1.

Separation Axioms
A space X is a T0 -space if for every pair of distinct points of X there is an open
set containing exactly one of these points.
Example 1.1. Let X = (X, T ) be the 2-element anti-discrete space, that is, X =
{0, 1} and T = {∅, X}. Then X is not a T0 .
Theorem 1.2. For every T0 -space X, |X| ≤ 2w(X) .
Proof. Let B be a base for X with |B| = w(X) and for every x ∈ X let B(x) =
{U ∈ B : x ∈ U }. From the definition of a T0 -space it follows that B(x) 6= B(y) if
x 6= y. Since the number of all distinct families B(x) is not larger than 2B , we have
|X| ≤ 2w(X) . 
A space X is a T1 -space if for every pair of distinct points x, y ∈ X there is an
open U ⊆ X such that x ∈ U and y ∈ / U.
Example 1.3. Let X = (X, T ), where X = {0, 1} and T = {∅, {0}, X}. Then X
is a T0 but not a T1 .
Exercise 1.4. Prove that a space is a T1 -space iff every singleton is closed.
Proof. Let X be a T1 and let x ∈ X. For every yS∈ X distinct from x, pick an open
neighborhood Uy of y not containing x. Then y∈X\{x} Uy = X \ {x} is open, so
{x} is closed.
Conversely, suppose that every singleton of a space X is closed. To see that X
is a T1 , let x and y be distinct points of X. Since {y} is closed, U = X \ {y} is a
neighborhood of x not containing y. 
A space X is a T2 -space or Hausdorff if for every pair of distinct points x, y ∈ X
there are open U, V ⊆ X such that x ∈ U , y ∈ V , and U ∩ V = ∅.
Example 1.5. Let X = (X, T ) be an infinite space endowed with the cofinite
topology, that is, T = {U ⊆ X : X \ U is finite}. Then X is a T1 but not a T2 .
Exercise 1.6. Prove that a space is Hausdorff iff every point is the intersection of
its closed neighborhoods.
d(X)
Theorem 1.7. For every Hausdorff space X, |X| ≤ 22 .
Proof. Let A be a dense subset of X with |A| = d(X). For every x ∈ X, let
A(x) = {U ∩ A : U is a neighborhood of x}.
Note that A(x) ∈ P(P(A)). Since X is Hausdorff, A(x) 6= A(y) if x 6= y. It follows
that |A|
|X| ≤ |P(P(A))| = 22 .

A space X is a T3 -space or regular if it is a T1 -space and for every x ∈ X and
closed F ⊆ X not containing x there are open U, V ⊆ X such that x ∈ U , F ⊆ V ,
and U ∩ V = ∅.
Exercise 1.8. Prove that a T1 -space X is regular iff for every point x ∈ X and
neighborhood U of x, there exists a neighborhood V of x such that V ⊆ U .
Theorem 1.9. For every regular space X, w(X) ≤ 2d(X) .
1
2

Proof. Let A be a dense subset of X with |A| = d(X) and let

B = {int cl B : B ⊆ A}.
Clearly, the members of B are open and |B| ≤ 2|A| . To see that B is a base, let
U ⊆ X be open and let x ∈ U . Since X is regular, there is an open V ⊆ X such
that x ∈ V ⊆ cl V ⊆ U . Put B = V ∩ A. Then cl B = cl V . Consequently,
V ⊆ int cl B ⊆ cl V , and so x ∈ int cl B ⊆ U . 

A space X is a T4 -space or normal if it is a T1 -space and for every pair of disjoint

closed subsets A, B ⊆ X there are open U, V ⊆ X such that A ⊆ U , B ⊆ V , and
U ∩ V = ∅.
Theorem 1.10. Every metric space is normal.
Proof. Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of a metric space X = (X, d). For
every x ∈ A, pick εx > 0 such that U (x, εx ) ∩ B = ∅, where U (x, ε) = {z ∈ X :
d(x, z) < ε}.S Similarly, for every y ∈SB, pick εyε > 0 such that U (y, εy ) ∩ A = ∅.
Let V = x∈A U (x, ε2x ) and W = y∈B U (y, 2y ). Clearly, V and W are open
neighborhoods of A and B. To see that they are disjoint, assume the contrary. Then
ε ε
U (x, ε2x ) ∩ U (y, 2y ) 6= ∅ for some x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Pick z ∈ U (x, ε2x ) ∩ U (y, 2y ).
Then
εx εy
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(y, z) < + .
2 2
Without loss of generality one may suppose that εx ≥ εy . Then d(x, y) < εx , so
y ∈ U (x, εx ), a contradiction. 

Exercise 1.11. Prove that the Sorgenfrey line S is normal.

Proof. Clearly S is a T1 . Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of S. For every
x ∈ A, pick [x, cx ) disjoint from B, and for every y ∈ B, pick [y, dy ) disjoint from
A. We claim that [x, cx ) ∩ [y, dy ) = ∅.
Indeed, without loss of generality one may suppose that x < y. Then cx < y,
and so [x, cx ) ∩ [y, dy ) = ∅. S S
It then follows that U = x∈A [x, cx ) and V = y∈B [y, dy ) are disjoint open sets
containing A and B, respectively. 

Exercise 1.12. Prove that a T1 -space X is normal iff for every closed set F ⊆ X
and open U containing F , there exists an open V such that F ⊆ V ⊆ V ⊆ U .
Theorem 1.13. Let X be a T1 -space. Assume that for every closed F andSopen W
containing F , there exists a sequence (Wn )n<ω of open sets such that F ⊆ n<ω Wn
and Wn ⊆ W . Then X is normal.
Proof. Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X. Taking F = A and W = X \ B
we obtain a sequence (Wn )n<ω of open subsets of X such that
[
A⊆ Wn and B ∩ Wn = ∅.
n<ω

Taking F = B and W = X \ A we obtain a sequence (Vn )n<ω of open subsets of X

such that [
B⊆ Vn and A ∩ Vn = ∅.
n<ω
 3

Put [ [
Gn = Wn \ Vi and Hn = Vn \ Wi .
i≤n i≤n
Then Gn and Hn are open and
[ [
A⊆U = Gn and B ⊆ V = Hn .
n<ω n<ω
To complete the proof we have to show that U and V are disjoint. We have
Gn ∩ Vi = ∅ for i ≤ n and so Gn ∩ Hi = ∅ for i ≤ n. Similarly, Hn ∩ Wi = ∅ for
i ≤ n and Hn ∩ Gi = ∅ for i ≤ n. Thus Gn ∩ Hm = ∅ for all n, m < ω and therefore
U ∩ V = ∅. 
Notice that the condition in Theorem 1.13 is not only sufficient but also necessary
for normality of a T1 -space.
Corollary 1.14. Every second countable regular space is normal.
Proof. Let X be a second countable regular space, let F be a closed subset of X,
and let W be an open set containing F . By Theorem
S 1.13, it suffices to find a
sequence (Wn )n<ω of open sets such that F ⊆ n<ω Wn and Wn ⊆ W . Let B be
a countable base for X. For every x ∈ F , there is an open neighborhood Ux of x
such that Ux ⊆ W , and pick Vx ∈ B such that x ∈ Vx ⊆ Ux . Then {Vx : x ∈ F } is
a countable family of open sets whose union contains F and Vx ⊆ W . 
Exercise 1.15. Prove that every countable regular space is normal.
Example 1.16. The Niemytzki plane L = L1 ∪ L2 is not normal. Assume the
contrary. Then for every subset A ⊆ L1 (it is closed in L), there exist open
UA , VA ⊆ L such that A ⊆ UA , L1 \ A ⊆ VA and UA ∩ VA = ∅. Let C be a
countable dense subset in L2 . Put CA = C ∩ UA . We shall show that CA 6= CB for
A 6= B, which will yield a contradiction, because L1 contains 2c distinct subsets,
and C contains only c distinct subsets. Let A, B ⊆ L1 and let A \ B 6= ∅. Since
A \ B ⊆ UA ∩ VB , we have UA ∩ VB 6= ∅ and so C ∩ UA ∩ VB 6= ∅. But C ∩ UA ∩ VB ⊆
CA \ UB ⊆ CA \ CB . Hence CA 6= CB .
Exercise 1.17. Prove that the Niemytzki plane L = L1 ∪ L2 is not metrizable.

2. Completely regular spaces

Theorem 2.1 (Urysohn’s lemma). For every pair A, B of disjoint closed subsets
of a normal space X, there is a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that
f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}.
Proof. To each rational number r ∈ [0, 1], we shall assign an open set Vr ⊆ X so
that the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) A ⊆ V0 and B ⊆ X \ V1 ,
(2) Vr ⊆ Vr0 whenever r < r0 ,
The sets Vr will be defined inductively. Let {rn : n < ω} be an enumeration of
the rationals from [0, 1] with r0 = 0 and r1 = 1. Since X is normal, there is an
open set U ⊆ X such that A ⊆ U ⊆ U ⊆ X \ B. Put V0 = U and V1 = X \ B.
Fix n ≥ 1 and suppose that the sets Vri have already been defined for all i ≤ n
so that (1)-(2) are satisfied. Denote by rl and rm respectively those of the numbers
r0 , r1 , . . . , rn that are closest to rn+1 from the left and from the right. It follows
4

from rl < rm and (2) that Vrl ⊆ Vrm . Then, since X is normal, there is an open
set U ⊆ X such that Vrl ⊆ U ⊆ U ⊆ Vrm . Put Vrn+1 = U .
Clearly the sequence Vr0 , Vr1 , . . . so constructed is as required.
Now define f : X → [0, 1] by
(
inf{r : x ∈ Vr } if x ∈ V1
f (x) =
1 otherwise.
By (1), f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}, so we have only to check that f is continu-
ous. For this it suffices to show that the preimages of intervals [0, a) and (b, 1] are
open. The inequality f (x) < a holds iff there is r < a such that x ∈ Vr . Hence the
set [
f −1 ([0, a)) = Vr
r<a
is open. And the inequality f (x) > b holds iff there is r0 > b such that x ∈/ Vr 0 ,
which by (2) means that there is r > b (any r ∈ (b, r0 )) such that x ∈
/ Vr . Hence
the set [
f −1 ((b, 1]) = X \ Vr
r>b
is open as well. 
A space X is called a T3 12 -space or completely regular or Tychonoff if X is a T1 -
space and for every x ∈ X and closed F ⊂ X not containing x there is a continuous
function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x) = 1 and f (F ) = {0}.
Exercise 2.2. Prove that
(1) every Tychonoff space is regular,
(2) every normal space is Tychonoff.
Proof. (1) Let X be a Tychonoff space, let F be a closed subset of X, and let
x ∈ X \ {F }. Pick a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (x) = 1 and
f (F ) = {0}. Put U = f −1 ([0, 1/2)) and V = f −1 ((1/2, 1]). Then U and V are
disjoint open subsets of X containing F and x respectively. 
A subset A of a space X is zero (cozero) if there is a continuous function f :
X → [0, 1] such that A = f −1 (0) (A = f −1 ((0, 1])).
Exercise 2.3. Prove that a T1 -space is completely regular iff it has a base of cozero
sets.
Proof. Sufficiency. Let X be a T1 -space having a base of cozero sets. To see
that X is completely regular, let F be a closed subset of X and let x ∈ X \ F .
There is a cozero neighborhood U of x disjoint from F . Pick a continuous function
g : X → [0, 1] such that U = g −1 ((0, 1]) and let a = g(x). Define f : X → [0, 1] by
1
f (y) = min{g(y), a}.
a
Then f is continuous, f (x) = 1 and f (F ) = {0}. 
Exercise 2.4. Prove that
(1) every cozero set is an Fσ -set,
(2) in a normal space the cozero sets are precisely the open Fσ -sets.
 5

Proof.S(2) Let X be a normal space and let U ⊆ X be an open Fσ -set. Write

∞
U = n=1 Fn for some closed Fn ⊆ X. For every n, pick a continuous function
fn : X → [0, 1] such that fn (Fn ) = {1} and fn (X \ U ) = {0}. Define f : X → [0, 1]
by
∞
X 1
f (x) = fn (x).
n=1
2n
This series converges uniformly, so f is continuous, and U = f −1 ((0, 1]). 

3. The Tietze-Urysohn Theorem

Theorem 3.1 (Tietze-Urysohn theorem). Let X be a normal space and let M be
a closed subset of X. Then every continuous function from M into [0, 1] or R can
be continuously extended over X.
Proof. We restrict ourselves to considering the case of I = [0, 1], or equivalently,
J = [−1, 1].
Lemma 3.2. Let f0 : M → R be a continuous function. Suppose that there is a
constant c > 0 such that |f0 (x)| ≤ c for all x ∈ M . Then there exists a continuous
function g : X → R such that
1
|g(x)| ≤ c for x ∈ X,
3
and
2
|f0 (x) − g(x)| ≤ c for x ∈ M.
3
Proof. Indeed, the sets A = f0−1 ([−c, − 13 c]) and B = f0−1 ([ 13 c, c]) are disjoint and
closed in M and, consequently, in X, so by Urysohn’s lemma there exists a function
k : X → I such that k(A) = {0} and k(B) = {1}. Define g : X → R by
 
2 1
g(x) = c k(x) − .
3 2

Now let f : M → J be a continuous function. Using the above lemma, we
construct a sequence of continuous functions gn : X → R such that
 n−1
1 2
|gn (x)| ≤ for x ∈ X,
3 3
and
n  n
X 2
|f (x) − gj (x)| ≤ for x ∈ M.
j=1
3
Then the function F : X → J defined by
X∞
F (x) = gn (x)
n=1
is the required extension of f . 
Exercise 3.3. Let X be a T1 -space and suppose that for every closed subset M of
X, every continuous function from M into [0, 1] can be continuously extended over
X. Prove that X is normal.
6

Lemma 3.4. Let f and g be continuous mappings from a space X into a Hausdorff
space Y . Suppose that f and g coincide on some dense subset A ⊆ X, that is,
A = X and f |A = g|A . Then f = g.
Proof. Since Y is Hausdorff, the subset
B = {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)}
is closed. And since A ⊆ B, one has B = X. 
Theorem 3.5. If a space is separable and contains a closed discrete subset of
cardinality c, then it is not normal.
Proof. Let X be a space containing a countable dense subset A and a closed discrete
subset D of cardinality c. By Lemma 3.4, every continuous function f : X → [0, 1]
is determined by its restriction to A, so there are at most
cω = (2ω )ω = 2ωω = 2ω = c
such functions. Now assume on the contrary that X is normal. Then by the
Tietze-Urysohn theorem, each of
cc = (2ω )c = 2ωc = 2c
functions g : D → [0, 1] is continuously extendable over X, so there are at least 2c
continuous functions f : X → [0, 1], a contradiction. 
Exercise 3.6. Prove that the Niemytzki plane is not normal.
A space is a T6 -space, or perfectly normal, if it is normal and every open (closed)
set is an Fσ (a Gδ ).
Exercise 3.7. Prove that
(1) every countable regular space is perfectly normal,
(2) every second countable regular space is perfectly normal.
Proof. (2) Let X be a second countable regular space. Then X is normal. There-
fore, it suffices to show that every closed subset F of X is a Gδ .
Let B be a countable base for X. For every x ∈ X \ F , pick Ux ∈ B such that
x ∈ Ux and Ux ∩ F = ∅, and let Vx = X \ Ux . Then T Vx is an open set containing
F , the family {Vx : x ∈ X \ F } is countable, and x∈X\F Vx = F . 
Exercise 3.8. Prove that for a T1 -space X the following statements are equivalent:
(i) X is perfectly normal,
(ii) every open subset of X is a cozero set,
(iii) every closed subset of X is a zero set,
(iv) for any pair A, B of disjoint closed subsets of X, there is a continuous
function f : X → [0, 1] such that A = f −1 (0), B = f −1 (1).
Proof. (iii)⇒(iv) Pick g, h : X → [0, 1] such that A = g −1 (0), B = h−1 (0), and let
g(x)
f (x) = .
g(x) + h(x)

A space X is a T5 -space or hereditarily normal if every subspace of X is normal.
Exercise 3.9. Prove that T6 implies T5 .
 7

4. Compact spaces
A space X is called compact if every open cover
S of X has a finite subcover. That
family U of open subset of X with U = X there is a finite subfamily
is, for every S
V ⊆ U with V = X.
Theorem 4.1. Any closed interval of the real line is compact.
Proof. Let J = [a, b] and let U be an open cover of J. Consider the set A of all x ∈ J
such that the interval [a, x] is contained in the union of finitely many members of
U. It suffices to show that the set J \ A is empty.
Assume that J \ A 6= ∅ and let c = inf J \ A. Notice that c ∈ J \ A and c 6= a.
Choose U0 ∈ U with c ∈ U0 . As c > a, there existsSn x < c with (x, c] ⊆ U0 . By the
definition of c we have
Sn x ∈ A, so that [a, x] ⊆ i=1 Ui for some U1 , . . . , Un ∈ U. It
follows that [a, c] ⊆ i=0 Ui , a contradiction. 

Exercise 4.2. Prove that

(i) the real line is not compact,
(ii) a discrete space is compact iff it is finite.
Example 4.3. Let κ be an infinite cardinal and let W be the set of all ordinals
≤ κ. Endow W with the topology by taking as a base the intervals (y, x], where
y < x ≤ κ, and the one-point set {0}. Then W is compact.
To see this, let U be an open cover of W . Pick U0 ∈ U containing κ. There is
α1 < κ such that (α1 , κ] ⊆ U0 . Pick U1 ∈ U containing α1 . There is α2 < α1 such
that (α2 , α1 ] ⊆ U1 . Pick U2 ∈ U containing α2 , and so on. Since W is well-ordered,
at some n-th step we will have αn = 0 and Un = {0}, and so {U0 , U1 , . . . , Un } will
be a subcover of U.
Exercise 4.4. Prove that
(1) every continuous image of a compact space is compact,
(2) every closed subspace of a compact space is compact,
(3) every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed,
(4) every compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof. (3) Let X be a Hausdorff space and let Y be a compact subspace of X.
To see that Y ⊆ X is closed, let x ∈ X \ Y . ConsiderT the family F of all closed
neighborhoods of x ∈ X. Since X is Hausdorff, F = {x}. Consequently, {X \ F :
F ∈ F } is an open cover of Y . TSince Y is compact, there is a finite subcover
n
{X \ F1 , . . . , X \ Fn }. Then F = i=1 Fi is a neighborhood of x disjoint from Y .
(4) Let X be a compact Hausdorff space. We first show that X is regular. Let
x ∈ X and let F be a closed subset of X not containing x. For every y ∈ F , pick
disjoint open neighborhoods Uy and Vy of x and y, respectively. This can be done
because X is Hausdorff. By (2), F is compact, so the T open cover {Vy : y S
∈ F } of
n n
F contains a finite subcover {Vy1 , . . . , Vyn }. Then U = i=1 Uyi and V = i=1 Vyi
are disjoint open neighborhoods of x and F .
Now, to show that X is normal, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X.
Since X is regular, for every x ∈ A, there are disjoint open neighborhoods Ux and
Vx of x and B, respectively. By (2), A is compact, so theSopen cover {Ux : xT∈ A} of
n n
A contains a finite subcover {Ux1 , . . . , Uxn }. Then U = i=1 Uxi and V = i=1 Vxi
are disjoint open neighborhoods of A and B. 
8

A space is locally compact if every point has a compact neighborhood. A space

is σ-compact if it can be represented as a countable union of compact subsets.
Exercise 4.5. Prove that
(i) every locally compact Hausdorff space is completely regular,
(ii) every locally compact σ-compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof. (i) Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space, let F be a closed subset of
X and let x ∈ X \ F . Pick an open neighborhood U of x such that U is compact.
Then U is normal. Pick a continuous function f0 : U → [0, 1] such that f0 (x) = 1
and f0 (U \ U ) = {0}. Extend it to a function f : X → [0, 1] by putting f (y) = 0
for all y ∈ X \ U . Then f is continuous, f (x) = 1, and f (F ) = {0}.
(ii) Hint. First show that if X is a regular space, Y a compact subset of X, and
U an open set containing Y , then there is an open set V containing Y such that
V ⊆ U . Then use a condition for normality of a T1 -space (a theorem in the end of
section Separation Axioms). 

5. Ultrfilters
Recall that a filter on a set X is a family F of subsets of X such that
(1) X ∈ F and ∅ ∈ / F,
(2) if A, B ∈ F, then A ∩ B ∈ F, and
(3) if A ∈ F and A ⊆ B, then B ∈ F.
In another words, a filter is a nonempty family of nonempty subsets closed under
finite intersections and supersets. A classic example of a filter is the neighborhood
filter of a point in a topological space. Another example is the family of cofinite
subsets of an infinite set.
An ultrafilter on X is a filter which is not properly contained in any other filter
on X.
Theorem 5.1. A filter F on a set X is an ultrafilter iff for every subset A ⊆ X,
either A ∈ F or X \ A ∈ F.
Proof. Let F be an ultrafilter and let A ⊆ X. Consider two cases.
Case 1 : there is B ∈ F with B ∩ A = ∅. Then X \ A ∈ F.
Case 2 : for every B ∈ F, B ∩ A 6= ∅. Then
G = {C ⊆ X : B ∩ A ⊆ C for some B ∈ F}
is a filter. We have that A ∈ G and F ⊆ G. Since F is an ultrafilter, F = G, so
A ∈ F.
Conversely, let F be a filter such that for every subset A ⊆ X, either A ∈ F
or X \ A ∈ F. Assume, on the contrary, that F is properly contained in a filter
G. Pick A ∈ G such that A ∈ / F. Then X \ A ∈ F, and so X \ A ∈ G. But then
∅ = A ∩ (X \ A) ∈ G, – a contradiction. 
Exercise 5.2. Let F be an ultrafilter on a set X. Prove that for every partition
of X into finitely many subsets, one of the subsets belongs to F.
Exercise 5.3. Given a filter F on a set X and a mapping f : X → Y , let
f (F) = {B ⊆ Y : f −1 (B) ∈ F}.
Prove that
 9

(i) f (F) is a filter on Y , and

(ii) if F is an ultrafilter, so is f (F).
Proof. (ii) By Theorem 5.1, it suffices to check that for every C ⊆ Y , either C ∈
f (F) or Y \ C ∈ f (F). Assume that C ∈ / f (F) and let A = f −1 (C). Then A ∈/ F,
and since F is an ultrafilter, X \ A ∈ F. Consequently f (X \ A) ∈ f (F), and since
f (X \ A) ⊆ Y \ C, one has Y \ C ∈ f (F). 
Exercise 5.4. Check that for every x ∈ X, Fx = {A ⊆ X : x ∈ A} is an ultrafilter.
Such ultrafilters are called principal.
Theorem 5.5. Every filter on X can be extended to an ultrafilter on X.
Proof. Let F0 be any filter on a set X. Consider the partially orderedSset P of
all filters on X containing F0 . For any chain C = {Fi : i ∈ I} in P , i∈I Fi is
an upper bound of C in P . Consequently, by Zorn’s Lemma, there is a maximal
element F ∈ P . Then F is a maximal filter (= ultrafilter) containing F0 . 
Exercise 5.6. Let X be an infinite set. Prove that there are nonprincipal ultrafil-
ters on X.
Proof. Take the filter of cofinite subsets of X and extend it to an ultrafilter. 
Let X be a space, let F be a filter on X, and let x ∈ X. We say that F converges
to x if for every neighborhood U of x, U ∈ F. In other words, F converges to x if
the neighborhood filter of x is contained in F.
The next theorem is an ultrafilter characterization of compact spaces.
Theorem 5.7. A space X is compact iff every ultrafilter on X is convergent.
Proof. Let X be a compact space and let F be an ultrafilter on X. Assume, on the
contrary, that for every x ∈ X, there is an open neighborhood Ux of x such that
Ux ∈/ F. Then X \ Ux ∈ F. Since X is compact, Tnthe open cover {Ux : x ∈ X} has a
finite subcover {Ux1 , . . . , Uxn }. But then ∅ = i=1 (X \ Uxi ) ∈ F, a contradiction.
Conversely, suppose that every ultrafilter on X is convergent and let U be an
open cover of X. Assume, on the contrary, that U has no finite subcover. Then
[
F0 = {A ⊆ X : X \ V ⊆ A for some finite V ⊆ U}
is a filter on X. Extend F0 to an ultrafilter F. Now let x ∈ X and pick U ∈ U
such that x ∈ U . Since X \ U ∈ F0 ⊆ F, F does not converge to x. Hence, F is
not convergent, a contradiction. 

6. Products of spaces
Let S Qbe a set of indexes and for every s ∈ S, let Xs be a topological space.
Let X = s∈S Xs denote the Cartesian product of the sets Xs , that is, the set of
all functions (xs ) : S 3 s 7→ xs ∈ Xs . The
Q product topology on X is defined by
taking as a base the subsets of the form s∈S Us , where each Us ⊆ Xs is open
and {s ∈ S : Us 6= Xs } is finite. This is the so-called canonical base. The set
X endowed Q with the product topology is called the product of spaces Xs and is
denoted by s∈S Xs .
Q
Theorem 6.1 (Tychonoff theorem). The product s∈S Xs of compact spaces Xs
is compact.
10

Proof.QThe proof is based on the ultrafilter characterization of compact spaces. Let

X = s∈S Xs , and for every s0 ∈ S, let πs0 : X → Xs0 denote the projection of X
onto Xs0 , that is, πs0 ((xs )) = xs0 . Let F be an ultrafilter on X. Then for every
s ∈ S, πs (F) = {B ∈ Xs : πs−1 (B) ∈ F} is an ultrafilter on Xs , and consequently,
since Xs is compact, πs (F) converges to a point aQ s ∈ Xs . We claim that F
converges to the point a = (as ) ∈ X. Indeed, let U = s∈S Us be a canonical open
neighborhood of a and let S0 = {s ∈ S : Us 6= Xs }. Then U = s∈S0 πs−1 (Us ).
T

Since S0 is finite and πs−1 (Us ) ∈ F, it follows that U ∈ F. 

A product of copies of the unit interval I = [0, 1] is called a Tychonoff cube.

Corollary 6.2. For every cardinal κ, the Tychonoff cube I κ = κ I is compact.
Q

Let X be a space, let S be a set of indexes, and for every s ∈ S, let fs : X → Ys

be a continuous mapping from X into a space Ys . The diagonal of mappings fs is
the mapping
Y
f = ∆s∈S fs : X → Ys
s∈S
defined by
f (x) = (fs (x))s∈S .
Exercise 6.3. Check that f is continuous.
We say that the family {fs : s ∈ S} separates points if for every distinct points
x, y ∈ X, there is s ∈ S such that fs (x) 6= fs (y).

Q that if {fs : s ∈ S} separates points, then the diagonal

Exercise 6.4. Check
f = ∆s∈S fs : X → s∈S Ys is a continuous embedding (= injection).
We say that {fs : s ∈ S} separates points and closed sets if for every point x ∈ X
and closed subset F ⊆ X not containing x, there is s ∈ S such that fs (x) ∈ / fs (F ).
Lemma 6.5. If {fQs : s ∈ S} separates points and closed sets, then the diagonal
f = ∆s∈S fs : X → s∈S Ys is a homeomorphic embedding.
Proof. We know that f is a continuous embedding. So we need only to check
that for every closed F ⊂ X, f (F ) is closed in f (X). To this end, let y ∈ f (X)
and y ∈ / f (F ). Then y = f (x) for some x ∈ X. Clearly x ∈ / F . There is
s0 ∈ S such that fs0 (x) ∈ / fs0 (F ). Choose a neighborhood Us0 of fs0 (x) ∈ Ys0
such that Q Us0 ∩ fs0 (F ) = ∅, and for every s ∈ S distinct from s0 , put Us = Ys .
Let U = s∈S Us . Then U is a neighborhood of y and U ∩ f (F ) = ∅. Hence
y∈/ f (F ). 

Theorem 6.6. Every completely regular space can be homeomorphically embedded

into a Tychonoff cube.
Proof. Let X be a completely regular space. Let C(X) denoteQthe set of all con-
tinuous functions f : X → [0, 1] and let h = ∆f ∈C(X) f : X → f ∈C(X) If , where
If = I. The family C(X) separates points and closed sets. Indeed, if F is a
closed subset of X and x ∈ X \ F , then there is f ∈ C(X) such that f (x) = 1
and f (F ) = {0}, and so f (x) ∈
/ f (F ). Then by Lemma 6.5, h is a homeomorphic
embedding. 
 11

A compactification of a space X is a compact Hausdorff space Y containing a

dense topological copy of X. Usually that copy is identified with X.
Example 6.7. The circle S 1 and the unit interval I = [0, 1] are compactifications
of R.
Exercise 6.8. Prove that a space has a compactification iff it is completely regular.