Staphylococcus epidermis

From DNA to Protein: Gene

Expression
Staphylococcus aureus has genes
Advent of superbugs (methicillin for resistance to multiple antibiotics
resistant S. aureus) in the late 1990s
↓
Use of tetracycline

Lectures by Prof. Sun-Hwa Ha in Kyung Hee University

Chapter 10 From DNA to Protein: Gene Expression

Key Concepts
• 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code
for Proteins
• 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its
Transcription to RNA
• 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is
Translated into the Amino Acid Sequences
of Proteins
Chapter 10 From DNA to Protein: Gene Expression

• 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code is

Mediated by tRNA and Ribosomes
• 10.5 Proteins Are Modified after
Translation
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

유전자가 효소를 결정한다

Identification of a gene product as a protein began
with a mutation causing “genetic disorder”.
① Dr. Archibald E. Garrod saw a disease
phenotype in the early 20C— alkaptonuria (black
urine, 알캅톤뇨증)—occurring in children who shared
more alleles as first cousins

Archibald Edward Garrod (25 Nov 1857 – 28 Mar 1936) was

an English physician who pioneered the field of inborn errors of
metabolism. He also discovered alkaptonuria, understanding its
inheritance. He served as Regius Professor of Medicine at the
University of Oxford from 1920 to 1927.
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

A substance in their blood (homogentisic acid, HA)

accumulated—was not catalyzed— and the gene for
the enzyme of HAO was mutated in 1958 and 1996.
Dr. Garrod correlated one gene to one enzyme.

② Phenylketonuria (페닐케톤뇨증) is another

genetic disease that involves this pathway.
The enzyme that converts phenylalanine to tyrosine
is nonfunctional.
Untreated, it can lead to mental retardation, but is
easily detected in newborns.
Figure 10.1 Metabolic Diseases and Enzymes

“Inborn error of metabolism (선천성 대사장애)”

Alkaptonuria (알캅톤뇨증) Phenylketonuria (페닐케톤뇨증)

Phenyalanine
hydroxylase(PAH)

Homogentisic acid
oxidase (HAO)
 “Inborn error of metabolism (선천성 대사장애)”

Alkaptonuria (알캅톤뇨증) Phenylketonuria (페닐케톤뇨증)

Acute pain
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

유전자의 개념은 시간이 흐르면서 바뀌었다

Phenotypic expression of alkaptonuria and

phenylketonuria led to the one gene–one
protein hypothesis.
A mutant phenotype arises from a change in
the protein’s amino acid sequence.
However, the one gene–one protein
hypothesis proved too simple in studies of
human mutations.
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

The gene–enzyme relationship has since

been revised to the one gene–one
polypeptide relationship.
Example: In hemoglobin, each polypeptide
chain is specified by a separate gene.
Example: Other genes code for RNAs
(except mRNA) but are not translated into
polypeptides; some genes are involved in
controlling other genes.
 Structure of human hemoglobin
Two β subunits Two α subunits
: 2 x Hb- (146 aa) : Hb-α1 & Hb-α2
(β-globin gene) (α-globin 1 &
α-globin 2 genes)

The proteins α and β subunits are in red and blue, and

the iron-containing heme groups in green.
Sickle-cell Disease (낫적혈구병)
Figure 10.2 Gene Mutations and Amino Acid Changes

(Negative charged)
Glu GAA
GAG
Point
Mutation
(Nonpolar)
Val GUU
GUC
GUA
GUG
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

유전자는 전사와 번역을 통해 발현된다

Molecular biology is the study of nucleic acids and

proteins and often focuses on gene expression.
Gene expression to form a specific polypeptide
occurs in two steps:
• Transcription (전사) copies information from a
DNA sequence (a gene) to a complementary RNA
sequence.
• Translation (번역) converts RNA sequence to
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
Concept 10.1 Genetics Shows That Genes Code for Proteins

 Roles of three kinds of RNA in protein

synthesis:
• Messenger (전령) RNA (mRNA) and
transcription—carries copy of a DNA
sequence to the site of protein synthesis
at the ribosome
• Ribosomal (리보솜) RNA (rRNA) and
translation—catalyzes peptide bonds
between amino acids
• Transfer (운반) RNA (tRNA) mediates
between mRNA and protein—carries
amino acids for polypeptide assembly
Figure 10.3 From Gene to Protein
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

 Transcription—the formation of a specific

RNA sequence from a specific DNA
sequence—requires some components:
• A DNA template (DNA 주형) for base
pairings—one of the two strands of DNA
• Nucleoside triphosphates
(ATP,GTP,CTP,UTP) as substrates
• An RNA polymerase enzyme
(RNA중합효소)
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Besides mRNAs (by Pol II), other types of

RNA are produced by transcription:
In Eukaryotes
• tRNA, 5s rRNA by Pol III
• 25s, 5.8s, 18s rRNA by Pol I

snRNA (~150 nt) by Pol I & III

• Small nuclear RNAs
siRNA (~24 nt) by Pol IV
• microRNAs by Pol II

RNAs may have other functions in the cell

besides protein synthesis.

cf) Prokaryotes have only one kind of RNA polymerase.

Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA
참고

cf) Prokaryotes have only one kind of RNA polymerase.

Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

RNA 중합효소는 공통된 특성을 공유한다

RNA polymerases (RNA중합효소) catalyze

synthesis of RNA from the DNA template.
RNA polymerases are processive—a single
enzyme-template binding results in
polymerization of hundreds of RNA bases.
Unlike DNA polymerases, RNA
polymerases do not need primers.
Figure 10.4 RNA Polymerase
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

전사는 세 단계로 일어난다

 Transcription occurs in three phases:

• Initiation (개시)
• Elongation (신장)
• Termination (종결)
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Initiation requires a promoter—a special

sequence of DNA.
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter.
 Promoter tells RNA polymerase two
things:
• Where to start transcription
• Which strand of DNA to transcribe
Part of each promoter is the transcription
initiation site.
Figure 10.5 DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA (Part 1)
Figure 10.5 DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA (Part 2)

Promoter region

(+) strand = sense or coding or Crick strand

(+1)

(-) strand = antisense or Watson strand

Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Elongation: RNA polymerase unwinds DNA

about 13 base pairs at a time; reads
template in 3′-to-5′ direction.
RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3′
end of the new strand.
The first nucleotide in the new RNA forms
its 5′ end and the RNA transcript is
antiparallel to the DNA template strand.
RNA polymerases can proofread, but allow
more mistakes.
Figure 10.5 DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA (Part 3)

RNA
polymerase
Figure 10.5 DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA (Part 3)

참고
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Termination is specified by a specific DNA

base sequence.
Mechanisms of termination are complex and
varied.
① For some genes, the transcript falls
away from the DNA template and RNA
polymerase—② for others, a helper
protein pulls it away.
Figure 10.5 DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA (Part 4)
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA
<Mechanism of transcription termination in prokaryotes>

A ρ factor (Rho factor) is

a prokaryotic protein
involved in the termination
of transcription.

참고
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

<Mechanism of
transcription
termination in
eukaryotes>

CPSF : cleavage and polyadenylation

specificity factor
PAP : poly(A) polymerase
CstF : cleavage stimulatory factor
Xm2 : 5′ → 3′ exonuclease
참고
 (ATG) (AATAAA)
gDNA

Coding DNA sequence

Promoter of a gene with introns
for initiation
Terminator for poly A tailing in mRNA

Pre-mRNA (including introns)

 Removed from pre-mRNA by RNA splicing

(ATG) (AATAAA)
gDNA

2. 5′ capping 1. RNA splicing

3. 3′ tailing
5’-UTR CDS 3’-UTR

5’-untranslated region Coding DNA sequence 3’-untranslated region

Mature mRNA (removal of introns)

Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

진핵생물 유전자는 종종 인트론의 의해 끊어져 있다

Coding regions (암호화 부위) are sequences of a
DNA molecule that are expressed as proteins.
The coding DNA sequences (CDS) are exons
(expressed regions).
Eukaryotic genes may have noncoding
sequences—introns (intervening regions).
Introns and exons appear in the primary mRNA
transcript—pre-mRNA; introns are removed
from the final mRNA.
Figure 10.6 Transcription of a Eukaryotic Gene

Programs for intron prediction

- Splice prediction
- ORFs, splicing & coding prediction
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Nucleic acid hybridization (핵산혼성화)

reveals introns.
Target DNA is denatured, then incubated
with a probe (탐침)—a nucleic acid strand
from another source.
If the probe has a complementary sequence,
a probe–target double helix (탐침-표적
이중나선)—called a hybrid—forms.
Figure 10.7 Nucleic Acid Hybridization
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Researchers using mature mRNA as the

probe saw loops where base pairing did
not occur in the DNA–RNA hybrid.
If pre-mRNA was used, the result was a
linear matchup—complete hybridization.
Introns were a part of the pre-mRNA, but
were removed before primary mRNA was
made.
Introns interrupt, but do not scramble, the
DNA sequence that encodes a polypeptide.
Figure 10.8 Demonstrating the Existence of Introns
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

진핵생물 유전자의 전사체는 번역되기 전에 가공된다

RNA splicing removes introns and splices

exons together.
Newly transcribed pre-mRNA is bound at
ends by snRNPs—small nuclear
ribonucleoprotein particles.
Consensus sequences are short
sequences between exons and introns,
bound by snRNPs.
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Besides the snRNPs, other proteins are

added to form an RNA–protein complex,
the spliceosome (이어맞추기 복합체).

The complex cuts pre-mRNA, releases

introns, and splices exons together to
produce mature mRNA.
Figure 10.9 The Spliceosome: An RNA Splicing Machine

Left-hand border: AAGguaagu Right-hand border: gcagGU

Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

In the disease β-thalassemia (β-지중해

빈혈), a mutation may occur at an intron
consensus sequence in the β-globin
gene—the pre-mRNA can not be spliced
correctly.
Non-functional β-globin mRNA is produced,
which shows how mutations are used to
elucidate cause-and-effect relationships.
Alternative splicing results in different
mRNAs and different polypeptides from a
single gene.
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

Eukaryotic gene transcripts are processed

in three steps before translation.
1.RNA splicing removes introns and splices exons
together.
2. A 5′ cap (or G cap) is added to the 5′ end as it is
transcribed and facilitates binding and prevents
breakdown by three enzymes.
3. A poly A tail is added to the 3′ end at the end of
transcription and assists in export from the nucleus
and aids stability.
Concept 10.2 DNA Expression Begins with Its Transcription to
RNA

5′-Capping with m7G Polyadenylation

Guanyltransferase -
Capping enzyme (CE)
(Eukaryotic pre-mRNA)
CPSF : cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor
PAP : poly(A) polymerase
CTsF : cleavage stimulatory factor

Methyl
transferase
RNA
triphosphatase

참고
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

단백질 합성을 위한 정보는 유전암호에 있다

 The genetic code—specifies which amino

acids will be used to build a protein
Codon (코돈)—a sequence of three bases;
each codon specifies a particular amino
acid
Start codon (개시코돈)—AUG—initiation
signal for translation
Stop codons (종결코돈)—UAA, UAG, UGA—
stop translation and polypeptide is released
Figure 10.10 Deciphering the Genetic Code (Part 1)

(By M.Nirenberg
& J.Matthaei of
NIH in 1961)
Nirenberg went on to decipher triplets in the genetic code.

 In 1961 Marshall Nirenberg (1927-), a young biochemist, discovered the

first "triplet"—a sequence of three bases of DNA that codes for one of the
twenty amino acids that serve as the building blocks of proteins.
Subsequently, within five years, the entire genetic code was deciphered.
 Nirenberg's series of key experiments, carried out initially with German
scientist Johann Matthaei, employed test-tube techniques. Nirenberg and
Matthaei set up a "cell free system" with "sap" from ruptured E. coli cells
containing enzymes and an energy system. To this they added simple
chains of RNA ("poly-U"—), comprised of just one of the four RNA bases
(uracil, cytosine, adenine, and guanine). They also added amino acids, one
of which was radioactively tagged.
마샬 니렌버그
 After brief incubation, radioactive (미국 생화학자)
measurements indicated synthesis of long : H.G.코라나,
R.W.홀리와 함께
protein-like molecules. These molecules were 1968년 노벨상
생리의학상 수상
made entirely of the amino acid phenylalanine.
They concluded that the RNA sequence "UUU"
directs the addition of phenylalanine (F) to any
growing protein chain.
Figure 10.11 The Genetic Code
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

유전암호는 중복되어 있으나 모호하지는 않다

For most amino acids, there is more than one

codon; the genetic code is redundant.

The genetic code is not ambiguous—each

codon specifies only one amino acid.
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

유전암호는 (거의) 공통적이다

The genetic code is nearly universal: the codons

that specify amino acids are the same in all
organisms.
This common genetic code is a common language
(molecular language, 분자적 언어) for evolution.
The code is ancient and has remained intact
throughout evolution.
The common code also facilitates genetic
engineering.
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

점 돌연변이 (point mutation)는 유전암호를 확증한다.

Mutations can also be defined in terms of

their effects on polypeptide sequences.
Silent mutations (침묵돌연변이) have no
effect on amino acids—often found in
noncoding regions of DNA.
A base substitution does not always affect
amino acid sequence, which may be
repaired in translation.
Figure 10.12 Mutations (Part 1)
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

Missense mutations are substitutions by

one amino acid for another in a protein.
Example: Sickle-cell disease (낫적혈구병)—
allele differs from normal by one base pair
E6V: Glu (GAG)  Val (GTG)
Missense mutations may result in a
defective protein, reduced protein
efficiency, or even a gain of function as in
the TP53 (tumor suppressor protein 53)
gene.
Figure 10.12 Mutations (Part 2)
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

Nonsense mutations involve a base

substitution that causes a stop codon to
form somewhere in the mRNA.

This results in a shortened protein, which is

usually not functional—if near the 3' end it
may have no effect.
Figure 10.12 Mutations (Part 3)
Concept 10.3 The Genetic Code in RNA Is Translated into the
Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins

Frame-shift mutations are insertions or

deletions of bases in DNA.

These mutations interfere with translation and

shift the “reading-frame (해독틀 또는 판독틀).”

Nonfunctional proteins are produced.

Figure 10.12 Mutations (Part 4)
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

tRNA는 특정 아미노산을 운반하고

특정 코돈에 결합한다

Transfer RNA (tRNA) links information in messenger RNA

(mRNA) codons with specific amino acids.

For each amino acid, there is a specific type or “species” of

tRNA.

Two key events to ensure that the protein made is the one
specified by the mRNA:

① tRNAs must read mRNA codons correctly.

② tRNAs must deliver amino acids corresponding to each

codon.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

 Each tRNA has three functions, made

possible by its structure and base
sequence:
① tRNAs bind to a particular amino acid, and
become “charged.”
② tRNAs bind at their midpoint—anticodon-to
mRNA molecules.
③ tRNAs interacts with ribosomes.
Figure 10.13 Transfer RNA

‘클로버 잎’ 모델 3차원 모델 공간채움 모델

Amino acid: R (Arginine)

anticodon

Codon: 3’-GGC-5’ in mRNA

상보염기쌍 강조 염기쌍 형성의 tRNA의 3차원 구조
내부 부위 강조
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Wobble (워블, 동요)—specificity for the

base at the 3′ end of the codon is not
always observed.
Example: Codons for alanine—GCA, GCC,
GCG, and GCU—are recognized by the
same tRNA.
Wobble allows cells to produce fewer tRNA
species, but does not allow the genetic
code to be ambiguous.
In-Text Art, Ch. 10, p. 200

개별 tRNA는 아미노산에 특이적으로 부착된다

Isoleucine (I)
③
①
②

= aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
which charges tRNA with the correct aa

3’-U U A-5’ : codon in mRNA

Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Activating enzymes—aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetases (아미노아실 tRNA
합성효소)—charge tRNA with the correct
amino acids.
Each enzyme is highly specific for one
amino acid and its corresponding tRNA.
The enzymes have three-part active
sites—they bind a specific amino acid, a
specific tRNA, and ATP.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

 Experiment by Benzer and others:

Cysteine already bound to tRNA was
chemically changed to alanine.
Which would be recognized—the amino
acid or the tRNA in protein synthesis?
Answer: Protein synthesis machinery
recognizes the anticodon, not the amino
acid
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

번역은 라이보솜에서 일어난다

The translation of mRNA by tRNA is

accomplished at the ribosome—the
workbench—and holds mRNA and
charged tRNAs in the correct positions to
allow assembly of polypeptide chain.

Ribosomes are not specific; they can make

any type of protein.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

 Ribosomes have two subunits, large and small.

In eukaryotes, the large subunit has three
molecules of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and 49
different proteins in a precise pattern.
The small subunit has one rRNA and 33 proteins.
Figure 10.14 Ribosome Structure
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

 Large subunit has three tRNA binding

sites:
A (amino acid) site binds with anticodon of
charged tRNA.
P (polypeptide) site is where tRNA adds its
amino acid to the growing chain.
E (exit) site is where tRNA sits before being
released from the ribosome.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Ribosome has a fidelity function (보강기능):

when proper binding occurs, hydrogen
bonds form between the base pairs.
Small subunit rRNA validates the match—if
hydrogen bonds have not formed between
all three base pairs, the tRNA must be an
incorrect match for that codon and the
tRNA is rejected.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

번역은 세 단계로 일어난다

 Like transcription, translation also occurs

in three steps:
• Initiation (개시)
• Elongation (신장)
• Termination (종결)
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Initiation:
An initiation complex consists of a charged
tRNA and small ribosomal subunit, both
bound to mRNA.
After binding, the small subunit moves along
the mRNA until it reaches the start codon,
AUG.
The first amino acid is always methionine,
which may be removed after translation.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

The large subunit joins the complex; the

charged tRNA is now in the P site of the
large subunit.
Initiation factors (개시인자) are
responsible for assembly of the initiation
complex from mRNA, two ribosomal
subunits and charged tRNA.
Figure 10.15 The Initiation of Translation (Part 1)
Figure 10.15 The Initiation of Translation (Part 2)
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Elongation: The second charged tRNA

enters the A site
Large subunit catalyzes two reactions:
1. It breaks bond between tRNA in P site
and its amino acid.
2. A peptide bond forms between that amino
acid and the amino acid on tRNA in the A
site.
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

When the first tRNA has released its

methionine, it moves to the E site and
dissociates from the ribosome—it can then
become charged again.
Elongation occurs as the steps are repeated,
assisted by proteins called elongation
factors (신장인자).
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

The large subunit has peptidyl transferase

(펩티드전달효소) activity—if rRNA is
destroyed, the activity stops.
The component with this activity is an rRNA
in the ribosome.
The catalyst is an example of a ribozyme
(라이보자임) (from ribonucleic acid and
enzyme).
Figure 10.16 The Elongation of Translation
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

Termination—translation ends when a stop

codon enters the A site.
Stop codon binds a protein release factor
(방출인자)—allows hydrolysis of bond
between polypeptide chain and tRNA on
the P site.
Polypeptide chain separates from the
ribosome—C terminus is the last amino
acid added.
Figure 10.17 The Termination of Translation
Table 10.2 Signals that Start and Stop Transcription and Translation
Concept 10.4 Translation of the Genetic Code Is Mediated by
tRNA and Ribosomes

폴리솜 형성은 단백질의 합성 속도를 증가시킨다

Several ribosomes can work

together to translate the
same mRNA, producing
multiple copies of the
polypeptide.
A strand of mRNA with
associated ribosomes is
called a polyribosome, or
polysome (폴리솜).
Concept 10.5 Proteins Are Modified after Translation

Posttranslational aspects (번역후에

일어나는 과정) of protein synthesis:

Polypeptide emerges from the ribosome and

folds into its 3-D shape.

Its conformation allows it to interact with

other molecules—it may contain a signal
sequence (신호서열) or signal peptide
indicating where in the cell it belongs.
Concept 10.5 Proteins Are Modified after Translation

단백질의 신호서열이 세포 내 목적지로 안내한다

In the absence of a signal sequence, the

protein will remain where it was made.
Some proteins contain signal sequences
that “target” them to the nucleus,
mitochondria, or other places.
Signal sequence binds to a receptor protein
on the organelle surface—a channel forms
and the protein moves into the organelle.
Figure 10.19 Destinations for Newly Translated Polypeptides in a Eukaryotic Cell (Part 1)
Figure 10.19 Destinations for Newly Translated Polypeptides in a Eukaryotic Cell (Part 2)
Figure 10.20 Testing the Signal
Concept 10.5 Proteins Are Modified after Translation

많은 단백질은 번역 후 변형된다
 Protein modifications:
Proteolysis (단백질분해)—cutting of a long
polypeptide chain, or polyprotein, into final
products, by proteases
Glycosylation (당화)—addition of carbohydrates
to form glycoproteins
Phosphorylation (인산화)—addition of
phosphate groups catalyzed by protein
kinases (단백질인산화효소)— charged
phosphate groups change the conformation of
the protein
Figure 10.21 Posttranslational Modifications of Proteins
Antibiotic mechanism by tetracycline is the inhibition of translation

Tetracyclines
(테트라사이클린) kill
bacteria by interrupting
translation.

They bind to the 30S

ribosomal subunit (A
site), which changes
the ribosome structure.

Charged tRNAs can no

longer bind to the A site
on the ribosome. Brown: protein region of ribosome
Green: RNA region of ribosome
Synthetic rate

 DNA: 250 ~1,000/sec by DNA polymerase III

 RNA: 50/sec by RNA polymerase II

 Protein: 20/sec for prokaryote, 2/sec for eukaryote

참고
The lifetime of mRNA molecules

참고
The lifetime of protein molecules

≈200 days
for histone

참고
The lifetime of human cells

 뇌세포: 재생 불가능
 눈: 신체 나이와 동일 (수정체의
세포는 태어날 때 갖고 태어나는
것을 평생 사용)
 뼈: 20년
 장(대장, 소장): 15년 9개월
 근육: 최소 15년
 간: 12~18개월 (200~500일 주기)
 혈액: 3~4개월(적혈구 약 120일,
백혈구 3일~20일 정도)
 피부: 2주~4주
 위장: 2~3일

참고