Test Bank for Criminology The Core, 4th Edition

Test Bank for Criminology The Core, 4th Edition

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7 Social Process Theories

Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Social process theories share one basic concept. Which is it?

a. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, are basically good.
b. All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become
delinquents or criminals.
c. Criminal behavior is genetic, regardless of race, class, or gender.
d. Lower-class people, regardless of race or gender, are more prone to commit crime.

ANS: B REF: 168-169 OBJ: 1, 2

2. Social control theory suggests that:

a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.
b. only males have significant potential to become criminals.
c. crime is a learned behavior
d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such.

ANS: A REF: 168 OBJ: 2

3. Social reaction theory suggests that:

a. crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.
b. only males have significant potential to become criminals.
c. crime is a learned behavior
d. people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such.

ANS: D REF: 168 OBJ: 2

4. _________ refers to a style of parenting with parents who are supportive and who
effectively control their children in a non-coercive way.

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a. Parent pathology c. Parental efficacy
b. Low frequency parenting d. Low coercion parenting

ANS: C REF: 169 OBJ: 3

5. All of the following family factors are associated with delinquency EXCEPT:

a. inconsistent discipline. c. non-coercive parenting.

b. poor parental supervision. d. drug abusing parents.

ANS: C REF: 169 OBJ: 3, 8

6. Adolescents who do not receive affection from their parents during childhood are:

a. more likely to be depressed and suicidal as they mature.

b. more likely to use illicit drugs and be more aggressive as they mature.
c. more likely to suffer mental impairment as they mature.
d. more likely to engage in violent crime as they mature.

ANS: B REF: 169 OBJ: 3

7. Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those who graduate. According
to research on national dropout rates, which of the following group sets has “little more
than a fifty-fifty chance” of graduating high school?

a. white Americans and Italian Americans

b. Hispanic Americans and African Americans
c. Asian Americans and Italian Americans
d. Native Americans and white Americans

ANS: B REF: 171 OBJ: 4

8. According to the author, which of the following is accurate regarding why troubled kids
choose delinquent peers?

a. Troubled kids do so because they are not involved in after-school activities.

b. Troubled kids do so because they fail to understand truancy and delinquency
laws.
c. Troubled kids do so out of necessity rather than desire.
d. Troubled kids are biologically drawn or attracted to “troublemakers.”

ANS: C REF: 172 OBJ: 5

150
9. When examining the relationship between delinquent peers and fear of punishment,
____ delinquent peers may outweigh the fear of punishment.

a. loyalty to c. hostility from

b. fear of d. skills learned from

ANS: A REF: 172 OBJ: 5

10. Religion and belief impact criminal behavior. Even children in high crime areas are
better able to resist drug use if they:

a. attend self-esteem building programs. c. have religious beliefs.

b. attend religious services. d. have parents with religious beliefs.

ANS: B REF: 173 OBJ: 6

11. Which of the following is not one of the major principles of differential association?

a. Criminal behavior is learned.

b. Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating techniques.
c. Differential associations may vary in meaning, reliability, and intention.
d. A person becomes a criminal when he or she perceives more favorable than
unfavorable consequences to violating the law.

ANS: C REF: 174-175 OBJ: 7

12. Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory states that

a. criminal behavior is a product of impaired social bonds.

b. criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior.
c. criminal behavior is a function of educational inequality within the lower class.
d. criminal behavior is a function of media exposure.

ANS: B REF: 174 OBJ: 7

151
13. Which of the following research findings supports the core principles of differential
association theory?

a. Criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic.

b. Differential association accounts for spontaneous acts of violence.
c. Differential association theory involves circular reasoning.
d. Crime appears to be intergenerational.

ANS: D REF: 176 OBJ: 7

14. The process of _____ refers to moving in and out of delinquency or shifting between
conventional and deviant values.

a. transfer c. drift
b. waft d. sway

ANS: C REF: 177 OBJ: 7

15. Which of the following is NOT a criticism of differential association theory?

a. Differential association theory fails to account for the origin of criminal

definitions.
b. Differential association theory assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational
and systematic.
c. Differential association theory can account for isolated, psychopathic killing.
d. Differential association theory ignores spontaneous acts of violence.

ANS: C REF: 176 OBJ: 7

16. Neutralization theory points out that:

a. criminal behavior is learned in much the same way that conformity is learned.
b. even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in
criminality all the time.
c. criminality is a product of weak self-concept and poor self-esteem.
d. law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social
power and penalizing the powerless.

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ANS: B REF: 177 OBJ: 7

17. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by maintaining that the crime victim “had
it coming.” This is an example of which technique of neutralization?

a. denial of injury c. appeal to higher loyalties

b. denial of the victim d. denial of responsibility

ANS: B REF: 178 OBJ: 7

18. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by “appealing to higher loyalties.” Which

of the following would be an example of that technique?

a. Vandalizing the home of a disliked neighbor.

b. Attacking someone who is arguing with a friend.
c. Stealing from a large department store that “has plenty of money.”
d. Blaming the police for being unfair.

ANS: B REF: 178 OBJ: 7

19. Do criminals really neutralize? What does Topalli's research on street criminals indicate?

a. Street criminals frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons.

b. Street criminals do not experience guilt that requires neutralization.
c. Street criminals experience guilt and shame that require neutralization.
d. Street criminals are often embarrassed about showing pride in their criminal
accomplishments.

ANS: B REF: 179 OBJ: 7

20. Pioneering social control theorist, Walter Reckless argued that a _______ insulates a
youth from the pressures of crimogenic influences in the environment.

a. strong self-image c. strong religious belief

b. successful educational experience d. commitment to conformity

ANS: A REF: 180 OBJ: 8

153
21. Travis Hirschi states that the social bonds a person maintains with society are divided
into four main elements. Which of the following is NOT one of these elements?

a. attachment c. affection
b. commitment d. involvement

ANS: C REF: 180-181 OBJ: 8

22. Travis Hirschi tested the principal hypotheses of social control theory. While evidence
was strong and supportive, what is the most controversial aspect of Hirschi's
conclusions?

a. Youths who are strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit crime.
b. Youths who were involved in conventional activities were less likely to engage in
criminal behavior.
c. Youths who maintained weak, distant relationships with people tended toward
delinquency.
d. Any form of social attachment is beneficial, even to deviant peers and parents.

ANS: D REF: 185 OBJ: 8

23. Which of the following issues has been raised regarding the validity of social control
theory?

a. Delinquency may lead to weakened social bonds, not vice versa.

b. Social control theory has never been empirically tested.
c. Social control theory applies primarily to lower-class youth and does not explain
the criminal behavior of middle- and upper-class youth.
d. Social control theory relies too heavily on social relationships that are difficult to
measure.

ANS: A REF: 185 OBJ: 8

24. In its purest form, __________ theory argues that even crimes such as murder, rape, and
assault are only bad or evil because people label them as such.

a. social control c. social structure

b. social reaction d. social process

154
ANS: B REF: 185 OBJ: 9
25. According to Lemert, __________ involves norm violations or crimes that have little
influence on the actor and, therefore, can be quickly forgotten.

a. primary deviance c. all criminal behavior

b. secondary deviance d. a moral lapse

ANS: A REF: 187 OBJ: 9

26. The boyhood friend of a convicted murderer is interviewed by the media and reports
that the offender was withdrawn, suspicious, and negativistic as a youth. This is an
example of:

a. introspective reading. c. enhanced reading.

b. retrospective reading. d. reflective reading.

ANS: B REF: 187 OBJ: 9

27. Which of the following statements does NOT reflect labeling theory?

a. Labeling theory identifies the role played by social agents in crime causation.
b. Labeling theory recognizes that criminality is a disease or a pathological behavior.
c. Labeling theory distinguishes between criminal acts and criminal careers.
d. Labeling theory focuses attention on the social interactions and reactions that
shape individuals and their behavior.

ANS: B REF: 191 OBJ: 9

28. __________ is a process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of the
mainstream of society and offenders begin their escalating cycle of deviance.

a. Reactive stigmata c. Retrospective association

b. Differential morality d. Deviance amplification

ANS: D REF: 188 OBJ: 9

155
29. A competency hearing in which a person is declared “mentally ill,” or a trial where
someone in found to be a “rapist” are forms of __________ according to Harold
Garfinkle.

a. successful demonizing rituals c. successful stigmatizing ceremonies

b. successful shame rituals d. successful degradation ceremonies

ANS: D REF: 186 OBJ: 9

30. The process of becoming stigmatized by crime labels is interactive. Labeling theorists
blame the establishment of criminal careers on:

a. parents. c. teachers.
b. crime control agencies. d. the criminals themselves.

ANS: B REF: 189 OBJ: 9

TRUE/FALSE

1. Social process criminologists focus on socialization rather than the environment when
explaining crime.

ANS: T REF: 168 OBJ: 1

2. Social control theory suggests that people learn techniques and attitudes of crime from
close relationships with criminal peers.

ANS: F REF: 168 OBJ: 2

3. The family-crime relationship is significant across racial, ethnic, and gender lines.

ANS: T REF: 169 OBJ: 3

4. The totality of research on the effect of dropping out of high school indicates one fact -
high school dropouts face a significant chance of entering a criminal career.

ANS: F REF: 171 OBJ: 4

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5. The delinquent peer-crime relationship does not apply to popular kids because they are
too busy to commit crime.

ANS: F REF: 172 OBJ: 5

6. Religious participation seems to be a more significant inhibitor of crime than merely

having religious beliefs and values.

ANS: T REF: 173 OBJ: 6

7. Differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior
during their adolescence from close, trusted friends or relatives.

ANS: T REF: 174 OBJ: 7

8. Sutherland's research on crime led him to dispute the notion that crime was a function of
the inherent inadequacy of people in the lower classes.

ANS: T REF: 174 OBJ: 7

9. According to learning theories, even corporate executives may be exposed to pro-

criminal definitions and learn to neutralize moral constraints.

ANS: T REF: 180 OBJ: 7

10. The stronger a person's commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and

processes, the less likely they are to commit crime.

ANS: T REF: 180 OBJ: 8

11. Research affirms Hirschi's contention that delinquents are detached loners whose bonds
to friends have been broken.

ANS: F REF: 183 OBJ: 8

12. Research indicates that people who are labeled with one positive trait are assumed to
have other positive traits.

ANS: T REF: 185 OBJ: 9

157
13. A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially constructed and
applied, depending on the offenders.

ANS: T REF: 185 OBJ: 9

14. Primary deviance involves resocialization into a deviant role and produces a deviance
amplification effect.

ANS: F REF: 188 OBJ: 9

15. The public policy effects of social process theories have been felt mainly by young
offenders who are viewed as being more savable than hardened criminals.

ANS: T REF: 192 OBJ: 10

ESSAY

1. Explain how one's socialization contributes to delinquent and criminal behaviors.

REF: 168-173 OBJ: 1

2. Describe the major premises of the three branches of social process theory - social
learning theory, social control theory, and social reaction (labeling) theory.

REF: 168-169 OBJ: 2

3. Explain the influence of family relations on delinquency and crime.

REF: 169-170 OBJ: 3

4. Discuss how dropping out of high school is associated with delinquency and crime.

REF: 171 OBJ: 4

5. Discuss the association between delinquent peers and crime in general and within the
context of social control theory.

REF: 172, 184-185 OBJ: 5, 8

6. How do religion and belief impact criminality?

REF: 172-173 OBJ: 6

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Test Bank for Criminology The Core, 4th Edition

7. One of the most prominent social learning theories is differential association theory.
Discuss the major assumptions and principles of this theory.

REF: 174-176 OBJ: 7

8. Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people
to society. Identify and discuss the elements of the social bond and how they impede
crime.

REF: 180-183 OBJ: 8

9. Discuss the key points of labeling theory and the consequences of labeling. Include in
your discussion the concepts of primary and secondary deviance.

REF: 186-189 OBJ: 9

10. Discuss how social process theories have influenced public policy. Provide examples of
policies and programs based on social process theories.

REF: 192 OBJ: 10

159

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