Test bank for Criminology: Theories Patterns and Typologies 13th Edition by Siegel

Test bank for Criminology: Theories Patterns and

Typologies 13th Edition by Siegel

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Chapter 6 - Social Structure Theories

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Completion

1. W. I. Thomas, Ernest Burgess, and Louis Wirth were part of a school of criminology known as the
_________________.
ANSWER: Chicago school

2. Adolphe Quetelet was a Belgian mathematician who started the ___________________ school of criminology.
ANSWER: cartographic

3. Quetelet found a strong influence of age and sex on _____.

ANSWER: crime

4. Considered one of the founders of sociology, ________________ defined crime as a normal and necessary social event.
ANSWER: Emile Durkheim

5. _________ are segments of the population whose members have a relatively similar portion of material goods and who
share attitudes, values, norms, and an identifiable lifestyle.
ANSWER: Social classes

6. ____________________ argued that crime can be useful, and on occasion, by healthy for a society.
ANSWER: Durkheim.

7. America is considered a(n) ___________________ society, since it is based on specific levels such as social class,
wealth, and economic success.
ANSWER: stratified

8. The lowest social stratum in any society are referred to as the _______________________; these individuals usually
lack the educational or necessary skills to function successfully in society.
ANSWER: underclass

9. Gunnar Myrdal described a worldwide _________ that was cut off from society, its members lacking the education and
skills needed to be effectively in demand in modern society.
ANSWER: underclass

10. Apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of social institutions such as schools, government agencies, and the
police, mark the _________.
ANSWER: culture of poverty

11. ______________ theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means
they have to achieve such goals.
ANSWER: Strain

12. _________ theory focuses on the structure and organization within the urban environment, which affects crime rates.
ANSWER: Social disorganization

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13. _________ theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between people’s goals and the means they can use to
obtain them legally.
ANSWER: Strain

14. _________ theory sees strain and social disorganization together as resulting in a unique, lower-class culture that
conflicts with conventional social norms.
ANSWER: Cultural deviance

15. ___________, used by Shaw and McKay, broke the city of Chicago into distinctive zones to explain criminal
behavior.
ANSWER: Concentric zone theory

16. Shaw and McKay’s concentric zone analysis indicated that _________ is the central business district of a city.
ANSWER: Zone 1

17. Shaw and McKay found that the most poverty-ridden _________ neighborhoods suffered high rates of population
turnover and were incapable of inducing residents to remain and defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups.
ANSWER: transitional

18. According to Shaw and McKay, _________ factors rather than individual differences are the root cause of crime.
ANSWER: environmental

19. _____________________ are referred to as rude or uncivil behaviors that depict little care for property or others.
ANSWER: Incivilities

20. _________ has been associated with income and wealth disparities, nonexistent employment opportunities, inferior
housing patterns, and unequal access to health care. It occurs when the most disadvantaged population is consolidated in
the most disorganized urban neighborhoods.
ANSWER: Concentration effect

21. ________________ is referred to as the removal and replacement of obsolete housing; an increase in criminal activity
is often seen after this process.
ANSWER: Gentrification

22. The level of policing is one of the primary sources of _____ social control.
ANSWER: public

23. The condition of _____________________ exists when wealthy people and poverty-stricken people live in close
proximity to one another.
ANSWER: relative deprivation

24. Merton found that culturally defined goals and socially approved means interact to produce _________ conditions.
ANSWER: anomic

25. According to Merton, _________ is the mode of adaptation most closely related to criminal behavior.
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ANSWER: innovation

26. According to Robert Agnew, _________ theory states that individuals who feel stress and strain are more likely to
commit crimes.
ANSWER: general strain

27. The anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships
are known as ____________.
ANSWER: negative affective states

28. The rules governing day-to-day living conditions within a culture, group, or political structure are termed conduct
_________.
ANSWER: norms

29. _________ are the unique value system that dominates life among the lower classes.
ANSWER: Focal concerns

30. _________occurs when the rules expressed in the criminal law clash with the demands of group conduct norms.
ANSWER: Culture conflict

31. According to Cohen’s middle-class measuring rod, most youths gain status at _________.
ANSWER: school

Multiple Choice

32. The Division of Labor in Society was authored by:

a. Emile Durkheim.
b. Edwin Sutherland
c. Lawrence Driscoll.
d. Albert Cohen.
ANSWER: a

33. People in the United States live in what type of society?

a. subcultural
b. stagnant
c. incorporated
d. stratified
ANSWER: d

34. According to your text, which group has the lowest level of income in the United States?
a. White
b. Hispanic
c. Asian
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d. African American
ANSWER: d

35. Individuals who have been cut off from society and lack the education and skills needed to be effectively in demand
in modern society are considered members of the:
a. bottom strata.
b. underclass.
c. social class.
d. lower sector.
ANSWER: b

36. In 1966, Oscar Lewis argued that the crushing lifestyle of lower-class areas produce ____, which is/are passed from
one generation to the next.
a. culture conflict
b. a culture of poverty
c. differential opportunity
d. behavior conflict
ANSWER: b

37. Poverty during early childhood may have a more severe impact on behavior than poverty during adolescence or
adulthood. Approximately what percent of American children live in poverty?
a. 10
b. 20
c. 30
d. 40
ANSWER: b

38. Members of the underclass who are socially isolated, live in urban inner cities, occupy the bottom rung of the social
ladder, and are the victims of discrimination are known as:
a. the truly poor.
b. the truly disadvantaged.
c. the truly at-risk.
d. the truly differentiated.
ANSWER: b

39. While fewer than 10 percent of white neighborhoods can be considered poverty stricken, ____ percent of black,
Latino, and other minority communities can be considered poverty areas.
a. 50
b. 60
c. 75
d. 85
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ANSWER: c

40. What are the three branches of social structure theory?

a. social learning theory, social disorganization theory, and cultural deviance theory
b. cultural deviance theory, deprivation theory, strain theory
c. cultural deviance theory, anomie theory, deprivation theory
d. social disorganization theory, strain theory, cultural deviance theory
ANSWER: d

41. A socially disorganized area is one in which ______ have broken down and can no longer carry out their expected or
stated functions.
a. institutions of social control
b. institutions of social service
c. institutions of local government
d. institutions of education and religion
ANSWER: a

42. The theory that holds that crime is a function of one’s inability to achieve personal goals (such as earning money,
owning a home, having a nice car) because society is stratified by socioeconomic class is called:
a. cultural conflict theory.
b. deviance theory.
c. social disorganization theory.
d. strain theory.
ANSWER: d

43. Social disorganization theory focuses on which of the following conditions in the urban environment?
a. age and ethnic differences
b. inadequate social control and deteriorated housing
c. frustration and stress levels
d. unequal distribution of wealth and power
ANSWER: b

44. Poverty-ridden neighborhoods that suffer high rates of population turnover and are incapable of inducing residents to
remain are known as _____ neighborhoods.
a. concentric
b. inadequate
c. transitional
d. at-risk
ANSWER: c

45. Social disorganization theory was first popularized by the work of:
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a. Robert Park and Ethan Hawkins.

b. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay.
c. Robert Shaw and Franklin Noble.
d. Clifford Akers and Robert Shaw.
ANSWER: b

46. According to Shaw and McKay’s statistical analysis, in which concentric zones were the highest rates of crime found?
a. Zones I and II
b. Zones II and III
c. Zones III and IV
d. Zones IV and V
ANSWER: a

47. According to Shaw and McKay, which of the following is false?

a. Individual differences are the root cause of crime.
b. Crime is a constant fixture in distressed areas regardless of racial or ethnic makeup.
c. Crime rates are sensitive to the destructive social forces operating in lower-class urban neighborhoods.
d. Community values, norms, and cohesiveness affect individual behavior choices.
ANSWER: a

48. Neighborhood residents who are respected members of the community in Elijah Andersons' study were called:
a. street preachers.
b. God’s own.
c. right men.
d. old heads.
ANSWER: d

49. Social ecologists know that people who report living in neighborhoods with high levels of crime and civil disorder
become suspicious and mistrusting. Some residents become so suspicious that they develop a(n) _____, in which the
outside world is considered the enemy out to destroy their neighborhood.
a. anomie mindset
b. culture conflict
c. focal attitude
d. siege mentality
ANSWER: d

50. A renewal stage in which obsolete housing is replaced and upgraded is known as:
a. gentrification.
b. turnover.
c. transition.

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d. organization.
ANSWER: a

51. Cohesion among neighborhood residents (community cohesion) combined with shared expectations for informal
social control of public space promotes:
a. siege mentality.
b. gentrification.
c. collective efficacy.
d. incivility.
ANSWER: c

52. Institutional social control includes ____, while public social control includes ___.
a. schools; police
b. families; schools
c. schools; peers
d. police; churches
ANSWER: a

53. In neighborhoods with high levels of collective efficacy, children are less likely to become involved with deviant
peers and to engage in deviant behavior. Rather, kids use their wits to avoid violent confrontations and to feel safe. This
concept is referred to as:
a. efficacy effect.
b. collective effect.
c. street efficacy.
d. culture savvy.
ANSWER: c

54. According to Durkheim, _____ occurs in a society in which rules of behavior have broken down or become
inoperative during periods of rapid social change or social crisis, such as war or famine.
a. anomie
b. stratification
c. gentrification
d. transition
ANSWER: a

55. __________ solidarity is a characteristic of preindustrial society, held together by traditions, shared values, and
unquestioned beliefs.
a. Organic
b. Anomic
c. Mechanic
d. Systematic
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ANSWER: c

56. When individuals use culturally approved means to attain social goals, this is known as:
a. conformity.
b. innovation.
c. ritualism.
d. rebellion.
ANSWER: a

57. When an individual accepts the goals of society, but rejects legitimate means and instead achieves the goals through
crime, it is called:
a. conformity.
b. innovation.
c. ritualism.
d. rebellion.
ANSWER: b

58. Those who reject the goals of a given community, but retain the traditional means to keep the little they have been
able to achieve, represent which type of adaptation?
a. conformists
b. innovators
c. ritualists
d. rebels
ANSWER: c

59. Institutional anomie argues that the high rate of crime in the United States is due to its overemphasis on which
institution?
a. education
b. economics
c. peers
d. racial disparity
ANSWER: b

60. Merton’s anomie theory of criminal behavior stresses the:

a. importance of socialization and middle-class measuring rods.
b. idea that American society emphasizes common success goals without providing equal access to the means for
obtaining them.
c. idea that criminal personality is not inherited, but tendencies toward criminal behavior are.
d. importance of the individual’s early family environment in determining attitudes toward crime.
ANSWER: b

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61. Agnew’s general strain theory indicates that criminality is the direct result of ___ that come in the wake of destructive
social relationships.
a. inadequate social controls
b. reaction formations
c. negative affective states
d. blocked social means
ANSWER: c

62. The condition that exists when people of wealth and poverty live in close proximity to one another is known as:
a. general strain.
b. anomie reaction.
c. negative stimuli reaction.
d. relative deprivation.
ANSWER: d

63. According to Merton, a person who rejects society’s goals and norms and becomes a drifter and drug addict falls into
which mode of adaptation?
a. retreatism
b. innovation
c. rebellion
d. conformity
ANSWER: a

64. A youth experiences physical abuse at home. Which type of strain does the youth experience, according to general
strain theory?
a. Achievement of positively valued goals
b. Disjunction of expectations and achievements
c. Removal of positively valued stimuli
d. Presentation of negative stimuli
ANSWER: d

65. Which is not an element of general strain theory?

a. achievement of positively valued goals
b. disjunction of expectations and achievements
c. removal of positively valued stimuli
d. presentation of negative stimuli
ANSWER: a

66. A juvenile experiences the death of a parent or grandparent. Which type of strain did the youth experience, according
to general strain theory?
a. achievement of positively valued goals
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b. disjunction of expectations and achievements

c. removal of positively valued stimuli
d. presentation of negative stimuli
ANSWER: c

67. Cultural deviance theory focuses on which factor?

a. development of subcultures as a result of disorganization and strain
b. blocked opportunities for achieving status
c. poverty and unemployment
d. socialization processes inherent in the truly disadvantaged
ANSWER: a

68. The rules that govern day-to-day living conditions within a subculture are known as:
a. focal policies.
b. focal concerns.
c. middle-class measuring rods.
d. conduct norms.
ANSWER: d

69. According to focal concern theory, which of the following is not identified as a lower-class focal concern?
a. smartness
b. trouble
c. excitement
d. achievement
ANSWER: d

70. A juvenile joins a gang in which he achieves his status through violence and toughness. Which type of gang is he in,
according to Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of differential opportunity?
a. Conflict
b. Retreatist
c. Criminal
d. Status
ANSWER: a

71. The unique value system that dominates life among the lower classes is known as:
a. focal concerns.
b. middle-class measuring rods.
c. conduct norms.
d. reaction formation.
ANSWER: a
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72. Which focal concern involves being independent of authority figures?

a. Trouble
b. Autonomy
c. Excitement
d. Smartness
ANSWER: b

73. Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of differential opportunity states that people in all strata of society share the same success
goals but those in the lower class have limited means for achieving them. Because of differential opportunity, kids are
likely to:
a. find menial jobs.
b. seek role models.
c. join gangs.
d. feel shame.
ANSWER: c

True / False

74. The application of sociological concepts to criminology can be traced to the works of Quetelet and Durkheim.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

75. According to Durkheim, crime is abnormal and only a part of societies that are based on inequality.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

76. People in the United States live in a stratified society.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

77. Findings suggest that poverty experienced during adolescence may have a more severe impact than poverty
experienced during early childhood or during adulthood.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

78. In William Julius Wilson’s book, he finds that most adults in inner-city ghetto neighborhoods are not working during
a typical week.
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a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

79. The three branches of social structure theory are social disorganization, deterrence, and cultural deviance.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

80. Shaw and McKay identified transitional neighborhoods as being poverty-ridden areas that suffered high rates of
population turnover and were incapable of inducing residents to remain and defend the neighborhoods against criminal
groups.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

81. The social disorganization concepts articulated by Shaw and McKay have remained a prominent fixture of
criminological scholarship for more than 75 years.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

82. While short-term national economic trends may have little effect on crime, long-term local unemployment rates may
have a significant impact on conditions at the neighborhood level.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

83. In neighborhoods where collective efficacy is high, children are less likely to become involved with deviant peers
and engage in problem behaviors.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

84. Societies held together by traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs (i.e., mechanical solidarity) are the most
likely to develop anomie.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

85. Social institutions such as schools and churches are still able to work effectively in a climate of alienation and
mistrust.

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a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

86. Anomie is derived from the French word nomos, meaning "without feeling."
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

87. Postindustrial social systems are highly developed and dependent upon the division of labor; people are connected by
their interdependent needs for one another’s services, and production is referred to as organic solidarity
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

88. Societal dispersion refers to the condition that exists when wealthy people and poverty-stricken people live in close
proximity.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

89. There is evidence that stress influences males and females equally; however, the degree to which it leads to criminal
behavior is much higher among females than males.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

90. Structural strain suggests that economic and social sources of strain shape collective human behavior.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

91. General strain theory suggests that crime peaks during adolescence because adolescence is a time of high stress
created by the weakening of parental supervision and the development of relationships with a diverse peer group.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

92. According to general strain theory, strain can be the result of the failure to achieve positively valued goals, the
removal of positively valued stimuli, or the presentation of negatively viewed stimuli.
a. True
b. False
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ANSWER: True

93. Agnew suggests that community-level factors such as blocked opportunities and lack of social support produce
feelings of strain.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

94. According to Agnew, criminality is the direct result of negative affective states that are produced by a variety of
sources of strain.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

95. According to Sellin, culture conflict occurs when the rules expressed in criminal law clash with the demands of group
conduct norms.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

96. According to Cohen, the “delinquent boy” adopts a set of norms in direct opposition to middle-class values.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

97. Although welfare has been curtailed through the Federal Welfare Reform Act of 1996, research shows that crime rates
increase when families receive supplemental income through public assistance payments.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False

98. Social structure concepts, especially Cloward and Ohlin’s views, were a critical ingredient in the Kennedy and
Johnson administrations’ “War on Poverty,” which began in the early 1960s.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

99. NYC’s emphasis on broken windows policing was has been credited with producing significant declines in the crime
rate in the city.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
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Essay

100. Explain the socioeconomic structure of American society.

ANSWER: The United States is a stratified society in which there is an unequal distribution of wealth, power, and
prestige. Social classes are segments of the population whose members have a relatively similar portion of
desirable things and share similar attitudes and beliefs. These social classes are typically divided into lower,
middle, and upper class, although a great deal of variation exists within each group. The upper class is made
up of a small percentage of households who maintain enormous financial and social resources.

101. Discuss how poverty impacts children and minority groups.

ANSWER: Children are the most likely of any group to be living in poverty. About 19 percent of children live in
poverty. This is especially problematic because poverty during early childhood may have a more severe
impact on behavior than poverty during adulthood. Minorities are especially burdened with poverty. Blacks
have the lowest household income, followed by Hispanics, whites, and Asians. The unemployment rate for
blacks is also higher than it is for whites.

102. Describe the three branches of the social structure perspective.

ANSWER: Social disorganization focuses on the conditions in the urban environment that affect crime rates.
Disorganized areas have social institutions that have broken down and can no longer control crime in the
area. Strain theory views crime as a function of conflict between goals and means. Cultural deviance theories
combine elements of strain and social disorganization theories.

103. What is social disorganization? How does it develop?

ANSWER: Social disorganization is the result of having a high transient population, a high level of poverty, and great
residential heterogeneity. Social disorganization is a community’s inability to come together and develop
collective efficacy. Because these communities lack the social controls necessary to manage behavior, gangs
and youths are free to conduct illegal activities and recruitments in those neighborhoods.

104. Identify the community-level factors that are associated with fear and describe how these factors contribute to the
level of fear in a neighborhood.
ANSWER: People who live in neighborhoods with social and physical incivilities are more likely to be fearful of crime.
The fear is even stronger for residents who have been victimized. It also increases when individuals hear of
someone being victimized. Once fear is present in a neighborhood, businesses begin to leave the area and
more crime moves in.

105. Discuss the work of Shaw and McKay, focusing on transitional neighborhoods and concentric zones.
ANSWER: Shaw and McKay explained crime and delinquency within the context of the changing urban environment
and the development of cities. They found some neighborhoods to be poverty-ridden, transitional, and
incapable of defending against criminal groups. Low rents in these areas attracted different groups, and
informal mechanisms were never implemented. They also found that these areas were typically located
directly outside the central business zone.

106. What is anomie? Discuss the conditions that cause it.

ANSWER: Anomie is when rules of behavior break down during rapid social change. It is most likely to occur in
societies that are experiencing change. In a mechanical society, anomie is caused by a move to a
postindustrial society in which individuals have more diverse views and beliefs. In an organic society, a shift
in traditional values creates social turmoil. If a division occurs between what the population expects and what
it can achieve, norms will break down and lose their meaning. If a society experiences anomie, its controls
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weaken and it is incapable of controlling peoples’ goals and desires.

107. Explain the ways individuals can adopt to anomie.

ANSWER: The first mode of adaptation is conformity, which involves retaining society’s goals and means. Second is
innovation, rejecting society’s means but retaining the goals. Next, rebellion is rejecting society’s goals and
means and replacing them with a new set of goals and means. Retreatism is the rejection of both the goals
and the means. Ritualism is accepting the means but giving up on the goals.

108. General strain theory expanded on classical strain theory to include more sources of strain. Discuss the sources of
strain according to general strain theory and provide an example of each.
ANSWER: General strain theory identifies three sources of strain. The first is the failure to achieve positively valued
goals. This source of strain, first identified by Merton, suggests that some individuals in society are cut off
from conventional means to achieve the material goals society sets for individuals. Individuals who
experience this source of strain may turn to illegitimate means to fulfill these goals. For example, if a youth
wants a new pair of sneakers but cannot afford them, he could steal them. The second source of strain is the
removal of positively valued stimuli. An example would be if a person loses a job that paid well and he or she
liked. Lastly is the presentation of negative stimuli; an example of this could be a child who is experiencing
abuse.

109. Explain how social disorganization and strain tie into cultural deviance theory.
ANSWER: Cultural deviance theory combines elements of strain and social disorganization theory. The lower-class
culture has developed in disorganized neighborhoods that are experiencing social disorganization. These
neighborhoods, therefore, are unable to control members’ behaviors, leading to increased crime and disorder.
At the same time, these neighborhoods experience anomie, making any already weak social controls even
less likely to be able to control behaviors. This leads to the development of a belief system that is passed on
from generation to generation in these communities.

110. Explain Albert Cohen's delinquent boys (subculture) theory.

ANSWER: Cohen believes that lower-class individuals must strive to meet middle-class norms (for instance, school
success), and that failure to achieve such goals, which are often out of their reach, allows for a continuation
of stereotypical behavior in which their past failures continue to be brought up each time they try to succeed.
Cohen separates these groups into three categories: corner boys, college boys, and delinquent boys.

111. Explain how social structure theory can have a significant impact on public policy.
ANSWER: If the cause of criminality is viewed as a schism between lower-class individuals and conventional goals,
norms, and rules, it seems logical that alternatives to criminal behavior can be provided by giving inner-city
dwellers opportunities to share in the rewards of conventional society

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