TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

VII SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT IV TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
The seven traditional tools of quality, New management tools, Six sigma- concepts,
methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including IT, Bench marking
- reason to benchmark, benchmarking process, FMEA - stages, types. Control Charts,
Process Capability, Quality Function Development (QFD), Taguchi quality loss function,
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)– concepts, terotechnology, improvement needs,
performance measures.

The seven traditional tools of quality:

 Pareto diagram
 Flow diagram
 Cause and effect diagram
 Check sheets
 Histogram
 Control charts
 Scatter diagram
1.PARETO DIAGRAM:
Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto Shows on a bar graph which factors are more
significant. This method helps to find the vital few contributing maximum impact.
Pareto charts are used for identifying a set of priorities. You can chart any number of
issues/variables related to a specific concern and record the number of occurrences.
This way you can figure out the parameters that have the highest impact on the specific
concern. This helps you to work on the propriety issues in order to get the condition
under control.
Purpose: The purpose of the Pareto chart is to prioritize problems No
company has enough resources to tackle every problem, so they must prioritize.
Pareto Principle: The Pareto concept was developed by the describing
the frequency distribution of any given characteristic of a population. Also called the 20-
80 rule, he determined that a small percentage of any given group (20%) account for a
high amount of a certain characteristic (80%).
Conclusion: The most important thing in improving quality is to start somewhere,
doing something. As you begin using the Pareto chart to decide where your problems
are, you will discover many things about your processes and will come because you will
know where to improve.
2. FLOWCHART: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so
that patterns can be seen (some lists replace "stratification" with or "run chart"). This is
one of the basic quality tools that can be used for analyzing a sequence of events. The
tool maps out a sequence of events that take place sequentially or in parallel. The flow
chart can be used to understand a complex process in order to find the relationships
and dependencies between events. You can also get a brief idea about the critical path
of the process and the events involved in the critical path. Flow charts can be used for
any field and to illustrate events involving processes of any complexity.
Purpose: Flow Charts provide a visual illustration of the sequence of operations
required to complete a task.
A picture of the steps the process undergoes to complete it's task. Every process will
require input(s) to complete it's task, and will provide output(s) when the task is
completed. Flow charts can be drawn in many styles. Flow charts can be used to
describe a single process, parts of a process, or a set of processes. There is no right or
wrong way to draw a flow chart. The true test of a flow chart is how well those who
create and use it can understand it.
Input ---------------------Process----------------Output
3.Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - 1943 by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University
of Tokyo
Purpose: One important part of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain
more information about the process and it's output. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow
us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, or causes, of problems.
Cause and effect diagrams (Ishikawa Diagram) are used for understanding
organizational or business problem causes. Organizations face problems everyday and
it is required to understand the causes of these problems in order to solve them
effectively. Cause and effect diagrams exercise is usually teamwork. A brainstorming
session is required in order to come up with an effective cause and effect diagram. All
the main components of a problem area are listed and possible causes from each area
is listed. Then, most likely causes of the problems are identified to carry out further
analysis.

Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram:

Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about
the quality. Team members focus on the problem under investigation.
Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box
around it with an arrow running to it. This quality concern is now the effect.
Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the
effect.
Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its
related sub-causes that might affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always
check to see if all the factors contributing to the problem have been identified. Start by
asking why the problem exists.
Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be
developed using other quality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other
gathering and analysis tools.
Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about
our processes the better we are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one
quality tool that is simple yet very powerful in helping us better understand our
processes.

4.CHECK SHEET:
Purpose: Check sheets allow the user to collect data from a process in an
easy, systematic, and organized manner. A check sheet can be introduced as the most
basic tool for quality. A check sheet is basically used for gathering and organizing data.
When this is done with the help of software packages such as Microsoft Excel, you can
derive further analysis graphs and automate through macros available. Therefore, it is
always a good idea to use a software check sheet for information gathering and
organizing needs. One can always use a paper-based check sheet when the information
gathered is only used for backup or storing purposes other than further processing.
Data Collection: Before we can talk about check sheets we need to understand what
we mean by data collection. This collected data needs to be accurate and relevant to
the quality problem. The first is to establish a purpose for collecting this data. Second,
we need to define the type of data that is going to be collected. Measurable data such
as length, size, weight, time,...etc., and countable data such as the number of defects.
The third step is to determine who is going to collect that data and when it should be
collected.
Types of check sheet
1. Process distribution check sheets.
2. Defective item check sheets.
3. Defect location check sheet.
4. Defect factor check sheet.
5.HISTOGRAM:
A histogram is a tool for summarizing, analyzing, and displaying data. It provides the
user with a graphical representation of the amount of variation found in a set of data.
Histogram is used for illustrating the frequency and the extent in the context of two
variables. Histogram is a chart with columns. This represents the distribution by mean.
If the histogram is normal, the graph takes the shape of a bell curve. If it is not normal, it
may take different shapes based on the condition of the distribution. Histogram can be
used to measure something against another thing.
Always, it should be two variables. Consider the following example: The following
histogram shows morning attendance of a class. The X-axis is the number of students
and the Y-axis the time of the day.
Purpose: To determine the spread or variation of a set of data points in a graphical
form. It is always a desire to produce things that are equal to their design values.
Constructing a Histogram: The following are the steps followed in the construction of
a histogram:
Data collection: To ensure good results, a minimum of 50 data points, or samples, need
to be collected.
Calculate the range of the sample data: The range is the difference between the largest
and smallest data points. Range = Largest point - smallest point.
Calculate the size of the class interval. The class interval is the width of each class on
the X axis. It is calculated by the following formula:
Class interval = Range / Number of classes.
Calculate the number of data points (frequency) that are in each class. A tally sheet is
usually used to find the frequency of data points in each interval.
Conclusion: Histogram is simple tools that allow the user to identify and interpret
the variation found in a set of data points. It is important to remember that histograms
do not give solutions to problems.
6.SCATTER DIAGRAM:
A scatter diagram is a nonmathematical or graphical approach for identifying
relationships between a performance measure and factors that might be driving it. This
graphical approach is quick, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to
interpret.
When it comes to the values of two variables, scatter diagrams are the best way to
present. Scatter diagrams present the relationship between two variables and illustrate
the results on a Cartesian plane. Then, further analysis, such as trend analysis can be
performed on the values. In these diagrams, one variable denotes one axis and another
variable denotes the other axis.
Purpose: To identify correlations that might exist between a quality characteristic and
a factor that might be driving it.

Interpreting the Results: Once all the data points have been plotted onto the
scatter diagram, you are ready to determine whether their exists a relation between the
two selected items or not. When a strong relationship is present, the change in one item
will automatically cause a change in the other. If no relationship can be detected, the
change in one item will not effect the other item. Their are three basic types of
relationships that can be detected to on a scatter diagram: 1. Positive relationship 2.
Negative relationship 3. No relationship

Conclusion: Scatter diagrams allow the user to graphically identify correlations

that could exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. It
is a quality tool that is simple, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to
interpret
7.CONTROL CHARTS:
Control charts: Control chart is the best tool for monitoring the performance of a
process. These types of charts can be used for monitoring any processes related to
function of the organization. These charts allow you to identify the following conditions
related to the process that has been monitored.
Developed in the mid 1920's by Walter Shewhart of Bell labs. There are two basic types
of control charts, the average and range control charts. The first deals with how close
the process is to the nominal design value, while the range chart indicates the amount
of spread or variability around the nominal design value. A control chart has basically
three line: the upper control limit UCL, the center line CL, and the lower control limit LCL.
A minimum of 25 points is required for a control chart to be accurate.
Purpose: Process is in control and to monitor process variation on a continuous
basis. Identifying the tolerance level in the variations. Control charts is one SPC tool that
enables us to monitor and control process variation. Types of variation Common and
Special Cause Variation

 Stability of the process

 Predictability of the process
 Identification of common cause of variation
 Special conditions where the monitoring party needs to react
NEW SEVEN MANAGEMENT TOOLS:
These tools, unlike SPC tools are qualitative tools. Most of these tools do not involve
the use of numerical data. . Like all management tools these are judgmental tools.
Managers are often called upon to make decisions based on their judgement with help
of incomplete information or on subjective issues. Team work and techniques like
brainstorming are very essential for best results with such tools.
The seven tools we will see are :
1. Affinity diagram
2. Relations diagram
3. Tree diagram
4. Matrix diagram
5. Matrix data analysis diagram .
6 .Process decision Programme chart
7. Arrow diagram
1.AFFINITY DIAGRAM
The purpose of an affinity diagram is to provide a visual representation of grouping of a
large number of ideas or factors or requirements into logical sets of related items to
help one organise action plans in a systematic manner.
Procedure
The steps in the procedure for preparing an affinity diagram are :
1. Decide the subject or the topic
2. Generate a large number of ideas through brainstorming
3. Decide the number of groups and their titles. Create a card for each group. Enter the
title of the group at the top of the card.
4. Distribute all the ideas among the cards. If necessary, create new cards for additional
groups.
5. Arrange the cards according to the relationship between the groups.
6. Give a name to the affinity diagram.
Applications:
The structure and the procedure for affinity diagram would have shown how simple the
tool is. Its simplicity makes it easy to combine it with other tools and put it to a wide
variety of applications. For instance, it can be combined with a cause-and-effect
diagram or a relations diagram to identify and regroup causes for a problem or it can be
combined with a tree diagram to categorise possible solutions. Thus it can assist in
problem solving. It can be used to group customer requirements in a complex product
and can help one to design a product with characteristics and features that would
satisfy and delight customers. It can be used to categorise actions in an
implementation plan leading to a rationalised distribution of responsibility. In fact the
tool can be used to break up any complex problem or task into smaller more easily
manageable bits. Someone has asked a question - “How do you eat a whale ?” which
has an obvious answer -”A mouthful at a time”. Another similar set of a question and an
answer is - “How to eat an elephant - slice by slice”.

Well affinity diagram is a tool that helps to break up a whale into convenient mouthfuls
or an elephant into manageable slices. Its simplicity makes it a very widely applicable
tool.

2.RELATIONS DIAGRAM:
The purpose of relations diagram is to generate a visual representation of the
relations between an effect and its causes as well as the interrelationship between the
causes in complex problems.
The steps in the preparation of a relations diagram are:
1. Decide the ‘effect’ or the problem for which causes are to be found. Write is in the
centre of the flip chart or a board and enclose it in a dark bordered rectangle.
Discuss the subject and confirm the ‘effect’.
2. Brainstorm to identify the immediate causes for the effect first. Enter these in
rectangles around the central dark rectangle. Take care to place causes likely to
be related to one another in adjacent positions. It is quite possible that the
locations of the causes may have to be changed as one progresses. Hence a white
board is preferable to a flip chart for this exercise. If a flip chart is used, the causes
may be written on post-it pads and stuck on the chart so that their location can be
changed easily.
3. Connect these immediate causes to the effect by connecting the rectangles of
the causes to that of the effect with a line with an arrow pointing towards the
effect. Explore the cause and effect relationship among the immediate causes
and connect them, keeping in mind that the arrow always points to an effect.
4. Taking each of these immediate causes as an effect, brainstorm to find causes
for them one by one. The key question for identifying causes is “why
?”. Keep asking the question till the root causes are identified for the immediate,
secondary and tertiary causes.
5. Explore the relationship between all the causes and connect the rectangles as in
step-3. Show as many relations among different causes as possible. A large
number of routes leading to the same root causes provides an indication that the
root cause may be an important contributor to the problem.
6. Brainstorm to find the more important root causes and more prominent links
leading to the effect. Mark these by making the rectangles and the connecting
lines darker.
7. If necessary, rearrange the rectangles in such a way that the connecting lines are
short and the diagram compact.
8. Provide a suitable title to the diagram.
3.TREE DIAGRAM:
The purpose of the tree diagram is to explore ways and means to achieve an
objective, develop a list of alternate means to reach the desired situation in a sequential
order and to present them in a visual form.
The steps in the procedure to develop a tree diagram are:
1. Identify a high priority problem that needs to be solved at the earliest.
2. Prepare an objective statement describing the desired situation or the target
solution.
3. Decide the appropriate form of the diagram - cascade or tree as well as direction
of flow after a brief discussion. Place the target solution in the dark rectangle.
4. Brainstorm to identify the primary means to achieve the objective. Arrange them
in an appropriate order keeping in mind the likely interrelations between them
and place them in rectangles at the first level.
5. For each of the primary means, identify secondary means which would be
necessary to attain those means. Arrange them in next level boxes.
6. Identify tertiary means required to attain each of the secondary means and place
them in a proper order in the next level boxes.
7. Continue the process till the group feels that the end of the line has been reached.
8. If a lower level means is required to attain two higher level means, it may be
connected to both. Rearrange the boxes if necessary to make this possible. Use
of POST-IT pads can make such a rearrangement simple.
9. Brainstorm to reach a consensus on the relative importance of the last level
means to priorities action.
10. Give a suitable title to the diagram. Application The most important
application of the tree diagram is for devising solutions for problems. It helps one
to develop a systematic step by step strategy to achieve an objective. It is also
useful in monitoring the implementation of solutions by taking care of
accomplishment of means at different levels.
4.MATRIX DIAGRAM:
The purpose of a matrix diagram is to explore the existence and the extent of
relations between individual items in two sets of factors or features or characteristics
and express them in a symbolic form that is easy to understand. The purpose for which
the tool is most frequently used is to understand the relation between customer
expectations as expressed by the customers and product characteristics as designed,
manufactured and tested by the manufacturer.
The steps in the procedure to prepare a matrix diagram are :

1. Decide the two sets of factors for which relations are required to be clarified. Call the
set of the main factors ‘features’ and the set of factors dependent on it counterpart
‘characteristics’ or characteristics.
2. Divide the features into primary, secondary and tertiary features.
3. Divide the characteristics into primary, secondary and tertiary characteristics.
4. Place the features vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and characteristics
horizontally on top of the matrix.
5. Enter the importance of the features on the column after that for the tertiary features.
6. In the main body of the matrix, place symbols at the squares denoting the
relationship between
thefeature and the characteristic meeting at the intersection. The symbols to be used
are :
- Strong relationship
- Medium relationship
- Weak relationship
In case there is no relation between the concerned feature and characteristic, leave the
square blank to indicate ‘no relation’. The relationship should be based on data available
with the team or on the results of a brainstorming session which must be confirmed by
collecting necessary data.
7. Title the diagram suitably.
 Applications:
Matrix diagram, being a very simple table showing relations between individual
items in two sets of factors, can be put to a wide variety of uses. The symbolic
representation of the relationship makes the diagram so much easier to understand as
compared to a table with a lot of figures. Let us see some of the possible applications
of a matrix diagram. Matrix diagram can be used to solve problems by arranging data in
such a way that the relations between relevant factors are brought into sharp focus. It
can be used to understand relations between customer satisfaction and product
characteristics, between complaints and product groups, between complaints and
geographical regions, between a product’s performance in the market and promotional
inputs on it and so on. Once the relations between individual items in sets of factors are
clearly understood and agreed upon, it becomes easy to solve problems and to plan and
implement solutions systematically.
5.MATRIX DATA ANALYSIS DIAGRAM:
The purpose of matrix data analysis diagram is to present numerical data about
two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyse it to get numerical output. The factors
most often are products and product characteristics. The purpose then is to analyse the
data on several characteristics for a number of products and use the information to
arrive at optimum values for the characteristics for a new product or to decide the
strong points of a product and use the information for designing a strategy for the
promotion of the product.
The procedure for creating a matrix data analysis diagram consists of the following
steps:
1. Decide the two factors whose relations are to be analyses.
2. Check the number of individual items in the two factors.
3. Prepare a matrix to accommodate all the items of the two factors.
4. Enter numerical data in the matrix.
5. Give the diagram a suitable title.
6.PROCESS DECISION PROGRAMME CHART:
The purpose of process decision programme chart is to prepare for abnormal
occurrences with low probability which may otherwise be overlooked and to present the
occurrences as well as the necessary countermeasures to guard against such
occurrences in the form of a visual chart. The tool forces one to think of the possible
obstacles in the smooth progress of a process or a project and then find ways and
means to surmount those obstacles to ensure the successful and timely completion of
the process or the project. Thus the tool helps one to prepare a contingency plan to
achieve the objective if adverse events occur.

The steps in the preparation of a process decision programme chart are :

1. Prepare a ‘normal’ flowchart of the process with all expected events as steps in
the chart.
2. Consider the possibility of the process not going as per the plan due to any
abnormal, though less probable, occurrences.
3. Show these occurrences on the flowchart through branching at appropriate
locations.
4. Consider how the abnormal occurrence will affect the process and search for
ways and means to counter the effect.
5. Show these countermeasures in rectangles connecting the corresponding
abnormal occurrence on one side and the process objective or the goal on the
other.
6. Give a suitable title to the diagram.
7.ARROW DIAGRAM:
The purpose of an arrow diagram is to create a visual presentation of the steps
of a process or tasks necessary to complete a project with special emphasis on the
time taken for these activities. The diagram provides a clear understanding of the
schedule of various steps in the process which helps one to monitor the process for
ensuring its completion on time.
The steps for preparing an arrow diagram are:

1. List all tasks or activities that need to be accomplished before the completion of
the process or the project.
2. Decide which steps are undertaken in series and which steps can be run in
parallel.
3. Arrange the activities in a proper sequence.
4. Prepare ‘Event Nodes’ at the completion of steps and number them. Where the
process is bifurcating into two or more parallel streams, more lines will flow from
a node and where the parallel streams are merging, two or more steps will lead to
a node.
5. Write the description of the step on top of the line or to the left of the line. Decide
the time required for completing each step and write it under or to the right of the
line.
6. Calculate the earliest time to reach an event node for the start of the process.
Where more than one streams are combining, the maximum time taken by a
stream is taken into consideration. This time is entered on the top half of the
rectangle. This time is related to the starting time of the process which is taken
as zero.
7. After the time for all event nodes including the completion of the process or the
project is available, one calculates the latest time by which an event node must
be reached. This is done by starting at the time of completion and going back
step by step. The time is entered on the bottom half of the rectangle. The time
indication at all event nodes will appear as : X Y where X is the earliest time by
which the event can be completed and Y is the latest time by which the event
should be completed.
8. Give a title to the diagram. As the calculation of the time indications is extremely
important in the construction of an arrow diagram it is necessary that we
understand the procedure well. Let us understand the concept through diagram.
SIX SIGMA:
The term "Six Sigma" refers to a statistical measure of how far a process deviates from
perfection. A process that operates at six sigma has a failure rate of only 0.00034%, which
means it produces virtually no defects. Six Sigma was developed by Motorola in the 1980s,
and it has since been adopted by many other companies around the world, including
General Electric, Toyota, and Amazon. It is used in industries such as manufacturing,
healthcare, finance, and service industries to improve customer satisfaction, reduce costs,
and increase profits.
Six sigma stands for six standard deviation from mean (sigma is the Greek letter used to
represent standard deviation in statistics). The objective of six sigma principle is to
achieve zero defects products/process. It allows 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

The Six Sigma Methodology

The two main Six Sigma methodologies are DMAIC and DMADV. Each has its own set
of recommended procedures to be implemented for business transformation.

DMAIC is a data-driven method used to improve existing products or services for better
customer satisfaction. It is the acronym for the five phases: D – Define, M – Measure, A
– Analyse, I – Improve, C – Control. DMAIC is applied in the manufacturing of a product
or delivery of a service.

DMADV is a part of the Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) process used to design or re-
design different processes of product manufacturing or service delivery. The five
phases of DMADV are: D – Define, M – Measure, A – Analyse, D – Design, V – Validate.
DMADV is employed when existing processes do not meet customer conditions, even
after optimization, or when it is required to develop new methods. It is executed by Six
Sigma Green Belts and Six Sigma Black Belts and under the supervision of Six Sigma
Master Black Belts. We'll get to the belts later.
The two methodologies are used in different business settings, and professionals
seeking to master these methods and application scenarios would do well to take an
online certificate program taught by industry experts.

The Six Sigma Process of the DMAIC method has five phases:

Each of the above phases of business transformation has several steps:

1. DEFINE

The Six Sigma process begins with a customer-centric approach.

Step 1: The business problem is defined from the customer perspective.
Step 2: Goals are set. What do you want to achieve? What are the resources you will use
to achieve the goals?
Step 3: Map the process. Verify with the stakeholders that you are on the right track.

2. MEASURE

The second phase is focused on the metrics of the project and the tools used in the
measurement. How can you improve? How can you quantify this?
Step 1: Measure your problem in numbers or with supporting data.
Step 2: Define performance yardstick. Fix the limits for "Y."
Step 3: Evaluate the measurement system to be used. Can it help you achieve your
outcome?

3. ANALYZE

The third phase analyzes the process to discover the influencing variables.
Step 1: Determine if your process is efficient and effective. Does the process help
achieve what you need?
Step 2: Quantify your goals in numbers. For instance, reduce defective goods by 20%.
Step 3: Identify variations using historical data.

4. IMPROVE
 This process investigates how the changes in "X" impact "Y." This phase is where you
identify how you can improve the process implementation.
Step 1: Identify possible reasons. Test to identify which of the "X" variables identified in
Process III influence "Y."
Step 2: Discover relationships between the variables.
Step 3: Establish process tolerance, defined as the precise values that certain variables
can have, and still fall within acceptable boundaries, for instance, the quality of any
given product. Which boundaries need X to hold Y within specifications? What operating
conditions can impact the outcome? Process tolerances can be achieved by using tools
like robust optimization and validation set.

5. CONTROL

In this final phase, you determine that the performance objective identified in the
previous phase is well implemented and that the designed improvements are
sustainable.
Step 1: Validate the measurement system to be used.
Step 2: Establish process capability. Is the goal being met? For instance, will the goal of
reducing defective goods by 20 percent be achieved?
Step 3: Once the previous step is satisfied, implement the process.

Six Sigma Techniques

The Six Sigma methodology also uses a mix of statistical and data analysis tools such as
process mapping and design and proven qualitative and quantitative techniques, to
achieve the desired outcome.
 Fig: Key Six Sigma Techniques in use

BENCHMARKING:
Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can measure
themselves against the best industry practices. Benchmarking is a systematic
search for the best practices, innovative ideas, and highly effective operating
procedures.
BENCHMARKING CONCEPT:
REASONS TO BENCHMARK:
1. It is a tool to achieve business and competitive objectives.
2. It can inspire managers (and Organizations) to compete.
3. It is time and cost effective.
4. It constantly scans the external environment to improve the process.
5. Potential and useful technological breakthroughs can be located and
adopted early.
PROCESS OF BENCHMARKING:
1. Decide what to benchmark
2. Understand current performance
3. Plan
4. Types of benchmarking
5. Study Others
6. Learn from the Data.

Decide what to benchmark:

 Benchmarking can be applied to any business or production process.
 The strategy is usually expressed in terms of mission and vision
statements.
 Best to begin with the mission and critical factors.
 Choosing the scope of the Benchmarking study.
 Pareto analysis – what process to investigate.
 Cause and Effect diagram – for tracing outputs back.

Understand current performance:

 Understand and document the current process.
 Those working in the process are the most capable of
identifying and correcting problems.
 While documenting, it is important to quantify.
 Care should be taken during accounting information.
Plan:
 A benchmarking team should be chosen.
 Organizations to serve as the benchmark need to be identified.
 Time frame should be agreed upon for each of the benchmarking
tasks.
Types of benchmarking:
 Internal
 Competitive
 Process
Study Others:
 Benchmarking studies look for two types of information
  How best the processes are practiced
 Measurable results of these practices
 Three techniques for conducting the research are
 Questionnaires
 Site visits
 Focus groups
Learn from the data:
 What is the gap? How much is it?
 Why is there a gap? What does the best-in-class do differently that is
better?
 If best-in-class practices were adopted, what
would be the resulting improvement?
o Benchmarking studies can reveal three different outcomes
 Negative gap
 Parity
 Positive gap
SIGNIFICANCE:
1. Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can
measure themselves against the best Industry practices
2. It promotes superior performance by providing an organized
framework through which organization learn how the “ best in
class” do things.
3. It helps for continuous improvement.
4. Benchmarking inspire managers (and organization) to compete.
5. Through Benchmark proces organization can borrow ideas, adopt
and refine them to gain competitive advantages.

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS:

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is an analytical method in quality management
to find possible product defects before they occur. It is also known as "Impact Analysis".
Appropriate measures can be taken within the framework of the FMEA to prevent
identified potential defects in advance.
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a structured approach to discovering
potential failures that may exist within the design of a product or process.
Failure modes are the ways in which a process can fail. Effects are the ways that these
failures can lead to waste, defects or harmful outcomes for the customer. Failure Mode
and Effects Analysis is designed to identify, prioritize and limit these failure modes.
FMEA is not a substitute for good engineering. Rather, it enhances good engineering by
applying the knowledge and experience of a Cross Functional Team (CFT) to review the
design progress of a product or process by assessing its risk of failure.
Historically, the sooner a failure is discovered, the less it will cost. If a failure is discovered
late in product development or launch, the impact is exponentially more devastating.
FMEA is one of many tools used to discover failure at its earliest possible point in product
or process design. Discovering a failure early in Product Development (PD) using FMEA

There are two broad categories of FMEA, Design FMEA (DFMEA) and Process FMEA
(PFMEA).
Design FMEA
Design FMEA (DFMEA) explores the possibility of product malfunctions, reduced product
life, and safety and regulatory concerns derived from:
 Material Properties
 Geometry
 Tolerances
 Interfaces with other components and/or systems
 Engineering Noise: environments, user profile, degradation, systems interactions
Process FMEA
Process FMEA (PFMEA) discovers failure that impacts product quality, reduced reliability
of the process, customer dissatisfaction, and safety or environmental hazards derived
from:
 Human Factors
 Methods followed while processing
 Materials used
 Machines utilized
 Measurement systems impact on acceptance
 Environment Factors on process performance

OBJECTIVES OF FEMA:
1. The objective of FEMA is to anticipate failures and prevent them from
occurring. FEMA prioritizes failures and attempts to eliminate their causes.
2. FEMA is an engineering technique is used to define, identify and eliminate
known and or potential failures, problems, errors which occur in the system,
design, process and service before they reach the customer.
3. FEMA is a before the event action and is done when existing systems
products processes are changed or redesigned.
4. FEMA is a never ending process improvement tool.
TYPES OF FEMA:
1. System FEMA
2. Design FEMA
3. Process FEMA
4. Service FEMA
5. Equipment FEMA
6. Maintenance FEMA
7. Concept FEMA
 8. Environmental FEMA
BENEFITS OF FEMA:
1. Improve product/process reliability and quality.
2. Increase customer satisfaction.
3. Early identification and elimination of potential
product/process failure modes.
4. Prioritize product or process deficiencies
5. Capture engineering/organization knowledge
6. Document and track the actions taken to reduce risk
7. Provide focus for improved testing and development.
8. Minimize late changes and associated cost.
9. Act as catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions.
STAGES OF FEMA:
1. Specifying possibilities
a. functions
b. possible failure modes
c. root causes
d. effects
e. detection/prevention
2. Quantifying risk
a. probability of cause
b. severity of effect
c. effectiveness of control to prevent cause.
d. risk priority number.
3. Correcting high risk causes
A. prioritizing work
B. detailing action
C. checks points on completion.
4. Re-evaluation of risk
5. Recalculation of risk priority number
Seven Steps to Developing an FMEA:
FMEA Pre-Work and Assemble the FMEA Team
Path 1 Development (Requirements through Severity Ranking)
Path 2 Development (Potential Causes and Prevention Controls through
Occurrence Ranking)
Path 3 Development (Testing and Detection Controls through Detection Ranking)
Action Priority & Assignment
Actions Taken / Design Review Re-ranking RPN & Closure
When to Perform Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
There are several times at which it makes sense to perform a Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis:
  When you are designing a new product, process or service
 When you are planning on performing an existing process in a different way
 When you have a quality improvement goal for a specific process
 When you need to understand and improve the failures of a process
In addition, it is advisable to perform an FMEA occasionally throughout the lifetime of a
process. Quality and reliability must be consistently examined and improved for optimal
results.
FMEA provides the benefits of:
 Multiple choices for Mitigating the Risk
 Higher capability of Verification and Validation of changes
 Collaboration between design of the product and process
 Improved Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFM/A)
 Lower cost solutions
 Legacy, Tribal Knowledge, and Standard Work utilization
QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT:
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a process and set of tools used to effectively define
customer requirements and convert them into detailed engineering specifications and
plans to produce the products that fulfill those requirements. QFD is used to translate
customer requirements (or VOC) into measureable design targets and drive them from the
assembly level down through the sub-assembly, component and production process levels.
QFD methodology provides a defined set of matrices utilized to facilitate this progression.
QFD was first developed in Japan by Yoji Akao in the late 1960s while working for
Mitsubishi’s shipyard. It was later adopted by other companies including Toyota and its
supply chain. In the early 1980s, QFD was introduced in the United States mainly by the big
three automotive companies and a few electronics manufacturers. Acceptance and growth
of the use of QFD in the US was initially rather slow but has since gained popularity and is
currently being used in manufacturing, healthcare and service organizations.

The QFD process

The QFD process consists of four main phases: planning, analysis, design, and
deployment. In each phase, you use a matrix or a table to link the customer requirements,
the product or service features, the technical specifications, and the process parameters.
The matrices are also called the house of quality (HOQ), because they resemble a house
with a roof, walls, and a foundation.
1. Product Definition: The Product Definition Phase begins with collection of VOC and
translating the customer wants and needs into product specifications. It may also
involve a competitive analysis to evaluate how effectively the competitor’s product
fulfills the customer wants and needs. The initial design concept is based on the
particular product performance requirements and specifications.
2. Product Development: During the Product Development Phase, the critical parts and
assemblies are identified. The critical product characteristics are cascaded down
and translated to critical or key part and assembly characteristics or specifications.
The functional requirements or specifications are then defined for each functional
level.
3. Process Development: During the Process Development Phase, the manufacturing
and assembly processes are designed based on product and component
specifications. The process flow is developed and the critical process characteristics
are identified.
4. Process Quality Control: Prior to production launch, the QFD process identifies
critical part and process characteristics. Process parameters are determined and
appropriate process controls are developed and implemented. In addition, any
inspection and test specifications are developed. Full production begins upon
completion of process capability studies during the pilot build.
HOUSE OF QUALITY:
The Steps in building a House of Quality are:
1. List Customer Requirements (WHAT’s)
2. List Technical Descriptors (HOW’s)
3. Develop a Relationship Matrix Between WHAT’s and HOW’s
4. Develop an Inter-relationship Matrix between HOW’s
5. Competitive Assessments
a. Customer Competitive Assessments
b. Technical Competitive Assessments
6. Develop Prioritized Customer Requirements
7.Develop Prioritized Technical Descriptors
Phase 1: product planning
Step1: list customer requirements
Step2: List technical descriptors
Step3: Develop a relationship between WHATS AND HOWS
Step4: Develop a interrelationship matrix between HOWS
Step5: Do competitive assessments
Step6: Develop prioritized customer requirements
Step7: Develop prioritized technical descriptors.
Phase 2: part development
Step8: Deploy QFD process down to sub-components level both in
terms of requirements and characteristics.
Step9: Deploy the component deployment chart. Relate the
critical sub- component control characteristics.
Phase 3: process planning
 Step10: Develop the relationship between the critical
characteristics and process used to create the characteristics
Step11: Develop the control plan relating critical control to
critical processes.
Phase 4: production planning
Step 12: Tabulate operating instructions from process requirements
Step13: develop prototype and do testing
Step14: Launch the final product to the market.

Benefits of QFD
The QFD method and tools can provide a variety of benefits, such as improved customer
satisfaction by understanding and meeting their needs and expectations, and reducing
costs and waste by eliminating or minimizing unnecessary features. Additionally, QFD can
enhance quality and reliability, increase innovation and differentiation, and create a faster
time to market. All these advantages can help you gain a competitive edge in the market.
TAGUCHI’S QUALITY LOSS FUNCTIONS:
Taguchi has defined quality as the loss imparted to society from the time a product
is shipped. Societal losses include failure to meet customer requirements, failure to meet
ideal performance and harmful side effects.
TAGUCHI LOSS FUNCTION CURVE

TAGUCHI LOSS FUNCTION CURVE

 There are three common quality loss functions.
1. Nominal - the - best.
2.Smaller - the - better.
3.Larger - the - better.
Nominal the best:
Although Taguchi developed so many loss functions, many situations are
approximated by the quadratic function which is called the Nominal – the – best type.

The quadratic function is shown in figure. In this situation, the loss occurs as

soon as the performance characteristic, y, departs from the target τ.

At τ, the loss is Rs. 0.
At LSL (or) USL, the loss is Rs. A.
The quadratic loss function is described by the equation L = k (y - τ) 2.
Where,
L = cost incurred as quality deviates from the target. y
= Performance characteristic
τ = target
k = Quality loss coefficient.
The loss coefficient is determined by setting Δ = (y – τ), the deviation from the target.
When Δ is the USL (or) LSL, the loss to the customer of repairing (or) discarding the
product is Rs. A.
Thus, K = A / (y – τ)2 = A / Δ2 .
Smaller – the – better:
The following figure shows the smaller – the – better concepts. The target value
for smaller – the – better is 0. There are no negative values for the performance
characteristic.
Larger – the – better:

In the Larger – the – better concept, the target value is ∞ (infinity), which gives a zero
loss. There are no negative values and the worst case is at y = 0. Actually, larger – the –
better is the reciprocal of smaller – the – better. The performance characteristics in
Larger – the – better are bond strength of adhesives, welding strength etc.

TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE:

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an important and effective tool for the
excellence. Total productive maintenance (TPM) is keeping the current plant and
equipment at its highest productivity level through cooperation of all areas of the
organization.
PRINCIPLES OF TPM:

1. Use overall equipment effectiveness as a compass for success.

2. Improve existing planned maintenance system.

3. Work towards zero loss.

4. Provide training to upgrade operation and maintenance skills.

 5. Involve everyone and use cross-functional teams.

OBJECTIVES OF TPM:

1. To maintain and improve equipment capacity.

2. To maintain equipment for life.
3. To use support from all areas of the operation.
4. To encourage input from all employees.
5. To use teams for continuous improvement.
TPM PHILOSOPHY – CONCEPT OF TPM:
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an extension of the Total
Quality Management (TQM) philosophy to the maintenance function.
TPM has the following steps:
1) Management should learn the new philosophy of TPM.
2) Management should promote the new philosophy of TPM.
3) Training should be funded and developed for everyone in the organization.
4) Areas of needed improvement should be identified.
Loss measurements to identify improvement needs
are Down time losses
Reduced speed
losses Poor quality
losses
5) Performance goals should be formulated.
6) An implementation plan should be developed.
7) Autonomous worth groups should be established.
TPM PILLAR:

PILLAR -1 - JISHU HOZEN ( Autonomous maintenance ) :

This pillar is geared towards developing operators to be able to take care of small
maintenance tasks, thus freeing up the skilled maintenance people to spend time on
more value added activity and technical repairs. The operators are responsible for
upkeep of their equipment to prevent it from deteriorating.

PILLAR -2 – KOBETSU KAIZEN :

"Kai" means change, and "Zen" means good ( for the better ). Basically kaizen is
for small improvements, but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people in the
organization. Kaizen is opposite to big spectacular innovations. Kaizen requires no or
little investment. The principle behind is that "a very large number of small improvements
are move effective in an organizational environment than a few improvements of large
value. This pillar is aimed at reducing losses in the workplace that affect our efficiencies.
By using a detailed
and thorough procedure we eliminate losses in a systematic method using
various Kaizen tools.
 PILLAR -3 - PLANNED MAINTENANCE :
It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments producing defect free
products for total customer satisfaction. This breaks maintenance down into 4 "families"
or groups which was defined earlier.
1. Preventive Maintenance
2. Breakdown Maintenance
3. Corrective Maintenance
4. Maintenance Prevention
With Planned Maintenance we evolve our efforts from a reactive to a proactive method
and use trained maintenance staff to help train the operators to better maintain their
equipment.

PILLAR -4 – Hinshitsu Hozen or QUALITY MAINTENANCE :

It is aimed towards customer delight through highest quality through defect free
manufacturing. Focus is on eliminating non conformances in a systematic manner, much
like Focused Improvement. We gain understanding of what parts of the equipment affect
product quality and begin to eliminate current quality concerns, then move to potential
quality concerns. Transition is from reactive to proactive (Quality Control to Quality
Assurance). QM activities is to set equipment conditions that preclude quality defects,
based on the basic concept of maintaining perfect equipment to maintain perfect quality
of products. The condition are checked and measure in time series to very that measure
values are within standard values to prevent defects. The transition of measured values is
watched to predict possibilities of defects occurring and to take counter measures before
hand.

PILLAR – 5: Development Management / Early Management:

Early management or development management helps in drastically reducing the
time taken to receive, install, and set – up newly purchased equipments (known as
vertical start – up). Early management can also be used for reducing the time to
manufacture a new product in the factory.

PILLAR 6 – TRAINING and EDUCATION:

It is aimed to have multi-skilled revitalized employees whose morale is high and
who has eager to come to work and perform all required functions effectively and
independently. Education is given to operators to upgrade their skill. It is not sufficient
know only "Know-How" by they should also learn "Know-why". By experience they gain,
"Know-How" to overcome a problem what to be done.
This they do without knowing the root cause of the problem and why they are
 doing so. Hence it become necessary to train them on knowing "Know-why".

PILLAR- 7: SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

Target :
1. Zero accident,
2. Zero health damage
3. Zero fires.
In this area focus is on to create a safe workplace and a surrounding area that is not
damaged by our process or procedures. This pillar will play an active role in each of the
other pillars on a regular basis. A committee is constituted for this pillar which comprises
representative of officers as well as workers. The committee is headed by Senior vice
President ( Technical ). Utmost importance to Safety is given in the plant. Manager
(Safety) is looking after functions related to safety. To create awareness among
employees various competitions like safety slogans, Quiz, Drama, Posters, etc. related to
safety can be organized at regular intervals.
PILLAR -8 : OFFICE TPM
Office TPM should be started after activating four other pillars of TPM (JH, KK,
QM, PM). Office TPM must be followed to improve productivity, efficiency in the
administrative functions and identify and eliminate losses. This includes analyzing
processes and procedures towards increased office automation. Office TPM addresses
twelve major losses. They are
1. Processing loss
2. Cost loss including in areas such as procurement, accounts, marketing, sales
leading to high inventories
3. Communication loss
4. Idle loss
5. Set-up loss
6. Accuracy loss
7. Office equipment breakdown
8. Communication channel breakdown, telephone and fax lines
9. Time spent on retrieval of information
10. Non availability of correct on line stock status
11. Customer complaints due to logistics
12.Expenses on emergency dispatches/purchases

PERFORMANCE MEASURES:
Performance measures are required for the managers for managing an
organization perfectly.
 Performance measures are used to achieve the following objectives. To establish
performance measures and reveal trend.
1. To identify the processes to be improved.
2. To determine the process gains and losses.
3. To compare the actual performance with standard performance.
4. To provide information for individual and team evaluation.
5. To determine overall performance of the organization.
6.To provide information for making proper decisions.
WHAT SHOULD BE MEASURED?
Human resources
1. Lost time due to accidents, absenteeism.
2. Employee turnover.
3. Employee satisfaction index.
4. Training cost per employee.
5.Number of grievances.
Customers
1. Number of complaints from customers.
2. Number of on-time deliveries.
3. Warranty data.
4.Dealer satisfaction.
Production
1. Inventory.
2. SPC Charts.
3. Amount of scrap / rework.
4.Machine down time.
Research and Development
a. New product time to market.
b. Design change orders.
c. Cost estimating errors.
Suppliers
1. On-time delivery.
2. Service rating.
3. Quality performance.
4. Average lead time.
Marketing / Sales
1. Sales expense to revenue.
2. New product sales to total sales.
3. New customers.
Administration
1. Revenue per employee.
2. Purchase order error.
3. Billing accuracy.
4. Cost of poor quality.
PERFORMANCE MEASURE PRESENTATION:
There are six basic techniques for presenting performance measures. They are
1. Time series graph.
2. Control charts.
3. Capability Index.
4. Taguchi’s loss function.
5. Cost of poor quality.
6. Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.