cyanogenic glucosides is
considered to be between 50 and 300 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. This indicates the
amount of cyanogenic glucosides in cassava chips is safe to consume (Montagnac et al., 2008).
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 8 of 10

Tannin is a type of polyphenol that can bind to proteins and other nutrients, making them less
available for absorption by the body. Tannins are also known to have antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory properties. Processing of cassava into cassava chips can reduce the levels of tannins by
up to 50%. Cassava chips in general contains 20-30 mg/100g of tannin (Montagnac et al., 2008).
Phytates are a type of anti-nutrient that can bind to minerals, such as calcium, iron, and zinc,
making them less available for absorption by the body. Phytates are also known to have antioxidant
and anticancer properties. Processing of cassava into cassava chips can reduce the levels of phytates
by up to 30%. Phyatates are commonly found in cassava chips in the amount of 100-200 miligrams
per 100 grams of cassava chips (Montagnac et al., 2008).
Oxalates are a type of anti-nutrient that can bind to calcium and other minerals, making them less
available for absorption by the body. Oxalates can also form kidney stones in susceptible individuals.
Processing of cassava into cassava chips can reduce the levels of oxalates by up to 20%. The level of
oxalates found in cassava chips ranges from 50 to 100 miligrams per 100 grams of cassava chips
(Montagnac et al., 2008).
Saponins are a type of anti-nutrient that can irritate the digestive tract and reduce the absorption
of nutrients. Saponins are also known to have cholesterol-lowering and anticancer properties.
Processing of cassava into cassava chips can reduce the levels of saponins by up to 10%. The saponins
contained in cassava chips ranges between 20-30 miligrams per 100 grams of cassava chips
(Montagnac et al., 2008).

8. Conclusion
Cassava is one of the most important agricultural commodities in Indonesia. However, cassava
is highly perishable due to its high water content. To capitalize its potential and extend its shelf life,
processing cassava into cassava chips is one of the solution. The main commodity used in producing
cassava chips is manggu cassava. Variability in raw materials used can affect the processing method
in cassava chips production and can result in a diffrerence in the characteristics. In general, cassava
chips are rich in nutrients, especially carbohydrates, which makes it a good source of energy. In
contrast, cassava also contains anti-nutrients. However, the levels of these anti-nutrients be reduced
through proper processing methods, such as in processing cassava into cassava chips. The anti-
nutrients in casssava chips were found to be below the lethal dose, hence it is safe to consume. Proper
processing in the production of cassava chips is crucial to improve the safety of cassava consumption.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Faculty of Agricultural Technology, University of
Brawijaya for providing the facilities for us to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to make this
review. We also acknowledge Dr. Widya Dwi Rukmi Putri, STP., MP. as the lecturer of the Ingridient
Knowledge course for the knowledge, guidance, and support in the making of this review.
Ingridient Knowledge 2023, 13, 1 9 of 10

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