LIGHT

Isaac Newton 1675: Corpuscular theory of light - is made up of small discrete particles called
‘corpuscles’ (little particles) which travel in a straight line with a finite velocity.

Christiaan Huygens 1678: Wave theory of light - light was made up of waves vibrating up and
down perpendicular to the direction of the light travels.

Thomas Young 1802: Young's interference experiment - This experiment played a major role in
the general acceptance of the wave theory of light.

James Clerk Maxwell 1865: EM theory - Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic
fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. He proposed that light is an
undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.

Albert Einstein 1905: Photoelectric effect – Light is in the form of quanta or photons.

LIGHT has dual character- wave-particle duality

Reflection, refraction can be explain by both wave and particle nature of light.
Interference, diffraction can be explain by wave nature of light.
Photoelectric effect, Compton effect can be explain by particle nature of light.

Light is electromagnetic radiation which causes the sensation of vision.

Geometrical optics or ray optics--- rectilinear propagation as ray of light.
Physical optics or wave optics ---- concerned with the wave nature of light.
Quantum optics --- concerned with particle nature of light. Investigate phenomena involving
light and its interactions with matter.

Wave: Wave is a self-sustaining disturbance of the medium through which it propagates.

Difference between Wave and Disturbance: A wave is periodic both in space and time but a
disturbance is either periodic in space or in time, or not in anyone. Therefore, all waves are
disturbances but not the vice versa.

Wave front: A wave front is defined as the locus of all such points which are in the same state
of vibration, that is, in the same phase. Mathematically, 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

Wave equation and solution:

𝜕2 𝜓 1 𝜕2 𝜓
Plane wave: = 𝑣2 𝜕𝑡 2 . Solution 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡) 𝑂𝑅 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥).
𝜕𝑥 2
Example: Light emerging out from a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.

1 𝜕2 1 𝜕2 𝜓 𝐴 𝐴
Spherical wave: 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2 (𝑟𝜓) = 𝑣2 . Solution 𝜓(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑟 sin 𝑘(𝑟 ± 𝑣𝑡) 𝑂𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑟).
𝜕𝑡 2 𝑟
Example: Light diverging from a point source.
 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕2 𝜓 𝐴 𝐴
Cylindrical wave: (𝑟 )= . Solution 𝜓(𝑟, 𝑡) = sin 𝑘(𝑟 ± 𝑣𝑡) 𝑂𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑟).
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2 √𝑟 √𝑟
Example: Light emerging from a narrow slit.

The solution of wave equation is periodic with periodicity 2π in space and time.
Consider 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡) is unaltered in space at λ then 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥 + λ, 𝑡).
2𝜋
Which gives sin 𝑘[(𝑥 + 𝜆) ± 𝑣𝑡] = sin [𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡) + 2π] ⇒ 𝑘𝜆 = 2𝜋 OR 𝑘 = 𝜆
.
Consider 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡) is unaltered in time at τ then 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡 + τ).
2𝜋
Which gives sin 𝑘[𝑥 ± 𝑣(𝑡 + τ)] = sin [𝑘(𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡) + 2π] ⇒ 𝑘𝑣τ = 2𝜋 OR 𝑘𝑣 = τ
= 2𝜋𝜈 = 𝜔

Huygens Principle: All points of a wave front of light in a vacuum or transparent medium may
be regarded as new sources of secondary wavelets which gives rise to spherical wavelets which
propagate with the same velocity as the original wave front and the wave front at any latter
instant may be regarded as the envelope of these wavelets.

Huygens-Fresnel Principle: All points of a wave front of light ………. as the envelope of these
wavelets. These secondary wavelets mutually interfere.

Huygens says that amplitude of forward

wave is maximum and backward wave is
minimum (zero) and practically backward
wave does not exist.
To explain it consider 𝐼 ∝ (1 + cos 𝜃),
where 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of
propagation and the direction under
consideration.
Wave front in forward direction 𝜃 = 0, intensity is maximum and wave front in backward
direction 𝜃 = 180𝑜 , intensity is zero.

Interference of Light: The phenomenon of

redistribution of light energy due to super position
of light waves from two or more number of
coherent sources is called interference of light.

In the constructive interference the amplitude of the

resultant wave is greater than that of either
individual wave. In destructive interference the
amplitude of the resultant wave is less than that of
either individual wave.
Theory of Interference: Let us consider S1 and S2 are two closely spaced narrow slits and
equidistance from S as shown in the figure below. Further we consider that the fields at point P
on the screen due to S1 and S2 are Y1 and Y2 respectively. Now, 𝑌1 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡) and 𝑌2 =
𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿). Where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are the amplitude of the field at point P due to source S1 and
S2 respectively. Here 𝛿 is the phase difference due to the path difference (PD) between S1P and
S2P. According to the principle of superposition, the resultant field at point P is
𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 = 𝑎1 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿).
𝑌 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝛿 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝛿.
𝑌 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿) sin 𝜔𝑡 + (𝑎2 sin 𝛿) cos 𝜔𝑡.
𝑌 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑). Take, 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑 and 𝑎2 sin 𝛿 = 𝐴 sin 𝜑
𝑌 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).
𝑎2 sin 𝛿
Here, 𝐴2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝛿)2 + (𝑎2 sin 𝛿)2, and tan 𝜑 = 𝑎 .
1 +𝑎2 cos 𝛿

𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝛿

Since, 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 , therefore, 𝐼 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝛿 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿.
By considering 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 we get 𝐼 = 2𝐼0 (1 + cos 𝛿).

r1
r2 y
S1
d/2
S d
d/2
PD

S2

D
Constructive interference: Intensity is maximum. It happens when cos 𝛿 = 1 or 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋,
𝜆
where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯. Thus corresponding path difference is 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 2𝜋 𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 =
𝜆
2𝑛 2. Intensity is maximum when the path difference is even multiple of half wavelength.
Destructive interference: Intensity is minimum. It happens when cos 𝛿 = −1 or 𝛿 =
𝜆 𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋. Thus corresponding path difference is 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1) . Intensity is
2𝜋 2
minimum when the path difference is odd multiple of half wavelength.
 I
4I0

-6π -5π -4π -3π -2π -π 0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π δ

This intensity pattern shows the redistribution of light energy. But the average intensity over a
1 2𝜋 2𝐼02𝜋
period is 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼 𝑑𝛿 = ∫ (1
2𝜋 0
+ cos 𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 = 2𝐼0 which indicates conservation of
energy.

Path difference (PD): According to the Fig. 2, the path difference is given by 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 .
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
From this diagram one can write 𝑟2 2 = 𝐷2 + (𝑦 + 2 ) and 𝑟1 2 = 𝐷2 + (𝑦 − 2 )
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
So, 𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2 = (𝑦 + 2 ) − (𝑦 − 2 ) = 2𝑦𝑑
𝑦𝑑
Thus, (𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = 2𝑦𝑑 or, (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = . [Since 𝑑 ≪ 𝐷, then 𝑟2 = 𝑟1 = 𝐷.]
𝐷
𝑦𝑑
So, 𝑃𝐷 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = is the optical path difference between the two interfering waves at P.
𝐷

λ
Fringe width: It is known that if (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) is the even multiple of then 𝑃𝐷 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) =
2
λ
2𝑛 2 . where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯ then we observe bright fringe at P. If this one is the n-th order
𝑦𝑛 𝑑 λ λD
bright fringe then it must satisfy the condition (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = = 2𝑛. 2 yields 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏 .
𝐷 𝒅
λD
Therefore for the (n+1)-th order bright fringe we get 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝒅 . So the spacing between
λD
the n-th and (n+1)-th order bright fringe is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = .
𝑑
𝑦𝑛 𝑑
Similarly, the condition to observe n-th order dark fringe at P is 𝑃𝐷 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = = (2𝑛 +
𝐷
λ λD
1) 2 . Where𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯. Thus 𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟐𝒅. Again, for the (n+1)-th order dark fringe
λD λD
the condition should be 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = {𝟐(𝒏 + 𝟏) + 𝟏} 𝟐𝒅 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟑) 𝟐𝒅. So the spacing between the
λD λD
n-th and (n+1)-th order dark fringe is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = 2. = .
2𝑑 𝑑
λD
Therefore the spacing between any two consecutive dark or consecutive bright fringe is same and its value is 𝛽 = .
𝑑

Angular fringe width: The angular fringe width is defined as angular separation between
𝑦𝑛+1 𝑦𝑛 λ
consecutive bright or dark fringes and is denoted as 𝜔 = 𝜃𝑛+1 − 𝜃𝑛 = − = 𝑑.
𝐷 𝐷

Conditions for sustained interference: In sustained interference of light, the interference

pattern should be stable and observable. The conditions of sustained interference are-
  The interfering waves must be coherent. [Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they have a
constant phase relationship between them.]
 The interfering waves must propagate in the same direction.
 The interfering waves must have same amplitude to get the maximum visibility.
 The interfering waves must be monochromatic and same frequency.
 The interfering waves must have same state of polarization.
 The coherent sources must be narrow and separation between them must be small.

Classification of interference: There are two types of interference based upon the methods of
obtaining the coherent sources. (i) Division of wave-front: The wave-front originating from a
source of light is divided in two parts which serves the purpose of coherent sources. Example-
Young’s double slits, Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s single mirror, etc. (ii) Division of amplitude:
The amplitude of a light beam is divided into two parts by partial reflection or refraction to obtain
coherent sources. Example- thin films, Newton’s ring, Michelson’s interferometer, etc.

Fresnel Biprism: It is a thin prism produces from a single glass plate with its obtuse angle nearly
equal to 179o and the refracting angles are very small ~1/2o. The interference is observed by the
division of wave front. Monochromatic light through a narrow slit S falls on biprism, which
divides it into two components. One of these component is refracted from upper portion of
biprism and appears to come from S1 where the other one refracted through lower portion
and appears to come from S2. Thus S1 and S2 act as two virtual coherent sources formed from
the original source. Light waves arising from S1 and S2 interfere in the deep shaded region and
interference fringes are formed which can be observed on the screen AB (is an eyepiece).

D
S1 A
α

d S θ O
α
S2 δ
B
x
P

Biprism experiment may be used to measure the unknown wavelength of light used by the
𝛽𝑑
relation λ = .
𝐷
From the figure the deviation of the ray can be write as 𝛿 = (𝜇 − 1)𝛼. Again from figure one
can write 2𝛿. 𝑥 = 𝑑. (𝑑 is the distance between two virtual sources and x is the separation
𝑑
between source and biprism). Thus, 𝛿 = 2𝑥 = (𝜇 − 1)𝛼 yields 𝑑 = 2𝑥. (𝜇 − 1)𝛼.

Lloyd’s single mirror: The coherent source is produced by reflection in plain mirror. The 0-th
order fringe is dark due π phase shift of the refracted ray backed by denser medium silver layer
at the back surface of the mirror.

Mirror

Phase change on reflection: Stokes’ relation: Let a light wave AO of amplitude 𝑎 fall on the
surface of the medium 2(denser here) from medium 1(rarer here) at the point O. some part of
AO will reflect back to medium 1 along the path OB and some part of it refracted along OC. If
𝑟 and 𝑡 are the fractions of the amplitude reflected and transmitted respectively when light goes
from medium 1 to 2 then the amplitude of the waves along OB and OC are 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑎𝑡
respectively.
Let 𝑟 ′ and 𝑡 ′ are the fractions of the amplitude reflected and transmitted respectively when light
goes from medium 2(denser here) to 1(rarer here). Now if we reverses the direction of both OB
and OC then, due to reversing OB, the amplitude of the reflected wave along OA will be 𝑎𝑟 2
and the amplitude of the refracted along OD will be 𝑎𝑟𝑡 whereas due to reversing OC, the
amplitude of the reflected wave along OD will be 𝑎𝑡𝑟 ′ and the amplitude of the refracted wave
along OA will be 𝑎𝑡𝑡 ′ .
According to the principle of reversibility of light, the reflected and refracted waves OB and OC,
on reversal, should give only the original ray AO which has amplitude 𝑎. So
𝑎𝑡𝑡 ′ + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 𝑎 yields 𝑡𝑡 ′ + 𝑟 2 = 1 and 𝑎𝑡𝑟 ′ + 𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0 yields 𝑟 ′ = −𝑟.
The –Ve sign indicates 𝜋 phase change occurs due to reflection when light reflected back by
denser medium. No such phase change occurs when light reflected back by rarer medium.
Measurement of the thickness of a thin film: Consider that O is the position of the central
bright fringe. So 𝑆1 𝑂 = 𝑆2 𝑂(when no film inserted). Now if we put a thin film of thickness 𝑡 and
refractive index µ in the path of the ray 𝑆1 𝑂 then the central bright fringe will be shifted say to
O’ at a distance xo’ from O or is the position of n-th order bright fringe. Under this condition we
𝑥𝑜́ 𝑑
can write: 𝑆2 𝑜′ − 𝑆1 𝑜′ = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = = 𝑛𝜆.
𝐷

O’

According to the above figure, the effective path difference is 𝑆2 𝑃 − [𝑆1 𝑃 + (𝜇 − 1)𝑡] at point
P. If point P is the position of m-th order bright fringe then 𝑆2 𝑃 − [𝑆1 𝑃 + (𝜇 − 1)𝑡] = 𝑚𝜆 or,
𝑥𝑚 𝑑 𝐷
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 ⇒ − (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑑 [𝑚𝜆 + (𝜇 − 1)𝑡].
𝐷

References:
Engineering Physics, H. K. Malik and A. K. Singh.
A text Book of Light, B. Ghosh and K. G. Mazumdar
Problems:
P1: Two sources of intensities 4I and I are used in an interference experiment. Calculate the resultant
intensities at points with phase difference 0, π/4 and π of the waves from the sources.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

P2: The amplitude of light field of two slits in Young’s experiment are in ratio 1:2. Calculate the ratio of
maximum intensity and minimum intensity.
2
𝐼1 𝑎12 1 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
= 2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝐼2 𝑎2 4 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 (√𝐼 − √𝐼 )2
1 2

2𝜆
P3: The path difference at a point on screen is 7
in an interference experiment. Calculate its intensity
with respect to central bright fringe.
2𝜋 𝐼
𝛿= 𝑃𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2(1 + cos 𝛿)
𝜆 𝐼0

P4: A biprism is placed at a distance of 5 cm from the source of wavelength 589 nm. The width of 10
fringes on a screen placed at a distance of 75 cm from the source is 0.9424 cm. Calculate the separation
between the virtual sources formed by biprism.
λD
𝛽=
𝑑

1𝑜
P5: A biprism of refracting angle 3 and refractive index 1.5 is used in interference experiment. The source
and screen are placed at a distance of 20 cm and 80 cm from the biprism respectively. Calculate the fringe
width when the wavelength of light used is 690 nm.
λD
𝑑 = 2𝑥. (𝜇 − 1)𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 =
𝑑

P6: In double slit experiment eyepiece is placed at a distance of 1 m from the slits. The separation between
slits is 0.75 mm. It is observed that the 20 fringes crosses the field of view when the crosswire moved
1.888 cm. Find the wavelength of the light.
λD
𝛽=
𝑑

P7: When a thin sheet of transparent material of thickness 6.5 µm is introduced in the path of one of the
interfering beam, the central fringe shifted to a position of 6th bright fringe. Find the refractive index of
the sheet when the used wavelength of the light is 550 nm.
(𝜇 − 1)𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆

P8: A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on two slits separated by a distance of 0.5 mm. The
interference pattern is observed on a screen placed at a distance of 1 m from the slits. If a glass plate of
thickness 1.5 µm and refractive index 1.5 is placed in front of one of the slit then find the intensity of the
central spot and lateral shifting of central maximum.
2𝜋 𝑥𝑜́ 𝑑
𝑃𝐷 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 2𝐼0 (1 + cos 𝛿) 𝐴𝑁𝐷 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 =
𝜆 𝐷
 Interference by Division of Amplitude

Thin film-Interference by reflected ray: Let us consider a plano-parallel thin film of thickness
𝑡 and of refractive index 𝜇2 on which a ray of light having wavelength 𝜆, coming from the
external point A, incident at angle 𝑖 on the upper surface of the film at the point B. At this point
the ray is partially reflected along BD and is partially refracted along BE at an angle 𝑟, which
again partially reflected from the point E on the lower surface along EF and refracted at the point
F and emerges along FG. This process will repeat again and again. All the rays coming out from
the upper surface are parallel to each other and if we place a convex lens in their path, they will
meet at the focus P and interfere with each other. Since the rays BD and FG, IJ… are derived
from the same ray of light AB, so they are coherent and they will produce interference pattern at
the point P.

The optical path difference between first two interfering beam is given by
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 (𝐵𝐸 + 𝐸𝐹) − 𝜇1 𝐵𝐶
2𝑡 2𝑡 sin 𝑟 𝜇 2𝑡 sin2 𝑟
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 cos 𝑟 − 𝜇1 𝐵F. sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 cos 𝑟 − 𝜇1 . (2t cos 𝑟) . (𝜇2 . sin 𝑟) = 𝜇2 cos 𝑟 − 2𝜇2 t
1 cos 𝑟
𝑡 sin 𝑟 μ2 sin i
Since, 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 = cos 𝑟 and BF = 2t. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟 = 2t cos 𝑟 and = sin r.
μ1
2𝑡
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 (1 − sin2 𝑟) = 2𝜇2 𝑡 cos 𝑟
cos 𝑟
Considering π phase shift in CD, the condition of 𝑛𝑡ℎ order bright fringe will be 2𝑡𝜇2 cos 𝑟 =
𝜆 𝜆
(2𝑛 − 1) and the condition for 𝑛𝑡ℎ order dark fringe will be 2𝑡 𝜇2 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛 2 . Where 𝑛 =
2
0,1,2,3
Thin film-Interference by transmitted ray: Let us consider a plano-parallel thin film of
thickness 𝑡 on which a ray of light having wavelength 𝜆, coming from the external point A,
incident at angle 𝑖 on the upper surface of the film at the point B. At this point the ray is partially
reflected and refracted along BC at an angle 𝑟 is, which again partially reflected from the point
C on the upper surface along EF and refracted at the point F and emerges along FG. This process
will repeat again and again. All the rays coming out from the lower surface are parallel to each
other and if we place a convex lens in their path will meet at the focus point P or at a point P on
the focal plane and interfere with each other. Since the rays CD and FG, ..… are derived from
the same ray of light AB, so they are coherent and they will produce interference pattern at the
point P.

The optical path difference between first two interfering beam CD and FG is given by
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 (𝐶𝐸 + 𝐸𝐹) − 𝜇1 𝐶𝐻
2𝑡 2𝑡 sin 𝑟 𝜇2 2𝑡 sin2 𝑟
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 (CF. sin 𝑖) = 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 . (2t ) . ( sin 𝑟) = 𝜇2 − 2𝜇2 t
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟 𝜇1 cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
𝑡 sin 𝑟 μ2 sin i
Since, C𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 = cos 𝑟 and BF = 2t. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟 = 2t cos 𝑟 and = sin r.
μ1
2𝑡
Hence the optical path difference ∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 (1 − sin2 𝑟) = 2𝜇2 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
𝜆
So for 𝑛 order bright fringe the condition will be 2𝑡𝜇2 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛. 2 and for dark fringe it is
𝜆
2𝑡 𝜇2 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑚 + 1) 2 . Where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 …
The condition for maxima in reflected beams is same as the condition for minima in transmitted
beams and vice versa so they are complementary to each other.
Interference by wedge-shaped thin film: Let the shaded area in the figure below represent a
thin wedge shaped film of refractive index µ and the angle between the upper and the lower
surface is 𝛼. A ray of light having wavelength 𝜆, coming from the external point A, fall on the
upper surface of the film at the point B. At this point the ray is partially reflected along BE and
is partially refracted along BC, which again partially reflected from the point C on the lower
surface along CD and emerges along DF after refraction from the point D on the upper surface
and superpose at the point P. Since the rays BE and DF are derived from the same ray of light
AB, so they are coherent and they will produce interference pattern at the point P.
F
E

sin 𝑖 𝐵𝐾⁄𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐾
𝜇= = =
A sin 𝑟 𝐵𝐽⁄𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐽
K
D ⇒ 𝐵𝐾 = 𝜇𝐵𝐽
i
r
i r+α

B µ From, △ 𝐶𝐼𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 △ 𝐶𝐼𝐻

r
r +α

α
J CI is same for both △
C I
< 𝐶𝐷𝐼 = < 𝐶𝐻𝐼
r+α

< 𝐶𝐼𝐷 = < 𝐶𝐼𝐻 = 900

H
⇒△ 𝐶𝐼𝐷 ≅ △ 𝐶𝐼𝐻
α

G
Take 𝐷𝐼 = 𝑡 thickness of the
slab at point I.

The optical path difference between interfering beam BE and DF is given by

∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝐾 = 𝜇(𝐵𝐽 + 𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝜇𝐵𝐽 = 𝜇(𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷).
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = 𝜇(𝐽𝐶 + 𝐶𝐻) = µ𝐽𝐻 [∵ 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐽, 𝐶, 𝐻 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒. ]
𝐽𝐻
From ∆ 𝐽𝐷𝐻 we can write, cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝐷𝐻 ⇒ 𝐽𝐻 = 𝐷𝐻 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼).
∆𝑙𝑜𝑝 = µ𝐽𝐻 = µ𝐷𝐻 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 2µ𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼).

Considering π phase shift in BE, the condition of 𝑛𝑡ℎ order bright fringe will be
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 and the condition for 𝑛𝑡ℎ order dark fringe will be
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 2𝑛 2 . Where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Fringe width: Consider two consecutive dark fringe at positions 𝑋𝑛 and 𝑋𝑛+1 as shown in figure
below. For consecutive dark fringes, we know
2𝜇𝑡𝑛 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ 2𝜇𝑋𝑛 tan 𝛼 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝑛𝜆.
2𝜇𝑡𝑛+1 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ⇒ 2𝜇𝑋𝑛+1 tan 𝛼 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆.
Subtracting above two equations we get, 2𝜇(𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 ) tan 𝛼 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = 𝜆.
𝜆
By definition fringe width is = 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 = 2𝜇 tan 𝛼 cos(𝑟+𝛼) .
For normal incidence 𝑖 = 𝑟 = 0, so, cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) = cos 𝛼.
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
Therefore, 𝛽 = 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 = 2𝜇 tan 𝛼 cos 𝛼 = 2𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 2𝜇 𝛼 [for small angle α].

tn+1
tn
α

Xn
Xn+1

Newton’s Ring Experiment: The system of Newton’s ring apparatus is given below. If the curve
surface of Plano-convex lens having large radius of curvature is placed over a plane glass slab,
the air film trapped in between the two surfaces can produce interference pattern of alternate
dark and bright concentric circular ring around the point of contact. Each alternate dark and
bright concentric circular ring represent the locus of the points of equal film thickness and they
are localized in the film. Therefore, this fringes are called fringes of constant thickness.

In this system the interference pattern is formed due to the superposition of the light waves
reflected from the upper and lower surface of the air film. The arrangement of the apparatus is
such that the light waves incident normally on the plane surface of the plano-convex lens. Under
this condition the optical path difference between these two waves is given by 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝛼) ±
𝜆
. The condition for n-th order dark ring is 2𝜇𝑡𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆 [for normal incidence 𝑟 = 0. For very small angle of
2
wedge 𝛼 ≈ 0].

Diameter of the ring: Since the fringe of a particular order will be circular in shape because the
locus of equal thickness of the film is circle whose center lies at the point of contact C. To find
the diameter of a particular fringe we consider the figure below. If the point P in the figure fulfills
the condition of darkness (or brightness) then all the points on the circle of radius QP will
produce dark (or bright) fringe. Consider the radius of a particular order, say m-th, dark fringe is
QP (say 𝑟𝑚 ) . Now if 𝑅 be the radius of curvature of the convex surface, then from the figure we
can write 𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑚 2 ⟹ 𝑟𝑚 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2 .
𝑅𝑚𝜆
Since 𝑅 ≫ 𝑡, then 𝑟𝑚 2 = 2𝑅𝑡, putting the value of 𝑡 for m-th order dark fringe, we get 𝑟𝑚 2 = and
𝜇
𝑅(2𝑚−1)𝜆
for m-th order bright fringe 𝑟𝑚 2 = 2𝜇
. 2
In terms of corresponding diameters, 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅⁄𝜇 for
2
Dark fringe and 𝐷𝑚 = 2(2𝑚 − 1)𝜆𝑅⁄𝜇 for Bright fringe.

Taking 𝜇 = 1, the spacing between the consecutive rings are 𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚 = √4𝜆𝑅(√𝑚 + 1 −
√𝑚). Putting 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … we get
𝐷2 − 𝐷1 = √4𝜆𝑅(√2 − √1) ≈ 0.414√4𝜆𝑅
𝐷3 − 𝐷2 = √4𝜆𝑅(√3 − √2) ≈ 0.318√4𝜆𝑅
𝐷4 − 𝐷3 = √4𝜆𝑅(√4 − √3) ≈ 0.268√4𝜆𝑅 and so on.
This indicates that the spacing between the consecutive rings decreases with the increasing order
number.
4𝜆𝑅 1
Fringe width: 𝛽 = 𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚 = 2𝐷 taking 𝐷𝑚+1 + 𝐷𝑚 = 2𝐷𝑚 . Therefore, 𝛽 ∝ . So, 𝛽
𝑚 𝐷𝑚
decreases as the diameter increases i.e., 𝑚 increases.

Measurement of wavelength:
2 2
For m-th dark ring: 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅. For (𝑚 + 𝑝)-th dark ring: 𝐷𝑚+𝑝 = 4(𝑚 + 𝑝)𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑚+𝑝 2
−𝐷𝑚
2 2
Therefore, 𝐷𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 ⇒ 𝜆 =
4𝑝𝑅
Measurement of refractive index: If we put a transparent liquid of refractive index 𝜇 (𝜇 < 𝜇𝑔 ) in
2 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
between the glass plate and the plano-convex lens then for m-th dark ring 𝐷𝑚 = 𝜇
and (𝑚 + 𝑝)-
2 4(𝑚+𝑝)𝜆𝑅 2 2 4𝑝𝜆𝑅
th dark ring 𝐷𝑚+𝑝 = 𝜇
. Therefore [𝐷𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚 ]𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝜇
. But in case of air in between glass
2 2
plate and the plano-convex lens we get [𝐷𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚 ]𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅. By comparing these two equations
[𝐷2𝑚+𝑝 −𝐷2𝑚 ]
𝑎𝑖𝑟
we get = .
[𝐷2𝑚+𝑝 −𝐷2𝑚 ]
𝑙𝑖𝑞

Problems:
P9: A parallel beam of light of wavelength 589 nm is incident on a thin glass plate of refractive index 1.5
such that the angle of refraction is 60o. Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate which will appear
dark by reflection. Hint. 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, take 𝑛 = 1.

4
P10: A thin film of soap solution is illuminated by white light at an angle of incidence 𝑖 = sin−1 (5). In
reflected light two dark consecutive overlapping fringes are observed corresponding to wavelength 610
4
nm 600 nm. The refractive index of the soap solution is 3 . Calculate the thickness of the film.
Hint. 𝑛𝜆1 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆2 with 𝜆1 > 𝜆2 . Find n then 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆

P11: A soap film of ri. 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths at an angle of 45o. There is
complete destructive interference for wavelength 5890Å. Find the thickness of the film.
Hint. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, take 𝑛 = 1.

P12: Light of wavelength 600 nm falls normally on a thin wedge-shaped film of ri. 1.4 forming fringes
𝜆
that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge. Hint. 𝛼 = 2𝜇 𝛽

P13: Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a wedge shaped
film of ri. 1.4. The angle of the wedge is 10 seconds of an arc and the distance between the successive
fringes is 0.5 cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used. Hint. 𝜆 = 2𝜇𝛼 𝛽

P14: In Newton ring experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.590 cm and that
of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm, calculate the
2
𝐷𝑚+𝑝 2
−𝐷𝑚
wavelength of the light used. Hint. 𝜆 = 4𝑝𝑅

P15: Newton rings are formed in refracted light of wavelength 6000Å with a liquid between the
plane and curved surface. If the diameter of the sixth bright ring is 3.1 mm and the radius of
2
curvature of the curve surface is 1 m, calculate the ri. of the liquid. Hint. 𝐷𝑚 = 2(2𝑚 − 1)𝜆𝑅⁄𝜇

P16: Newton rings are observed in reflective light of wavelength 5900Å. The diameter of 10th dark ring
is0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and the thickness of the air film.
2
Hint. 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅 and 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
P17: In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 5𝑡ℎ ring is 0.3 cm and the diameter of 25𝑡ℎ ring
is 0.8 cm. if the radius of curvature of the plano convex lens is 100 cm, find the wavelength of light used.

P18: In Newton's ring experiment the diameters of the 5𝑡ℎ and 10𝑡ℎ dark rings are 0.450 cm and 0.700
cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20𝑡ℎ dark ring.

P19: In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 10𝑡ℎ ring changes from 1.40cm to 1.27 cm when
a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.

P20: Light containing two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 falls normally on a plano convex lens of radius of
curvature R resting on a glass plate. If the 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark ring due to λ1 , coincides with (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ dark ring for
λ2 . Find the radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark ring for λ1 .
 Michelson interferometer

Interferometers are devices employed in the study of interference patterns produced by various
light sources. The experimental arrangement of Michelson interferometer is shown in Fig. 1.
M1
d -- path difference

M2

Reflected beam
G1
G2

O
Transmitted M2
Source
beam

Observer

The source is placed at focus of a convex lens. The amplitude of the incident wave is divided by
partial reflection using a beam splitter G1 with two equal parts. A beam splitter is nothing more
than a plate of glass, which is made partially reflective and part is transmitted through it. The
two beams obtained by amplitude division are sent in different directions against plane mirrors,
then reflected back along their same respected paths to the beam splitter to form an interference
pattern. The purpose of the compensating plate G2 is to render the path in glass of the two rays
equal.
To view circular fringes (fringes of constant inclination) with monochromatic light, the
mirrors must be almost perfectly perpendicular to each other and OM1 = OM2. The origin of the
circular fringes is understood from the Fig. 2.

The real mirror M2 has been replaced by its virtual image 𝑀́ 2 formed by the reflection in G1 and
𝑀́ 2 is parallel to M1. Since light in the interferometer gets reflected many times, we can think of
the extended source as being at L, where L is behind the observer as seen in Fig. 2; L forms two
virtual images, L1 and L2 , in mirrors M1 and 𝑀́ 2 respectively. If d is the separation of M1 and
M2 the virtual sources are then separated by 2d, as can be seen in Fig. 2.
When d is exactly an integer number of half wavelengths, every ray that is reflected normal to
the mirrors M1 and 𝑀́ 2 will always be in phase. The path difference, 2d, must then be an integer
number of wavelengths. Rays of light that are reflected at other angles will not, in general, be in
phase. This means that the path difference between two incoming rays from points 𝑃́ and 𝑃́ will
be 2𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, where θ is the angle between the viewing axis and the incoming ray. The parallel
rays will interfere with each other, creating a fringe pattern of maxima and minima for which the
following relation is satisfied: 2𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆. For central fringe 𝜃 = 0, ⇒ 2𝑑 = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆.

Radii of circular fringes are proportional to the square root of natural number:
2𝑑 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = (𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛)𝜆 = 𝑚𝜆,
Here, n and 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 are integer number, so m is also a natural integer number.
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃2
Now, (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 1 − [1 − + −⋯] ≈ .
2! 4! 2
2
𝜃 𝑚𝜆
∴ 2𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆 ⇒ 𝜃2 = , 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 ∝ √𝑚 .
2 𝑑
If 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 ⋯ are the angles for the corresponding circular ring pattern of radii 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ⋯
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟
then 𝜃1 = , 𝜃2 = , 𝜃3 = ⋯ [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ]. Where x is the
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
distance of 𝑀́ 2 from L. As x is constant 𝑟 ∝ 𝜃, but as 𝜃 ∝ √𝑚, ∴ 𝑟 ∝ √𝑚 .

When the two mirrors M1 and M2 are not exactly at right angle to each other, the mirror M1
and 𝑀́ 2 will not be exactly parallel, the fringes with monochromatic light are still visible for a
path difference not exceeding a few millimetres. In this case the air path between the two mirriors
is a wedge-shaped. With such a film, the locus of points of equal thickness is a straight line
parallel to the edge of the wedge. The corresponding fringes are shown below.
Determination of wavelength:
Consider for central fringe 2𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆.
Again, 2𝑑́ = (𝑛 + 𝑝)𝜆.
2(𝑑́ −𝑑)
So, 𝜆 = .
𝑝

Resolution of spectral line:

Consider the source contain two closely spaced wavelength 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 (𝜆1 > 𝜆2 ).
For central fringe 2𝑑 = 𝑛1 𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑑 = 𝑛2 𝜆2 (𝑛1 < 𝑛2 ).
Again, 2𝑑́ = (𝑛1 + 𝑝)𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑑́ = (𝑛2 + 𝑝 + 1)𝜆2.
Therefore, 2(𝑑́ − 𝑑) = 𝑝𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2(𝑑́ − 𝑑) = (𝑝 + 1)𝜆2
𝜆 𝑝+1
⇒ 𝜆1 =
2 𝑝
𝜆1 −𝜆2 1 1 𝜆
𝑜𝑟 = 𝑝 = 2(𝑑́−𝑑)
𝜆2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
⇒ 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 2(𝑑1́ −𝑑)
2
= 2(𝑑́𝑎𝑣 .
−𝑑)

Determination of thickness of a thin transparent sheet:

Consider a thin sheet of transparent material of thickness t and refractive index µ is introduced
in the path of one of the beam (say transmitted beam) under white light fringes. Then we can
write 2(𝑑́ − 𝑑) = 𝑛𝜆 = 2(𝜇 − 1)𝑡.

Problems:
P21: A Michelson interferometer is set for white light fringes. When a mica sheet of thickness
0.05 mm is put in front of fixed mirror, then in order to bring back the coloured fringes to their
original position, the movable mirror is moved by 0.025 mm. Calculate the refractive index of
mica. Hint. (𝑑́ − 𝑑) = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡

P22: In Michelson interferometer 100 fringes cross the field of view when the movable mirror is
displaced through 0.02948 mm. Calculate the wavelength of monochromatic light used.
Hint. 2(𝑑́ − 𝑑) = 𝑛𝜆

P23: The wavelength of two components of D-lines of sodium are 5890Å and 5896Å. By how
much distance one of the mirror of Michelson interferometer be moved so as to obtain
𝜆 𝜆
consecutive positions of maximum distinctness. Hint. 𝑑́ − 𝑑 = 2(𝜆 1−𝜆2
1 2)

P24: In a experiment with Michelson interferometer the distance travelled by the mirror for two
successive positions of maximum distinctness was 0.2945 mm. If the mean wavelength for the
two components of sodium D-line is 5893Å, calculate the difference between the two
𝜆
wavelengths. Hint. 𝜆1 − 𝜆2 = 2(𝑑́𝑎𝑣
−𝑑)