Cells of the nervous system

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;

 Neurons
 Glial cells
Neurons

Neurons: Structure and types

Neurons, or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous system. Every
neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes (neurites). The nerve cell body
contains the cellular organelles and is where neural impulses (action potentials) are generated.
The processes stem from the body, they connect neurons with each other and with other body
cells, enabling the flow of neural impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in
structure and function;

 Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body.
  Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the
electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.
Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites varies. Based on that number,
there are four structural types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar and unipolar.

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How do neurons function?

The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with neural impulses; they
generate, receive and send these impulses onto other neurons and non-neural tissues.
Synapse
Synapsis
1/2
Synonyms: none

There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal
towards or away from the CNS;

 Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to
the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function.
 Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to
the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's
environment.
The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called a synapse.
The synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly. Instead, the impulse triggers the release of
chemicals called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon. These neurotransmitters bind to
the effector cell’s membrane, causing biochemical events to occur within that cell according to
the orders sent by the CNS.

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Glial cells
Glial cells
Neuroglia
1/5
Synonyms: Neuroglia

Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act to
support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate neurons,
maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons
throughout the nervous system.

This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;

 Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are

called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these
easily with the mnemonic "COPS" (Central - Oligodendrocytes; Peripheral - Schwann)
 Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and
protecting neurons.
 Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of
the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS
doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by
macrophages.
Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance called the myelin sheath, produced by
oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin encloses an axon segmentally, leaving
unmyelinated gaps between the segments called the nodes of Ranvier. The neural impulses
propagate through the Ranvier nodes only, skipping the myelin sheath. This significantly
increases the speed of neural impulse propagation.
White and gray matter
Cerebral cortex
Cortex cerebri
1/4
Synonyms: Brain cortex, Cortical grey matter

The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored neuronal bodies and
dendrites. Based on this, nervous tissue is divided into white matter and gray matter, both of
which has a specific distribution;

 White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner part of
the brain.
 Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of the brain
(cerebral cortex), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep to the cerebral cortex.
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Nervous system divisions

Nervous system breakdown (diagram)
So nervous tissue, comprised of neurons and neuroglia, forms our nervous organs (e.g. the brain,
nerves). These organs unite according to their common function, forming the evolutionary
perfection that is our nervous system.

The nervous system (NS) is structurally broken down into two divisions;

 Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - gathers all neural tissue outside the CNS
Functionally, the PNS is further subdivided into two functional divisions;

 Somatic nervous system (SNS) - informally described as the voluntary system

 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - described as the involuntary system.
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Although divided structurally into central and peripheral parts, the nervous system divisions are
actually interconnected with each other. Axon bundles pass impulses between the brain and
spinal cord. These bundles within the CNS are called afferent and efferent neural pathways or
tracts. Axons that extend from the CNS to connect with peripheral tissues belong to the PNS.
Axons bundles within the PNS are called afferent and efferent peripheral nerves.

Central nervous system

Cerebrum
1/4
Synonyms: Forebrain, Endbrain, show more...

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. These are found housed
within the skull and vertebral column respectively.

The brain is made of four parts; cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum and brainstem. Together
these parts process the incoming information from peripheral tissues and generate commands;
telling the tissues how to respond and function. These commands tackle the most complex
voluntary and involuntary human body functions, from breathing to thinking.

The spinal cord continues from the brainstem. It also has the ability to generate commands but
for involuntary processes only, i.e. reflexes. However, its main function is to pass information
between the CNS and periphery.

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Peripheral nervous system

Recommended video: Peripheral nervous system [05:21]

Anatomy and function of the peripheral nervous system.

The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number of small
neuronal clusters throughout the body called ganglia.
Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both). Depending on what
structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can have the following modalities;

 Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye) and is found only in afferent fibers
 General - supplying everything except special senses
 Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii)
 Visceral - supplies internal organs.
Cranial nerves

Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem
and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck. Cranial nerves are numbered one to twelve
according to their order of exit through the skull fissures. Namely, they are: olfactory nerve (CN
I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal
nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI),
and hypoglossal nerve (XII). These nerves are motor (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), sensory (I, II and
VIII) or mixed (V, VII, IX, and X).
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Spinal nerves

Spinal nerves emerge from the segments of the spinal cord. They are numbered according to
their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are divided into 8 cervical
pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal
nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor fibers.

Spinal nerves (diagram)

Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head. They do so by either
directly synapsing with their target organs or by interlacing with each other and forming
plexuses. There are four major plexuses that supply the body regions;

 Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck

  Brachial plexus (C5-T1) - innervates the upper limb
 Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall, anterior hip and thigh
 Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb
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Ganglia
Spinal ganglia of spinal nerves
Ganglia spinalia nervorum spinalium
1/4
Synonyms: Dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves, Sensory ganglia of spinal nerves, show more...

Ganglia (sing. ganglion) are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the CNS, meaning that
they are the PNS equivalents to subcortical nuclei of the CNS. Ganglia can be sensory or visceral
motor (autonomic) and their distribution in the body is clearly defined.

Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies located adjacent to the spinal cord,
They are a component of the posterior root of a spinal nerve.

Autonomic ganglia are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. Sympathetic ganglia are found in
the thorax and abdomen, grouped into paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia. Paravertebral
ganglia lie on either side of vertebral column (para- means beside), comprising two ganglionic
chains that extend from the base of the skull to the coccyx, called sympathetic
trunks. Prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia, preaortic ganglia) are found anterior to the
vertebral column (pre- means in front of), closer to their target organ. They are further grouped
according to which branch of abdominal aorta they surround; celiac, aorticorenal, superior and
inferior mesenteric ganglia.

Parasympathetic ganglia are found in the head and pelvis. Ganglia in the head are associated with
relevant cranial nerves and are the ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic and submandibular ganglia.
Pelvic ganglia lie close to the reproductive organs comprising autonomic plexuses for
innervation of pelvic viscera, such as prostatic and uterovaginal plexuses.

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Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous system. It
consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to perform voluntary
body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the skin, muscles and joints (afferent
nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and
position sense from these three types of structures.

Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac muscles is conveyed by the autonomic nerves.

Autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system
Systema nervosum sympathicum
1/2
Synonyms: Thoracolumbar part of autonomic nervous system, Sympathetic division autonomic nervous system, show more...

The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous system. Further
divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is comprised
exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions innervate all involuntary
structures of the body;

 Cardiac muscle
 Glandular cells
 Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs.
Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis,
meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather, they complement each
other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs under various circumstances;
for example, the PSNS will stimulate higher intestine activity after food intake, while SANS will
stimulate the heart to increase the output during exercise.
Autonomic nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target organ, thus all
of them have presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic fibers originate from CNS and end
by synapsing with neurons of the peripheral autonomic ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons
of ganglion neurons, extending from the ganglion to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves,
the presynaptic fiber is short as the ganglia are located very close to the spinal cord, while the
postsynaptic fiber is much longer in order to reach the target organ. In parasympathetic nerves
it’s the opposite; the presynaptic fiber is longer than the postsynaptic.

The autonomic nervous system seems to be the only thing that can act without your free will.
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Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased physical activity.
Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight” response as it stimulates responses
such as faster breathing, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils and
redirection of blood flow from the skin, kidneys, stomach and intestines to the heart and muscles,
where it’s needed.

Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that they stem from the
T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and paravertebral ganglia, from
which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target viscera.
Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy conservation,
activating “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of the PSNS slow down
the actions of cardiovascular system, divert blood away from muscles and increase peristalsis
and gland secretion.
Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow, meaning that they originate from the
brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord segments (-sacral). These fibers travel to thoracic and
abdominal organs, where they synapse in ganglia located close to or within the target organ.
Enteric nervous system
Submucosal plexus (of Meissner)
Plexus nervosus submucosus
1/2
Synonyms: Meissner's plexus

Enteric nervous system comprises the SANS and PANS fibers that regulate the activity of
the gastrointestinal tract. This system is made of parasympathetic fibers of the vagus nerve (CN
X) and sympathetic fibers of the thoracic splanchnic nerves. These fibers form two plexuses
within the wall of the intestinal tube which are responsible for modulating intestinal peristalsis,
i.e. propagation of consumed food from esophagus to rectum;

 Submucosal plexus (of Meissner) found in the submucosa of the intestines and contains
only parasympathetic fibers
 Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) located in the muscularis externa of intestines,
containing both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers
Mnemonic
You can easily remember these two plexuses using a simple mnemonic! ' SMP & MAPS', which
stands for:

 Submucosal
 Meissner's
  Parasympathetic

 Myenteric
 Auerbach's
 Parasympathetic
 Sympathetic

Clinical notes

Vagotomy

Vagotomy for gastric ulcers is an old procedure which is used as surgical management in patients
with recurrent gastric ulcers when there is no effect of diet alterations or antiulcer drugs. The vagus
nerve stimulates the secretion of gastric acid. Three types of vagotomy can be performed which
would greatly diminish this effect.
Cranial nerve palsies

The 12 cranial nerves all leave/enter the skull through various foramina. Narrowing of these
foramina or any constriction along the nerves course results in nerve palsy. For example, Bell’s
palsy affects the facial nerve. On the affected side of the face, the patient has:

 hemiplegia
 dry eyesan absent corneal reflex, overloud hearing and affected
taste in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue.
 an absent corneal reflex
 overloud hearing

affected taste in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue

Limb nerve lesions

Limb nerve palsies often result from fracture, constriction or overuse. For example, carpal tunnel
syndrome affects the median nerve, and occurs when the nerve is compressed within the tunnel.
This is due to enlargement of the flexor tendons within the tunnel or swelling due to oedema. It
often occurs in pregnancy and acromegaly.
Hirschsprung’s disease
This is colonic atony secondary to a failure of the ganglion cells (described in the enteric nervous
system section) to migrate into the enteric nervous system. This results in a severely constipated
and malnourished child, which is in desperate need of corrective surgery.
Spina bifida

Failure of normal development of the meninges and/or vertebral neural arch results in a defect
usually in the lumbar spine, where part of the spinal cord is covered only by meninges and
therefore sits outside the body. Both environmental and genetic factors contribute to its cause.
Folate supplements are now given to all pregnant mothers in early pregnancy for its prevention.
Parkinson’s disease

Dopamine is essential for the correct functioning of the basal ganglia, structures in the brain that
control our cognition and movement. Parkinson’s patients suffer degradation of these
dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, resulting in:

 difficulty initiating movement

 shuffling gait
 masked facies
 cog-wheel/lead-pipe rigidity in the limbs
Lesson Explainer: The Nerve Impulse
In this explainer, we will learn how to explain how a resting potential is maintained
and describe the electrical and chemical changes that occur during an action potential.

The human body contains over seven trillion nerves. Each signal these nerves send
can travel at rapid speeds of up to 120 metres (almost 400 feet) every second! This
amazing evolutionary development allows us to think quickly and even act without
thinking, to respond to our environment and aid our survival.

A neuron is a specialized cell found within the nervous system. Neurons’ function is
to transmit information in the form of an electrical signal: a nerve impulse.

A nerve impulse is initiated by a stimulus, that is, a change in the internal or external
environment. This stimulus triggers a receptor to send a nerve impulse to our central
nervous system (CNS). The CNS, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, processes
the information. Nerve impulses are then transmitted from the CNS to different organs
that allow us to react to the stimulus appropriately. For example, a stimulus of
touching a hot object will cause a series of nerve impulses to contract muscles in your
arm to pull your hand away.

Definition: Neuron

A neuron is a specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses.

Let’s look at the structure of a neuron. Neurons come in many shapes and sizes;
however, most of them have a similar basic structure. Figure 1 shows an example of a
neuron.

Figure 1: A diagram showing the structure of a neuron. The red arrows represent
the direction of the nerve impulse.

The nerve impulse first starts at the dendrites, then arrives at the cell body, which
contains the nucleus of the neuron. The red arrows in Figure 1 show the path that the
nerve impulse will take from the cell body and along the threadlike part of the neuron
called an axon. Some neurons, like the one in Figure 1, have an insulating layer
surrounding the axon called a myelin sheath. There are small gaps in the myelin
sheath, called nodes of Ranvier, that play an important role in increasing the speed of
a nerve impulse.

Key Term: Axon

An axon is the long threadlike part of a neuron along which nerve impulses are
conducted.

To initiate and propagate a nerve impulse, a neuron must be excitable. What makes
neurons electrically excitable?

The cytoplasm of neurons and the extracellular space are different fluids with
different chemical compositions. As a consequence, they do not contain the same
amounts of charged ions. There is normally an excess of positive charges in the
extracellular space as we will see later in this explainer. This creates an electric
tension, or potential, between both sides of the membrane, with the positive ions
outside attracted by the negatively charged cytoplasm. In physics, this kind of electric
force is called a voltage. The membrane is said to be polarized because of this
difference of potential. Potentially, if there was a hole or a channel in the membrane,
the positive ions would move freely inside until their concentration and charges
equilibrate on both sides of the membrane.

The difference between the voltage inside the neuron’s cytoplasm and the
extracellular space is called the membrane potential.

Key Term: Membrane Potential

The membrane potential, or potential difference, is the difference in electrical

potential between the interior and exterior of a neuron.

When a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse, it is said to be at rest, and the
membrane has its resting potential. The mechanism by which the resting potential is
maintained is summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2: A diagram to show how a neuron’s resting potential is maintained by

the sodium–potassium pump and the potassium “leak” channels that allow potassium
ions to diffuse out of the neuron.

Key Term: Resting Potential

The resting potential is the potential difference across the membrane of a neuron at
rest (around −70 mV).

The resting potential is maintained through active transport by proteins embedded in

the neuron membrane called sodium–potassium pumps. The sodium–potassium pump
moves positively charged sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions across the
membrane using ATP energy. It requires energy, as sodium and potassium are being
transported against their concentration gradients from an area of low concentration to
an area of high concentration. For every three sodium ions pumped out of the neuron,
two potassium ions are pumped in. This makes the voltage in the extracellular space
more positive than the neuron’s cytoplasm. It also increases the concentration of
potassium ions inside the neuron. In fact, the concentration of sodium ions is 10x–15x
higher outside the neuron than inside, and the concentration of potassium is 30x
higher inside the cell than outside!

The constant activity of sodium–potassium pumps plays a vital role in keeping

neurons excitable. Ouabain, a plant-derived poison, has been used for several
thousand years by West African tribes to make poisonous arrows. Ouabain is a potent
blocker of the sodium–potassium pump as it attacks the nervous system, and one
poisonous arrow is enough to rapidly kill any hunted animal, even an elephant.

Key Term: Sodium–Potassium Pump

The sodium–potassium pump maintains the resting potential of the axon membrane by
transporting three sodium ions out and two potassium ions into the neuron.

The activity of the pump creates an imbalanced distribution of Na+ and K+ across the
membrane, with a higher concentration of K+ inside the neuron than outside and a
higher concentration of Na+ outside than inside. At rest, the membrane allows a
minimal flow of these ions and remains 40x more permeable to K+ than
to Na+.K+ passively diffuses through pores called “leak” channels specific to these
ions, moving down their concentration gradient from an area of high to
low K+ concentration in the extracellular space.

The “leak” channels are always open, so the membrane is permeable to K+ and the
flow of Na+ remains forty times smaller. This net flow of ions ultimately lowers the
membrane potential, as the outside of the cell becomes more positively charged.

Key Term: “Leak” Channels

“Leak” channels, or potassium ion channels, are always open making the neuron
membrane permeable to potassium ions.

There are also negatively charged ions, such as chloride, and negatively charged
proteins in a higher concentration inside the neuron. With the action of the sodium–
potassium pump and “leak” channels, this contributes to making the extracellular
space outside the neuron more positively charged than the cytoplasm inside the
neuron. The membrane is polarized, achieving a resting potential of around −70 mV.
Example 1: Describing the Status of Ion Channels in Maintenance of the Resting
Potential

When the resting potential is being maintained, are potassium ion channels (leak
channels) open or closed?

Answer

When the neuron is at rest, the extracellular space is more positively charged than the
neuron’s cytoplasm. The membrane is polarized, and the membrane potential is
around −70 mV.

The resting potential is maintained primarily through active transport by proteins

embedded in the neuron membrane called sodium–potassium pumps. The sodium–
potassium pump moves positively charged sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions
across the membrane using ATP. It requires energy, as Na+ and K+ are being
transported against their concentration gradients from an area of low concentration to
an area of high concentration. For every 3Na+ ions that are pumped out of the
neuron, 2K+ ions are pumped in. This makes the voltage in the extracellular space
more positive than the neuron cytoplasm. It also increases the concentration
of K+ inside the neuron.

Due to the higher K+ concentration inside the neuron, K+ will also “leak” across the
neuron membrane out of the cytoplasm into the extracellular space. It passively
diffuses through pores called “leak” channels specific to K+,moving down its
concentration gradient from an area of high to low K+ concentration. “Leak” channels
are always open, so the membrane is permeable to K+.This lowers the membrane
potential, as the outside of the cell is becoming more positively charged, achieving the
resting potential of −70 mV.

Therefore, when resting potential is maintained, the potassium ion channels (leak
channels) are open.

When the neuron is not at rest, it is conducting a nerve impulse called an action
potential.

Action potentials are electrical signals that transmit information by the movement of
charged ions across the membrane of a neuron as the action potential passes along it.
This temporarily changes the potential difference at the particular point on the neuron
where ions are moving.
The main stages of an action potential are

1. depolarization,
2. repolarization,
3. Hyperpolarization,
4. a brief refractory period during which another action potential cannot be
generated.

The movement of ions in depolarization and repolarization is summarized in Figure 3.

Key Term: Action Potential

An action potential is the transient change in the potential difference across the neuron
membrane when stimulated (approximately +40 mV).

Figure 3: A diagram summarizing the ion movements between the extracellular

space and the neuron cytoplasm in each stage of an action potential.

Let’s look at depolarization first.

Figure 4: A diagram to show the depolarization of the neuron membrane.

Depolarization is when the membrane potential at one point on the neuron reverses
from negative to positive. This is initially caused by the activation of chemical
receptors at synapses located at the dendrites of a neuron. The activation of these
receptors triggers the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels that were previously
shut, making the membrane more permeable to Na+.

Na+ diffuses into the neuron cytoplasm as it is less concentrated there than in the
extracellular space due to the action of the sodium–potassium pump. The increased
concentration of Na+ makes the neuron cytoplasm less negatively charged as you can
see in Figure 4. The increased positivity of the membrane potential causes more
voltage-gated Na+ channels to open. This means that Na+ diffuses into the neuron at a
faster rate, which continues until the membrane potential reaches a value of
around +40 mV.

Key Term: Depolarization

Depolarization is a change in the membrane potential at one point in a neuron from

negative to positive.
Key Term: Voltage-Gated Ion Channels

Voltage-gated ion channels are those that open and close in response to changes in the
membrane potential of the cell and, as a result, enable a flow of ions across a
membrane.

Figure 5: A diagram to show the repolarization of the neuron membrane.

When the membrane potential has reached +40 mV,the voltage-gated Na+ channels
close, and voltage-gated K+ channels open. Na+ can no longer enter the neuron. K+ is
more concentrated in the neuron cytoplasm than in the extracellular space due to the
action of the sodium–potassium pump, so K+ can now diffuse out. This lowers the
membrane potential, and the neuron cytoplasm again becomes less positively charged
than the extracellular space. This is called repolarization, as you can see in Figure 5.

Key Term: Repolarization

Repolarization is a change in the membrane potential at one point in a neuron from

positive back to negative.

So much K+ diffuses out of the neuron when the voltage-gated K+ channels open that
the membrane potential temporarily becomes even more negative than its resting
potential. This is called hyperpolarization.

Hyperpolarization causes the voltage-gated K+ channels to close, and the sodium–

potassium pump resets the membrane to its resting potential. You can see this
occurring in the final stage of Figure 3. This period of time is called the refractory
period, during which no more action potentials can be generated as the voltage-
gated Na+ channels remain closed. Refractory periods last a very short time, usually
between 0.001 and 0.003 seconds!

Key Term: Hyperpolarization

Hyperpolarization is a change in the membrane potential at one point in a neuron to

more negative than its original resting potential.

Key Term: Refractory Period

The refractory period is a brief period immediately following an action potential

during which a neuron is unresponsive to further stimulation and therefore cannot
generate another action potential.
Example 2: Stating the Sequence of Stages in an Action Potential

The diagram provided shows the stages of an action potential, with each stage
assigned a number. State the correct sequence of numbers.

Answer

An action potential is a change in the electrical potential of the neuron membrane as

the nerve impulse passes along the neuron. Its main stages are depolarization,
repolarization, hyperpolarization, and a brief refractory period.

Depolarization is when the electrical charge at one point on the neuron membrane
reverses from negative to positive. This is caused by energy from a stimulus triggering
the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels so Na+ diffuses into the neuron cytoplasm.
The increased concentration of Na+ makes the neuron cytoplasm less negatively
charged, which causes more voltage-gated Na+ channels to open. Na+ diffuses into
the neuron at a faster rate until the membrane potential reaches around +40 mV.

The voltage-gated Na+ channels now close so Na+ can no longer enter the neuron.
Voltage-gated K+ channels open so K+ can diffuse out of the neuron cytoplasm. This
lowers the membrane potential, and the neuron cytoplasm again becomes less
positively charged than the extracellular space. This is called repolarization.

So much K+ diffuses out of the neuron that the membrane potential becomes even
more negative than its resting potential. This is called hyperpolarization, and it causes
the voltage-gated K+ channels to close. The sodium–potassium pump resets the
membrane to its resting potential in a period of time called the refractory period.
During the refractory period, no more action potentials can be generated as the
voltage-gated Na+ channels remain closed.

Therefore, the correct sequence of events in an action potential is 4, 2, 6, 1, 5, 3.

Let’s look at the graph in Figure 6 showing how the membrane potential changes
during an action potential.

Figure 6: A graph showing how the potential difference of the neuron membrane
changes over the course of an action potential.
 1. In stage 1, the resting potential is being maintained at stage 1, with the sodium–
potassium pump and “leak” channels keeping the membrane potential at
around −70 mV.
2. In stage 2, stimulus has caused voltage-gated Na+ channels to open at stage 2,
depolarizing the membrane to +40 mV.
3. The voltage-gated Na+ channels close at +40 mV and voltage-
gated K+ channels open. Stage 3 shows repolarization of the membrane,
as K+ diffuses out of the axon.
4. Stage 4 shows hyperpolarization of the membrane, overshooting its resting
potential. The sodium–potassium pump works to reset the resting potential in
the refractory period.
5. The resting potential has been reset in stage 5, returning the membrane
potential to −70 mV.

Example 3: Describing the Events of an Action Potential

The graph provided shows how the potential difference across an axon membrane
changes during the course of an action potential. What is happening during stage 2?

Answer

The resting potential is being maintained at stage 1, with the sodium–potassium pump
keeping the membrane potential at around −70 mV.A stimulus has caused voltage-
gated Na+ channels to open at stage 2, depolarizing the membrane to +40 mV.The
voltage-gated Na+ channels close at +40 mV and voltage-gated K+ channels open.
Stage 3 shows repolarization of the membrane, as K+ diffuses out of the axon. Stage 4
shows hyperpolarization of the membrane, overshooting the resting potential.
Following this refractory period, the resting potential is reset in stage 5, returning the
membrane potential to −70 mV.

Therefore, at stage 2, a stimulus has triggered the opening of voltage-gated sodium

ion channels, and sodium ions depolarize the membrane.

Example 4: Describing the Events of an Action Potential

The graph provided shows how the potential difference across an axon membrane
changes during the course of an action potential. What is happening during stage 3?
Answer

The resting potential is being maintained at stage 1, with the sodium–potassium pump
keeping the membrane potential at around −70 mV.A stimulus has caused voltage-
gated Na+ channels to open at stage 2, depolarizing the membrane to +40 mV.The
voltage-gated Na+ channels close at +40 mV and voltage-gated K+ channels open.
Stage 3 shows repolarization of the membrane, as K+ diffuses out of the axon. Stage 4
shows hyperpolarization of the membrane, overshooting the resting potential.
Following this refractory period, the resting potential is reset in stage 5, returning the
membrane potential to −70 mV.

Therefore, at stage 3, voltage-gated potassium ion channels open, and potassium ions
diffuse out of the axon.

An action potential is then propagated from one end of the neuron’s axon to the other,
in one direction only. This propagation is referred to as a wave of depolarization.

Figure 7: A diagram showing how action potentials are propagated along the
axon. Sodium ions begin to move into the cytoplasm of the axon.

This is because as one section of the axon’s membrane depolarizes, positively

charged Na+ moves into the axon cytoplasm, as you can see in the green section of
stage 1 in Figure 7.

Figure 8: A diagram showing how action potentials are propagated along the
axon. Sodium ions continue to move into the cytoplasm of the axon, depolarizing it.

Voltage-gated sodium channels next to the initial site of depolarization get activated
so that sodium diffuses along the axon to depolarize the next section as you can see in
stage 2 in Figure 8. This triggers voltage-gated Na+ channels in this next section to
open, and the membrane at this point becomes fully depolarized.

Figure 9: A diagram showing how action potentials are propagated along the
axon. The first section of the axon that was depolarized is now repolarized.

The wave of depolarization can only travel in one direction, as the section behind the
depolarized section in stage 3 is repolarizing, as you can see in Figure 9. The voltage-
gated K+ channels have opened and K+ diffuses out of the axon, making it more
negative than the extracellular space, and the membrane hyperpolarizes. During this
refractory period, the voltage-gated Na+ channels remain shut, so no Na+ can move
into the axon and the Na+ in the wave of depolarization cannot diffuse backward.

The strength of a stimulus determines whether an action potential will be generated. If

the stimulus passes a threshold value, it will always trigger an action potential. If the
stimulus does not pass this value, no action potential will be generated. Therefore,
action potentials are called all-or-nothing responses.

Though the action potential will always be the same size, if a stimulus is stronger, the
frequency of action potentials will be higher and so more will be generated per unit
time.

Key Term: The All-or-Nothing Principle

The all-or-nothing principle states that if a stimulus is large enough to pass a threshold
value, an action potential of the same size will always be generated. If the stimulus is
not large enough to pass this value, no action potential will be generated.

Three factors affect the speed of transmission of an action potential.

At higher temperatures, ions diffuse faster as they have more kinetic energy. This
increases the speed of the action potential. At temperatures above 40∘C,however,
proteins such as the sodium–potassium pump start to denature, which causes
transmission rate to drop.

The diameter of the axon also affects the speed of an action potential. The larger the
diameter, the faster the transmission, as the diffusing ions encounter less resistance.
This is like if lots of people were trying to walk along a wide corridor, it would be
much easier than the same number of people walking along a narrow one!

Figure 10: A diagram showing saltatory conduction of an action potential in the

node of Ranvier of a myelinated axon compared to the nonmyelinated axon.

Whether or not an axon is myelinated also affects the speed of transmission.

Myelinated axons conduct nerve impulses faster than nonmyelinated axons. The speed
of propagation of a nonmyelinated axon is around 12 metres per second,whereas
propagation along a myelinated axon can reach up to 140 metres per second!

The voltage-gated ion channels are only found in the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated
axons, so depolarization can only occur at these points. This means that the action
potential “jumps” from one node to the next as represented by the pink arrows in
Figure 10. This process is called saltatory conduction, from the Latin word meaning
“leap,” and it speeds up the transmission as less time is taken in opening and closing
ion channels.

Comparatively, lots of ion channels are opening and closing in the nonmyelinated
axon in Figure 10, so the speed of propagation of the action potential is much slower.

Key Term: Saltatory Conduction

Saltatory conduction describes how action potentials propagate along a myelinated

axon by “jumping” from one node of Ranvier to the next, increasing the speed of
conduction compared to nonmyelinated axons.

Let’s recap some of the key points we have covered in this explainer.

Key Points

 The movement of sodium and potassium ions across a neuron’s membrane

determines the membrane potential.
 The resting potential of a neuron’s membrane is maintained by the sodium–
potassium pump and “leak” channels.
 An action potential transmits electrical information along a neuron and consists
of depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and a refractory period.
 The speed of transmission of an action potential is affected by temperature,
axon diameter, and myelination of the neuron.
 The all-or-nothing principle states that if a stimulus passes the threshold value,
an action potential will always be generated.

Cellular organelles and structure

Google Classroom

What is a cell
Right now your body is doing a million things at once. It’s sending electrical
impulses, pumping blood, filtering urine, digesting food, making protein,
storing fat, and that’s just the stuff you’re not thinking about! You can do all
this because you are made of cells — tiny units of life that are like
specialized factories, full of machinery designed to accomplish the business
of life. Cells make up every living thing, from blue whales to the
archaebacteria that live inside volcanos. Just like the organisms they make
up, cells can come in all shapes and sizes. Nerve cells in giant squids can
reach up to 12m [39 ft] in length, while human eggs (the largest human cells)
are about 0.1mm across. Plant cells have protective walls made of cellulose
(which also makes up the strings in celery that make it so hard to eat) while
fungal cell walls are made from the same stuff as lobster shells. However,
despite this vast range in size, shape, and function, all these little factories
have the same basic machinery.

There are two main types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotes
are cells that do not have membrane bound nuclei, whereas eukaryotes do.
The rest of our discussion will strictly be on eukaryotes. Think about what a
factory needs in order to function effectively. At its most basic, a factory
needs a building, a product, and a way to make that product. All cells have
membranes (the building), DNA (the various blueprints), and ribosomes (the
production line), and so are able to make proteins (the product - let’s say
we’re making toys). This article will focus on eukaryotes, since they are the
cell type that contains organelles.

A diagram representing the cell as a factory. The cell membrane is

represented as the "factory walls." The nucleus of a cell is represented as the
"blueprint room." The ribosome is represented as the "production room" and
the final protein made by the ribosome is represented as the "product."
What’s found inside a cell
An organelle (think of it as a cell’s internal organ) is a membrane bound
structure found within a cell. Just like cells have membranes to hold
everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a double layer of
phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within the larger cells. You
can think of organelles as smaller rooms within the factory, with specialized
conditions to help these rooms carry out their specific task (like a break room
stocked with goodies or a research room with cool gadgets and a special air
filter). These organelles are found in the cytoplasm, a viscous liquid found
within the cell membrane that houses the organelles and is the location of
most of the action happening in a cell. Below is a table of the organelles
found in the basic human cell, which we’ll be using as our template for this
discussion.

Organelle Function Factory part

Room where the

Nucleus DNA Storage blueprints are kept

Mitochondrion Energy production Powerplant

Accessory production -
Smooth Endoplasmic Lipid production; makes decorations for
Reticulum (SER) Detoxification the toy, etc.

Protein production; in
Rough Endoplasmic particular for export out Primary production
Reticulum (RER) of the cell line - makes the toys

Golgi apparatus Protein modification and Shipping department

 Organelle Function Factory part

export

Lipid Destruction;
contains oxidative Security and waste
Peroxisome enzymes removal

Lysosome Protein destruction Recycling and security

Diagram of a cell highlighting the membrane bound organelles mentioned in

the table above.

Nucleus
Our DNA has the blueprints for every protein in our body, all packaged into a
neat double helix. The processes to transform DNA into proteins are known
as transcription and translation, and happen in different compartments within
the cell. The first step, transcription, happens in the nucleus, which holds our
DNA. A membrane called the nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, and its
job is to create a room within the cell to both protect the genetic information
and to house all the molecules that are involved in processing and protecting
that info. This membrane is actually a set of two lipid bilayers, so there are
four sheets of lipids separating the inside of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
The space between the two bilayers is known as the perinuclear space.

Though part of the function of the nucleus is to separate the DNA from the
rest of the cell, molecules must still be able to move in and out (e.g., RNA).
Proteins channels known as nuclear pores form holes in the nuclear envelope.
The nucleus itself is filled with liquid (called nucleoplasm) and is similar in
structure and function to cytoplasm. It is here within the nucleoplasm where
chromosomes (tightly packed strands of DNA containing all our blueprints)
are found.

Cartoon showing a close up the nucleus and highlighting structures specific to

the nucleus.

A nucleus has interesting implications for how a cell responds to its

environment. Thanks to the added protection of the nuclear envelope, the
DNA is a little bit more secure from enzymes, pathogens, and potentially
harmful products of fat and protein metabolism. Since this is the only
permanent copy of the instructions the cell has, it is very important to keep
the DNA in good condition. If the DNA was not sequestered away, it would
be vulnerable to damage by the aforementioned dangers, which would then
lead to defective protein production. Imagine a giant hole or coffee stain in
the blueprint for your toy - all of a sudden you don’t have either enough or
the right information to make a critical piece of the toy.

The nuclear envelope also keeps molecules responsible for DNA transcription
and repair close to the DNA itself - otherwise those molecules would diffuse
across the entire cell and it would take a lot more work and luck to get
anything done! While transcription (making a complementary strand of RNA
from DNA) is completed within the nucleus, translation (making protein from
RNA instructions) takes place in the cytoplasm. If there was no barrier
between the transcription and translation machineries, it’s possible that
poorly-made or unfinished RNA would get turned into poorly made and
potentially dangerous proteins. Before an RNA can exit the nucleus to be
translated, it must get special modifications, in the form of a cap and tail at
either end of the molecule, that act as a stamp of approval to let the cell know
this piece of RNA is complete and properly made.

Cartoon showing mRNA preparing to leave the nucleus and enter the
cytoplasm.

Nucleolus
Within the nucleus is a small subspace known as the nucleolus. It
is not bound by a membrane, so it is not an organelle. This space forms near
the part of DNA with instructions for making ribosomes, the molecules
responsible for making proteins. Ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus,
and exit the nucleus with nuclear pores. In our analogy, the robots making our
product are made in a special corner of the blueprint room, before being
released to the factory.

A diagram representing the cell as a factory. The cell membrane is

represented as the "factory walls." The nucleus of a cell is represented as the
"blueprint room" while the nucleolus is represented as a "special product
corner" within the blueprint room. The ribosome is represented as the
"production room" and the final protein made by the ribosome is represented
as the "product."

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic means inside (endo) the cytoplasm (plasm). Reticulum comes
from the Latin word for net. Basically, an endoplasmic reticulum is a plasma
membrane found inside the cell that folds in on itself to create an internal
space known as the lumen. This lumen is actually continuous with the
perinuclear space, so we know the endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the
nuclear envelope. There are actually two different endoplasmic reticuli in a
cell: the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein production (where we
make our major product - the toy) while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is
where lipids (fats) are made (accessories for the toy, but not the central
product of the factory).

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so-called because its surface is studded
with ribosomes, the molecules in charge of protein production. When a
ribosome finds a specific RNA segment, that segment may tell the ribosome
to travel to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and embed itself. The protein
created from this segment will find itself inside the lumen of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, where it folds and is tagged with a (usually
carbohydrate) molecule in a process known as glycosylation that marks the
protein for transport to the Golgi apparatus. The rough endoplasmic reticulum
is continuous with the nuclear envelope, and looks like a series of canals near
the nucleus. Proteins made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum as destined to
either be a part of a membrane, or to be secreted from the cell membrane out
of the cell. Without an rough endoplasmic reticulum, it would be a lot harder
to distinguish between proteins that should leave the cell, and proteins that
should remain. Thus, the rough endoplasmic reticulum helps cells specialize
and allows for greater complexity in the organism.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids, instead of
being involved in protein synthesis. These are fat-based molecules that are
important in energy storage, membrane structure, and communication
(steroids can act as hormones). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also
responsible for detoxifying the cell. It is more tubular than the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, and is not necessarily continuous with the nuclear
envelope. Every cell has a smooth endoplasmic reticulum, but the amount
will vary with cell function. For example, the liver, which is responsible for
most of the body’s detoxification, has a larger amount of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
A diagram showing the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the
golgi apparatus, and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Figure 6. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (3) is continuous with the nucleus (1) and makes proteins to be
processed by the Golgi apparatus (8), which it is not continuous with. The smoother endoplasmic reticulum is
more tubular than the rough, and is not studded with ribosomes.
Golgi apparatus (aka Golgi body aka Golgi)
We mentioned the Golgi apparatus earlier when we discussed the production
of proteins in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. If the smooth and rough
endoplasmic reticula are how we make our product, the Golgi is the
mailroom that sends our product to customers . It is responsible for packing
proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum into membrane-bound
vesicles (tiny compartments of lipid bilayer that store molecules) which then
translocate to the cell membrane. At the cell membrane, the vesicles can fuse
with the larger lipid bilayer, causing the vesicle contents to either become
part of the cell membrane or be released to the outside.

Different molecules actually have different fates upon entering the Golgi.
This determination is done by tagging the proteins with special sugar
molecules that act as a shipping label for the protein. The shipping
department identifies the molecule and sets it on one of 4 paths:

1. Cytosol: the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake are sent back into
the cytosol (imagine the barcode scanning wrong and the item being
returned).
2. Cell membrane: proteins destined for the cell membrane are processed
continuously. Once the vesicle is made, it moves to the cell membrane
and fuses with it. Molecules in this pathway are often protein channels
which allow molecules into or out of the cell, or cell identifiers which
project into the extracellular space and act like a name tag for the cell.
3. Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted from the cell to act
on other parts of the body. Before these vesicles can fuse with the cell
membrane, they must accumulate in number, and require a special
chemical signal to be released. This way shipments only go out if
 they’re worth the cost of sending them (you generally wouldn’t ship
just one toy and expect to profit).
4. Lysosome: The final destination for proteins coming through the Golgi
is the lysosome. Vesicles sent to this acidic organelle contain enzymes
that will hydrolyze the lysosome’s content.

Cartoon representing the golgi apparatus sorting proteins into one of the four
paths described above: the cytosol, the cell membrane, secretion, or
lysosome.

Lysosome
The lysosome is the cell’s recycling center. These organelles are spheres full
of enzymes ready to hydrolyze (chop up the chemical bonds of) whatever
substance crosses the membrane, so the cell can reuse the raw material. These
disposal enzymes only function properly in environments with a pH of 5, two
orders of magnitude more acidic than the cell’s internal pH of 7. Lysosomal
proteins only being active in an acidic environment acts as safety mechanism
for the rest of the cell - if the lysosome were to somehow leak or burst, the
degradative enzymes would inactivate before they chopped up proteins the
cell still needed.

Cartoon showing a lysosome breaking down a protein.

Peroxisome
Like the lysosome, the peroxisome is a spherical organelle responsible for
destroying its contents. Unlike the lysosome, which mostly degrades proteins,
the peroxisome is the site of fatty acid breakdown. It also protects the cell
from reactive oxygen species (ROS) molecules which could seriously
damage the cell. ROSs are molecules like oxygen ions or peroxides that are
created as a byproduct of normal cellular metabolism, but also by radiation,
tobacco, and drugs. They cause what is known as oxidative stress in the cell
by reacting with and damaging DNA and lipid-based molecules like cell
membranes. These ROSs are the reason we need antioxidants in our diet.

Mitochondria
Just like a factory can’t run without electricity, a cell can’t run without
energy. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell, and is
produced in a process known as cellular respiration. Though the process
begins in the cytoplasm, the bulk of the energy produced comes from later
steps that take place in the mitochondria.

Like we saw with the nuclear envelope, there are actually two lipid bilayers
that separate the mitochondrial contents from the cytoplasm. We refer to them
as the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. If we cross both membranes
we end up in the matrix, where pyruvate is sent after it is created from the
breakdown of glucose (this is step 1 of cellular respiration, known as
glycolysis).The space between the two membranes is called the
intermembrane space, and it has a low pH (is acidic) because the electron
transport chain embedded in the inner membrane pumps protons (H+) into it.
Energy to make ATP comes from protons moving back into the matrix down
their gradient from the intermembrane space.
A cartoon showing the various parts of the mitochondria.

Mitochondria are also somewhat unique in that they are self-replicating and
have their own DNA, almost as if they were a completely separate cell. The
prevailing theory, known as the endosymbiotic theory, is that eukaryotes
were first formed by large prokaryotic cells engulfing smaller cells that
looked a lot like mitochondria (and chloroplasts, more on them later). Instead
of being digested, the engulfed cells remained intact and the arrangement
turned out to be advantageous to both cells, which created a symbiotic
relationship.

So far we’ve discussed organelles, the membrane-bound structures within a

cell that have some sort of specialized function. Now let’s take a moment to
talk about the scaffolding that’s holding all of this in place - the walls and
beams of our factory.

Cytoskeleton
Within the cytoplasm there is network of protein fibers known as the
cytoskeleton. This structure is responsible for both cell movement and
stability. The major components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.

Microtubules
Microtubules are small tubes made from the protein tubulin. These tubules
are found in cilia and flagella, structures involved in cell movement. They
also help provide pathways for secretory vesicles to move through the cell,
and are even involved in cell division as they are a part of the mitotic spindle,
which pulls homologous chromosomes apart.

Intermediate Filaments
Smaller than the microtubules, but larger than the microfilaments, the
intermediate filaments are made of a variety of proteins such as keratin
and/or neurofilament. They are very stable, and help provide structure to the
nuclear envelope and anchor organelles.

Microfilaments
Microfilaments are the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, and are made of
actin [a highly-conserved protein that is actually the most abundant protein in
most eukaryotic cells]. Actin is both flexible and strong, making it a useful
protein in cell movement. In the heart, contraction is mediated through an
actin-myosin system.

Images showing microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers.

Figure 10. Elements of the cytoskeleton include microtubules (a), microfilaments (b), and intermediate fibers
(c). These structures work together in cell structure and motility.

Plants and Platelets

So far we’ve covered basic organelles found in a eukaryotic cell. However,
not every cell has each of these organelles, and some cells have organelles we
haven’t discussed. For example, plant cells have chloroplasts, organelles that
resemble mitochondria and are responsible for turning sunlight into useful
energy for the cell (this is like factories that are powered by energy they
collect via solar panels). On the other hand, platelets, blood cells responsible
for clotting, have no nucleus and are in fact just fragments of cytoplasm
contained within a cell membrane.

Eukaryotes vs Bacteria vs Archaea

It is also important to keep in mind that organelles are found only in
eukaryotes, one of the three major cell divisions. The other two major
divisions, Bacteria and Archaea are known as prokaryotes, and have no
membrane bound organelles within.

Consider the Following:

 Some diseases can be traced back to organelle lack / malformation. For
example, inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease occurs due to a defect in the
Golgi. In order to mark enzymes that should be sent to lysosomes to
help degrade unwanted molecules, the Golgi has to bind them with a
mannose 6-phosphate tag, like a shipping label. However, in patients
 with I-cell disease, one of the proteins that make this tag is mutated,
and cannot do its job, like a broken label machine. This means that
proteins cannot be targeted to lysosomes. These untagged proteins are
the enzymes that are responsible for chopping up other proteins. What
happens is the inactivated enzymes end up being sent outside the cell,
while lysosomes clog up with undigested material. This disease is
congenital, and usually fatal before patients reach 7 years of age.
 An interesting idea is that mitochondria can be used to trace maternal
ancestry. Since mitochondria are self-replicating and have their own
DNA, they are not determined by the genes found in the nucleus.
Instead, your mitochondria have developed from the mitochondria
present in the female ovum (egg) that you developed from. Defects in
mitochondrial DNA cause hereditary diseases that pass only from
mother to children.