INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

What do we mean by Instructional Media?

Instruction
Instruction
Instruction refers to the arrangement of information and
environment to facilitate learning. By environment, we do not
just mean where instruction takes place but also the methods,
media and equipment that are used or needed to guide the
learner’s study. Information and environment will change
depending on the instructional goal.

Media
Media on the other hand can be defined in many different ways.
There are a lot of definitions for the term “media”. Gagne (1970)
defines media as the various components in learners’
environment which assist the learners learn.
Briggs (1970) defines media as physical means which are used
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to send messages to the pupils and stimulate them to learn. A
little bit different from the opinions of the two experts, The
National Education Association defines media as forms of
communication either printed or audiovisual.
Scanlan states that instructional media encompasses all the
materials and physical means an instructor and teacher might
use to implement instruction and facilitate learners'
achievement of instructional objectives. This may include
traditional materials such as chalkboards, handouts, charts,
slides, overheads, real objects, flash card and videotape or film,
as well newer materials and methods such as computers, DVDs,
CD-ROMs, the Internet, and interactive video conferencing.
Media can simply be defined as anything used to send
message(s) from the sender(s) to the receiver(s). In the case of a
teaching/learning situation from a teacher to a learner in order to
arouse the learners’ thought, feeling, and interest and to gear
the students for learning (Sadiman et al, 2002).
Heinich et al. (1996:8) defines a medium as a means of
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communication as it refers to anything that carries information
between a source and a receiver. For example; diagrams,
printed materials, computers, PowerPoint slides, and instructors.
Please note

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that the plural for medium is ‘media’. Earlier on we defined the
term ‘instruction’ as a deliberate arrangement of experiences or
environment to help a learner achieve a desirable change in
performance.
Instructional Media
Therefore, instructional media refers to the resources both
human and non-human that a teacher deliberately selects and
uses to carry information during instruction to facilitate learning.
These are the resources that serve an instructional function for
education and training. Media serve as physical extensions to
the efforts of a teacher to communicate effectively with their
students.
NB: Instructional media is NOT synonymous with instructional
technology, it is a sub-set of instructional technology.
Instructional Communication
We can also talk about instructional communication.
Instructional communication describes how we use
communication to teach. Instructional communication is
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concerned with the communication skills that teachers need
regardless of the subject that they teach in order to function
competently in a classroom.
A teacher might be an expert in his/her field but might fail to
communicate that information to students in a way that they
understand so that learning takes place. This is where
instructional media becomes important since we use media to
extend our efforts to communicate effectively with our audience.
For example, teacher clarity and credibility are essential skills
which could be strengthened by the use of instructional media.

Instructional Resources
The terms used to describe the instructional resources that
teachers use in the classroom have changed over the years to
reflect technological advances in the field of communication. For
example in the early part of the 20th Century, most of media
available was in form of visuals and it was described as ‘visual
education’ but with the advent of the radio tape recorders, TV,
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and a combination of radio and visuals, the term ‘audio-visual’
was accepted. Then in the 1950s, the term multimedia was
coined to describe the early combination of various still and
motion media for increased educational effect. This reflected a
methodology called 4

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‘multi-media’ approach, which was based on the principle that a
variety of audiovisual media and experiences could be combined
to reinforce the value of each other. Later in the 1980s, the
computer technology was introduced into the classrooms and
the technology changed into ‘computer multi-media’.
Multimedia refers to any combination of two or more media
formats that are integrated to form an informational or
instructional programme (Heinich, et al.; 1996). The term was
adopted in connection with computers to refer to combinations
of sounds and images stored in different devices and combined
through computer software into an interactive programme.
Computer based Instructional media
Today, we can combine a variety of media materials together
using the computer technology to form computer-based
instructional media. Since the early days of simpler media
combinations, designers have understood that individual
learners respond differently to various information sources and
instructional methods, and so chances of reaching an individual
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are increased when a variety of media is used as a result of multi
-sensory involvement.
Today we also talk of Hypermedia. Hypermedia refers to a
computer software that uses elements of text, graphics, video,
and audio and is connected in such a way that the user can
easily move within the information. Hypermedia is based on
cognitive theories of how people structure knowledge and how
they learn. It is designed to resemble the way people organize
information with concepts and relationships. The relationships or
associations between ideas are called ‘links’.
When defining the term ‘media’, we need to differentiate
between materials and equipment. Material is the term used to
refer to those instructional resources that might be used to
convey information without complete dependence on verbal
symbols or language. Equipment is what we use to display the
media materials. 5

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Teaching and Learning
For us to understand the concept of instructional media, we
need to understand the terms “teaching” and “learning”.
Teaching
Nacino-Brown et al (1982:2) have defined teaching as “an
attempt to help someone acquire, or change some skills, attitude,
or knowledge”. In other words, the teacher influences desirable
change in behaviour of the learner. The goal of teaching is to
bring about desired learning in the student. The aim of teaching
is to help individuals learn. Teaching can also be defined as a
systematic, planned sequence of events that facilitates the
communication of ideas, concepts or skills to a learner (Lever-
Duffy, J.; McDonald, J.B.; Mizell, A.P. (2005). The act of teaching
requires an understanding of learning and of the individual as
well as understanding of environmental factors that affect the
learner including communication. This calls for imagination on
the part of the teacher by selecting relevant content, using the
most effective methods and materials and organizing the
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learning environment in a way that learners interact with the
content and helps to bring about the desired behaviour.
Educate
Perhaps you also need to recognize the relationship between
education and teaching. The way we understand the term
‘education’ has changed over time. To educate someone implies
that you give that person a wider cognitive perspective (engage
the thinking of the individual) so that the individual can develop
depth and breadth in knowledge and understanding. This calls
for active involvement of the learner so that their mental
processes are involved in the process of knowledge acquisition.
Learning
Learning on the other hand is something that takes place in an
individual’s mind. It can never be seen or observed directly.
Learning is said to have occurred whenever an individual’s
behaviour is modified or when a person thinks and acts
differently, or when he/she has acquired new knowledge or a
new skill (Kemp & Dayton, 1985:13).
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According to Heinich et al (1996), learning is the development of
new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with
information and the environment. 6

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Theories of learning
The key learning theories include; behavioural, cognitive and
constructivist.
Behaviourism is based on observable changes in behaviour.
Behaviourism focuses on new behaviourial pattern being
repeated until it becomes automatic.
Cognitivism is based on the thought process behind the
behaviour. Changes in behaviour are observed, and used as
indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind.
Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our
own perspective of the world through individual experiences
and mental schema.
instructional/learning process
The instructional/learning process involves the selection,
arrangement, and delivery of information in an appropriate
environment and the way the learner interacts with that
information. Usually the arrangement of information and the
environment is normally the responsibility of the instructor and
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the designers of media. As a teacher, you need to select, arrange,
and deliver the information in an appropriate environment so
that learners can interact with it and convert it into knowledge.
For instruction to take place, instructional media are used since
they form part of the instructional environment. If you remember,
we gave a simple definition of educational technology as any
technology used by educators in support of the teaching and
learning process.
First hand and instructional media
The best way for pupils learn is for them to experience the
environment firsthand. However, it is not always possible to
provide the learners with firsthand experience as the
environment becomes more complex and some compromise in
form of substitute experience must be developed. The teacher
will need to select and use appropriate media that could provide
substitute experience. Therefore, instructional media form part
of the classroom communication process and play a vital role in
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the learning process.

INTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND EDUCATIONAL TECHOLOGY

DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word
“technology”. The word technology can refer to material
objects of use to humanity such as machines, hardware or
utensils, but it can also include broader themes such as systems,
methods of organization, and techniques. From the following
attempts at defining the term educational technology, you
might be able to see that meaning of the term depends
considerably on who defines it. E.g.
Cleary et al 1976 states that Educational technology “is
concerned with the overall methodology and set of techniques
employed in the application of instructional principles” (Cleary
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et al., 1976). Educational technology “involves the applications
of systems, techniques, and aids to improve the process of
human learning... It is characterised by four features in
particular:
 the definition of objectives to be achieved by the learner;
the application of principles of learning to the analysis and
structuring of the subject matter to be learned; the
selection and used of appropriate media for presenting
the materials; and the use of appropriate methods of
assessing student performance to evaluate the
effectiveness of courses and materials (Collier et al., 1971, P.
16).
Association of Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT) in 2008 defines Educational technology as the study
and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate
technological processes and resources.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
 It is based on scientific and technological advancements.
 It is more a practical discipline and less a theoretical one.
 It is a fast-growing modern discipline.
 It makes use of the research findings of psychology,
sociology, engineering, sciences and social psychology etc.,
and applies the same to the field of education.
 It brings students, teachers and technical means together
in an effective way.
 It is the science of techniques and methods. It locates the
problems in the field of education, remedies them and
ultimately aims at improving the education system.
 It is bound to improve the teacher, the learner and the
teaching learning process.
OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
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Educational technology provides valuable help in the total
teaching-learning process for achieving the best possible results
in an economic way through the available human and non-
human resources. The major objectives of education technology
can be summarized as follows:
 To identify educational needs and aspirations of the learners.
 To determine the aims of education, broad strategies and
structure of education.
 To develop a suitable curriculum with interaction of science,
art and human values.
 To identify man-material resources and strategies for
achieving the stipulated aims of education.
 To develop certain models leading to improvement of the
process of teaching and learning.
 To develop the appropriate aids and equipment to meet the
educational purposes.
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To identify major constraints in the environment and the ways
and means to tackle those.
 To help in extending educational opportunities to the masses
especially the neglected section of the community.
 To manage the whole educational system covering planning,
implementation and the evaluation phases.
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology is concerned with all variables, phases,
levels, and aspects of the teaching-learning process. In brief, it
works for overall planning and organization of the system or
subsystem of education. The areas of its operation in education
system is summarized below as follows:
1. To Analyze The Teaching Learning Process: Educational
technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of
the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phase of
teaching, levels of teaching, theories of teaching, principles and
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maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, relevance of the
theories, the relationship between teaching and learning.
2. To Identify the Educational Goals and Learning outcomes or
Objectives: Educational technology tries to discuss the topics
such as identification of education needs and aspirations of the
community, survey of the resources available for satisfaction of
these needs.
3. Development of Curriculum: Educational technology is
concerned with the designing of a suitable curriculum for the
achievement of the educational objectives.
4. Development of Teaching-Learning Material: Educational
technology is concerned with the production and development
of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of stipulated
objectives, design curriculum and available resources.
5. Teaching Preparation or Teaching-Training: Teacher is a key
figure in any process of teaching and learning. Educational
technology, therefore tries for the proper preparations of
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teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities.
6. Development and Selection of The Teaching-Learning
Strategies: This aspect deals with the central problems of
teaching learning act. Here educational technology tries to
describe the ways and discovering, selecting and developing
suitable strategies and tactic of teaching.
7. Development, Selection and Use of The Appropriate Audio-
Visual Aids: Teaching-learning is greatly influenced and
benefited by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids.
Educational technology covers this aspect by discussing various
types of audio-visual aids used for educational purpose, their
proper selecting suiting to a particular teaching-learning
situation.
8. Effective Utilization of The Hardware and Mass Media:
Various sophisticated instrument, equipment, gadget and
communication devices brought through mechanization and
electronics revolution playing an effective role in the attainment
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of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in
their respective roles.
9. To Work for The Effective Utilization of The Subsystem of
Education: Educational technology considers education as a
system operating, in a systematic and scientific way, for the
achievement of educational objectives.
10.To Provide Essential Feedback and Control Through
Evaluation: Educational technology is essentially concerned with
the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of
teaching and learning by planning and devising suitable tools
and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and
products of the teaching-learning activities.

ADVANTAGES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Technology is one of the most valuable tools that we have
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available at our finger tips every day. Contribution of technology
to education also uncountable. The major advantages of
educational technology are listed below as follows:
1. Individualized Instruction: Educational Technology is very
helpful in individualizing instruction by enabling us to make use
of self-instructional programmes.
2. Improvement in The Quality of Teaching: “Educational
Technology – learning process by enabling us to use more varied,
rich and motivational programmes through T.V. and other media.
3. Encourages Development of New Teaching Methods: Rather
than spend an hour or so talking while the students listen, or
have them read an entire chapter in silence, teachers and
professors now have the option to use advanced teaching
methods, such as podcasts, blogs and social media. When
working with a particular group or one-on-one, teachers can
take advantage of web conferencing technologies other online
communication tools.
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4. Meeting the Problem of Mass Education: Educational
technology helps in using programmes developed by experts for
a large population of students with the use of computer and T.V
etc.
5. Equalizing Educational Opportunity: Educational Technology
assist us in making efforts for equalizing educational opportunity.
Irrespective of economic, social and geographical status of the
learners.
6. Providing Continuing Education: T.V. lessons and self-
instructional programmed material sent to the learners or to in
service personnel and vocational workers help them to keep
themselves abreast of the latest material.
7. Prepares Students for The Future: From the way technological
advancements are going, it is obvious that the future will be
digital and technology-focused. If students are well-versed on
using technology to collaborate and communicate as early as
now, they will not have trouble fitting in, competing and finding
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jobs in the future. Being familiar with using at least one form of
technology at an early age will help them become comfortable
using it, and eventually develop other skills necessary to handle
other innovative devices and processes.
8. Lowering Textbook and Tuition Prices: With resources more
accessible and in great abundance, the cost of textbooks is likely
to decrease. It is also possible that students may no longer need
to buy a textbook, if it is converted into digital format. The actual
books can stay in the classroom, while the content is saved on a
student’s computer.
APPROACHES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
There are mainly three approaches in Educational Technology.
These are: 1) Hardware approach, 2) Software approach &
System approach.
Hardware approach & Software approach plays a very essential
role in the Educational Technology. These approaches in
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Educational Technology are briefly discussed below:
HARDWARE APPROACH. Its origin is in Physical Sciences &
Applied Engineering and it is based on the concept of Service. It
adopts a Product-oriented Approach. It is concerned with the
production and utilization of audio-visual aid material (such as
CHARTS, MODELS, SLIDES, REAL OBJECTS, AUDIO CASSETTES,
etc.], sophisticated instruments and gadgets[ such as RADIO,
TELEVISION, FILMS, PROJECTORS, TAPE-RECORDERS, VIDEO
PLAYER, TEACHING MACHINES , COMPUTERS, etc.] and mass
media. Hardware Technology utilizes the products of Software
Technology [such as teaching strategies, teaching learning
material, etc.] for its functioning. Hardware technology has the
potential to hand over the educational benefits to the mass with
greater ease and economy Too much use of technical gadgets
may mechanize the process of teaching-learning as the
Hardware approach tries to enter education from outside,
operating more in isolation than in combination.

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SOFTWARE APPROACH:
It is sometimes referred to as Teaching Technology, Instructional
Technology or Behavior Technology.
Its origin is in Behavioral Sciences and the applied aspects of
Psychology of learning. It is a Process-oriented Approach. It
utilizes the knowledge of the Psychology of Learning to produce
learning material, teaching- learning strategies, etc.[Software
Technology] for the betterment of the process of teaching-
learning .
does not provide direct services to its users. Instead, it helps in
the production of various Software materials which are used for
developing the hardware appliances.
It includes TEACHING STRATEGIES, LEARNING MATERIAL,
EVALUATION TOOLS, TEACHING MODELS, PROGRAMMED
INSTRUCTION, etc.
Software technology does not require any aid form the
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hardware technology for its delivery. It becomes more useful
and productive when assisted by the Hardware Technology.
Software technology does not have mass appeal and is costlier
in the long run, as compared to Hardware technology.

SYSTEMS APPROACH
A SYSTEM is: A complex whole; a set of things working together
as a mechanism or interconnecting network. A System is a set
or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a
unity or organic whole. It’s a regular, orderly way of doing
things. Schools are viewed globally as social systems.
Instruction/ Teaching are considered as a sub-system within the
social system of the school. Classroom, faculty, student groups,
informal groups, etc. are other subsystem within. Education is
considered a complex organization of technical, managerial and
institutional systems.
The instructional system has three parts: The Instructor, the
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Learner, and the goals of Instruction. The System- Approach to
education, thus, considers education as an Input-Output System.
Systems Approach to education emphasizes:
 Identifying and stating the goals to be achieved;
 Identifying the processes, methods, techniques and strategies
that may be most relevant to achieving the predetermined
goals;
 Building up theoretical foundation justifying the relevance of
these processes to achieving the goals;
 Determining specific interactions visualized existing among
various other components of inputs;
 Specifying the various kinds of controls needed in the total
system at different points; and
Keeping the whole in mind all the time while preparing the
model or the system.
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