The Journal of Psychology

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Parental Self-Efficacy Predicted by Parents’

Subjective Well-Being and Their Parenting Styles
with Possible Role of Help-Seeking Orientation
from Teachers

Gal Harpaz, Yael Grinshtain & Yosi Yaffe

To cite this article: Gal Harpaz, Yael Grinshtain & Yosi Yaffe (2021) Parental Self-Efficacy
Predicted by Parents’ Subjective Well-Being and Their Parenting Styles with Possible Role of
Help-Seeking Orientation from Teachers, The Journal of Psychology, 155:6, 571-587, DOI:
10.1080/00223980.2021.1926896

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2021.1926896

Published online: 24 Jun 2021.

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The Journal of Psychology
2021, VOL. 155, NO. 6, 571–587
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2021.1926896

Parental Self-Efficacy Predicted by Parents’ Subjective

Well-Being and Their Parenting Styles with Possible Role
of Help-Seeking Orientation from Teachers
Gal Harpaza , Yael Grinshtainb and Yosi Yaffeb
The Open University of Israel; bTel-Hai College
a

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The current study aims to test the ideas that parental self-efficacy is Received 28 November
associated with parenting style, parents’ help-seeking orientation from 2020
teachers, and subjective well-being. Based on the literature back- Accepted 4 May 2021
ground presented, two hypotheses were examined: First, autonomy KEYWORDS
help-seeking orientation, the authoritative parenting style, and high Parental self-efficacy;
subjective well-being would be positive predictors of parental parenting style;
self-efficacy. Second, dependent help-seeking orientation and help-seeking orientation;
non-authoritative parenting styles are negative predictors of parental subjective well-being;
self-efficacy. One hundred and thirty-two parents of school-age chil- parent-teacher relations
dren answered questionnaires measuring the research and back-
ground variables. A multivariate regression analysis found that the
independent variables explain about 53% of the variance of the
parental self-efficacy scores, with subjective well-being and the
authoritative parenting style being uniquely associated with high
parental self-efficacy, and the permissive parenting style being
uniquely associated with low parental self-efficacy. The present study
focuses on parental self-efficacy as an important parental component,
demonstrating the personal characteristics of parents that may affect
their perceived efficacy, and offers an integrative portrait of factors
that can describe parents’ attitudes and behavior toward their com-
petence as parents. Implications for intervention are discussed.

Introduction
The current study focused on the associations between parenting style, parents’
help-seeking from teachers, well-being, and parental self-efficacy, in an attempt to
better understand the interpersonal and parental factors that may contribute to a sense
of efficacy in parents. It highlights the importance of parents’ experience and their
interpersonal helping relations with teachers, alongside the effective parental style,
demonstrating the beneficial road to enhancing the way parents cope with their mul-
tiple dimensions and tasks.
Self-efficacy, a term coined by Bandura (1982), has become a central theoretical,
methodological, and applied concept in several disciplines. Self-efficacy is a person’s

CONTACT Gal Harpaz galgo@openu.ac.il The Open University of Israel, Department of Education and Psychology,
Ravutzki 1 st., Raanana, 43107 Israel.
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
572 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

belief that she or he is capable of performing a particular task successfully (Bandura,

1977, 1997). Self‐efficacy is concerned with people’s beliefs in their ability to influence
events that affect their lives. This core belief is the foundation of human motivation
and performance accomplishments (Bandura, 2006).
Within the general conceptual framework of this concept, special attention has been
given in the last 25 years to parental self-efficacy, focusing particularly on the way
parents behave, indicating whether they assume tasks concerning their kids and how
long they persist in the face of obstacles and adverse experiences (Teti et al., 1996).
The increasing interest in parental self-efficacy is part of the extensive debate over
many aspects of parenting. Thus, parental self-efficacy was broadly studied in regard
to the potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment and the
role of parental cognitions in understanding behaviors and emotions within families
(Jones & Prinz, 2005). For example, correlations were found between parental
self-efficacy, parental competence, and parental psychological functioning, as well as
child functioning, and an indicator of child’s risk (Glatz & Buchanan, 2015).
We believe that special attention should be given to the factors that may influence
parental self-efficacy. Therefore, in the current study we focused on the different factors
reflect personal-internal features, such as parents’ subjective well-being and
interpersonal-external features, such as parenting styles and help-seeking orientation
which represent the kind of help the parents prefer to ask from their child’s teacher
while dealing with difficulties at school.

Parental Self-Efficacy (PSE)

Bandura presented, in his book Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control Bandura (1997),
the implications of self-efficacy on a variety of areas of life. Since then, the connection
between self-efficacy and diverse areas of daily life has been examined in numerous
studies. Self-efficacy has been found to be a central characteristic of psychological
explanations of human motivation, learning, and self-regulation (Pajares & Urdan,
2006). Moreover, self-efficacy helps to account for diverse phenomena, such as changes
in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, the level of physiological
stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behavior, resignation and despondency to
failure experiences, achievement striving, growth of intrinsic interest, and even career
pursuits (Bandura, 1982, 2010).
Like general self-efficacy, parental self-efficacy (PSE) informs the way parents behave,
indicating whether they assume tasks concerning their children and how long they
persist in the face of obstacles and adverse experiences (Teti et al., 1996). Parental
self-efficacy (PSE) embodies an estimation of the degree to which parents perceive
themselves as capable of performing the varied tasks associated with this highly
demanding role (Coleman & Karraker, 1998). PSE beliefs have emerged as both a
powerful direct predictor of specific positive parenting practices and a mediator of
the effects of some of the most thoroughly researched correlates of parenting quality,
including maternal depression, child temperament, social support, and poverty. Jones
and Prinz (2005) reviewed the potential roles of PSE in parent and child adjustment
and the role of parental cognitions in understanding behaviors and emotions within
families. They found strong evidence linking PSE to parental competence and parental
 The Journal of Psychology 573

psychological functioning as well as child functioning, and as an indicator of child’s

risk (Jones & Prinz, 2005).
In the current study, Parenting Style (PS), parents help-seeking orientations (HSO)
from teachers, and parents’ subjective well-being (SWB) were examined as personal
characteristics influence on PSE.

Parenting Style (PS) and Parental Self-Efficacy (PSE)

Parenting styles is a construct referring to stable and durable parental attitudes and
behaviors toward child-rearing, which is known to play a central role in children’s and
adolescents’ development and well-being (Steinberg, 2001). Baumrind (1971) developed
one of the two major traditions of Parental Acceptance/Rejection Theory, in which
she categorizes parenting styles based on two independent dimensions of parenting
that predict child outcomes. The first dimension, responsiveness, refers to the degree
of parental nurturance, warmth, emotional expression, and positive reinforcement
associated with their child’s articulation of opinions. The second dimension, demand-
ingness, refers to disciplinary practices, control, and level of demands and expectations
(Baumrind, 1989). The combination of these two dimensions, argued Baumrind, yields
four parenting styles that are defined by the degree of parental responsiveness and
demandingness: authoritative (high on both), authoritarian (high demandingness, low
responsiveness), permissive (low demandingness, high responsiveness), and neglectful
(low on both). Different parenting styles are distinguished by how and to what extent
they set limits and grant autonomy, explain and justify rules and expectations, exert
control, and provide emotional support (Yaffe, 2020). Authoritative parents are con-
sidered as the cross-culturally favorable parenting style in various contexts of child
development (Pinquart & Kauser, 2018), which is attributable to their parental virtues
of being highly demanding and responsive. As compared to an offspring from
non-authoritative families (i.e. authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful parents),
Steinberg (2001) concluded in his review that adolescents who were raised by author-
itative parents exhibit several socio-emotional advantages, including academically,
emotionally (e.g. they exhibit lower levels of anxiety and depression), and socially (e.g.
they tend to be more independent and to have higher self-esteem).
The contextual model of parental style (PS) (Darling & Steinberg, 1993) explains the
promoting or moderating role of PS in the context of parental involvement in school
and children’s educational functioning. According to the model, the PS should be seen
as a kind of family climate in which parental practices are applied and educational
goals are emphasized, and regulates the effectiveness and fulfillment of these. In this
context, the way parents express and apply their involvement in the child’s learning, as
well as the way they encourage it, is crucial in influencing the child’s functioning.
Indeed, both general parental practices (that is, parenting styles - PS) and parental
involvement in school were found in later research to play a significant role in children’s
and adolescents’ academic achievement (Pinquart, 2016). In the current research, we
focused on the PS as predictor of parental self-efficacy (PSE) alongside other personal
characteristics of the parents, like the way they seek for help from their child’s teacher.
Chandler (2006) investigated how different parenting styles experienced, as reported
by university students, relate to students’ academic self-efficacy: student-reports of an
574 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

authoritative parenting style reported higher academic self-efficacy and relatively higher
academic performance.
Steinberg and colleagues Steinberg et al., Steinberg et al., (2006) examined 1,355
juvenile offenders’ perceptions of their authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and
neglectful parenting. Juveniles who describe their parents as authoritative were more
psychosocially mature, more academically competent, less prone to internalized distress,
and less prone to externalizing problems than their peers, whereas those who describe
their parents as neglectful were less mature, less competent, and more troubled. Juvenile
offenders who characterize their parents as either authoritarian or permissive typically
score somewhere between the two extremes, although those from authoritarian homes
are consistently better functioning than those from permissive homes.
Much of the current literature on parenting style (PS) deals with the consequences
of PS on the child’s emotional, social, and developmental characteristics. In the current
study, we focus on the relationship between PS and PSE, assuming that the parent-child
dynamics in the family and the ongoing outcomes of children’s functioning (as described
above) affect the parents’ self-reliance and their sense of efficacy in parenting. As a
result, we assume that the authoritative PS will have a positive effect on parental
self-efficacy (PSE), while the non-authoritative PS (i.e. permissive and authoritarian)
will have a negative effect on PSE. Since the neglectful parenting style entails a mal-
adaptive parental pattern, such parents’ self-efficacy (i.e. the study’s dependent variable)
is more likely to be pre-determined by their impaired functioning on both parental
vital dimensions (i.e. demandingness and responsiveness) than by the study’s indepen-
dent variables. Therefore, as in previous studies in the field (Olivari et al., 2013;
Robinson et al., 2001; Yaffe, 2018), in the present study, this fourth type of PS (neglect-
ful) was not a focus.

Parents’ Help-Seeking from Teachers

Help seeking is an important self-regulatory strategy when dealing with difficulty
(Karabenick & Newman, 2013). Inevitably, people will encounter ambiguity or difficulty
in their life and need assistance. In such a situation, it can be adaptive to use others
as a resource to secure the necessary help and continue the learning process (Gall,
1985). Nevertheless, Nadler’s theoretical framework (Nadler, 1997, 2015) differentiates
between autonomy and dependent help seeking orientations (HSO). The differences
between those two HSO lies in the help seeker’s future coping ability. Dependent HSO
means that in future coping challenges, the person in need will have no better coping
skills and will remain dependent on help in the future as well. Autonomous help
involves providing tools for independent coping, to develop the recipient’s ability to
deal with similar problems in the future. Autonomy HSO refers to seeking for knowl-
edge, which assists developing better coping strategies and independent future coping.
Metaphorically, like giving a hungry man the fish vs. giving him the skills to use a
fishing rod. Harpaz and Grinshtain (2020) demonstrated these concepts within
parent-teacher relations. Parents who would like the teacher to give them complete
solutions and answers for their child’s problem, ask for dependent help. In this way,
the parent requesting dependent help is not enhancing her or his future coping ability
in similar situations, but remains dependent on the teacher’s assistance. Others seek
 The Journal of Psychology 575

autonomous help, like advice, that will lead them to their own solution (autonomy-oriented
help), giving them the opportunity to be self-sufficient when dealing with similar cases
in the future; and still other parents tend not to seek any assistance and to cope alone
with their children’s problems (help-avoidant) (Harpaz & Grinshtain, 2020). We inter-
pret a parent’s request for help, and specifically the help-seeking orientation that
characterizes the parent approaching the teacher, as a demonstration of the parents’
ability to handle their children’s problems at school officially. Seeking help from a
teacher reflects the increasing process of parent-teacher relations and expands the
parents’ role from the home arena to the school arena, focusing on the connections
and the partnership between home/community and the school (Harpaz & Grinshtain,
2020). As demonstrated by Epstein’s model of parental involvement, there is a distinc-
tion between parental home-based activities, such as parenting or learning at home,
and school-based activities such as volunteering, communicating, decision making, and
collaborating (Epstein, 2010).
Moreover, recent research indicates that asking for dependent help correlates with
low self-efficacy (Halabi & Nadler, 2017). Bandura specifies that unless people believe
they can produce desired effects through their actions, they have little incentive to
undertake activities or to persevere in the face of difficulties (Bandura, 1997, 2006).
Accordingly, as previous studies have indicated, high self-efficacy is correlated with
better coping with challenges in a variety of contexts due, among other things, to
adaptive help-seeking, like autonomy-oriented help (Ryan et al., 2005; Ryan & Shin,
2011; Williams & Takaku, 2011). Moreover, the more people use autonomy help-seeking,
the more they show higher self-efficacy (Du et al., 2016; Eden & Aviram, 1993). We
argue that autonomy help-seeking from teachers, characterized by control in future
coping, will predict high parental self-efficacy (PSE), and dependent help-seeking,
characterized by no control in future coping, will predict low PSE.

Subjective Well-Being (SWB) and Parenthood

SWB reflects the extent to which people think and feel that their life is going well
(Diener, 2009). Subjective well-being contains the hedonic and cognitive component
of the overall satisfaction assessment of one’s life. A person’s subjective well-being is
the result of a general appreciation of his or her life, having a balance between the
good and the bad (Diener, 1984). Emmons and Diener (1985) addressed the subjective
assessments that are influenced by emotional experiences and noted that those who
have experienced mostly negative experiences would not describe their life as very
happy or satisfying (Emmons & Diener, 1985).
Although SWB is usually conceptualized as an outcome that reflects the conditions
in a person’s life, SWB is not only thought of as an outcome but also as an integral
part of an ongoing process, with strong effects of personal characteristics, which
plays a functional role in people’s lives (Lucas & Diener, 2008; Lyubomirsky
et al., 2005).
Reviewing a decade of studies regarding parenthood and well-being, Nomaguchi
and Milkie (2020) emphasized that “research on parenthood, parenting, and well-being
is crucial to generate knowledge of parenting experiences—the tremendous work and
many challenges of raising the next generation” (p. 215). Among parents, perceived
576 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

control for well-being outcomes predicted the potential role for health interventions
targeting control and self-efficacy (Salehi et al., 2016). Moreover, Giallo and colleagues
Giallo et al. (2013), compared mothers of typically developing children, to mothers of
children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and found that factors associated
with high levels of fatigue and poor maternal sleep quality, as well as a high need for
social support, were significantly related to other aspects of wellbeing, including stress,
anxiety and depression, and lower PSE (Giallo et al., 2013).
Teti and colleagues Teti et al. (1996) highlight specific social‐contextual factors as
independent contributors to parenting self-efficacy (PSE) and as possible moderators
of relations between parent–child characteristics and PSE. They argued that PSE can
be shaped by parental well-being, as well as by children’s special needs status and the
social context. Desjardins and colleagues Desjardins et al., Desjardins et al., (2008)
found a positive correlation between SWB and the authoritative parenting style (PS).
The combination of parenting style, parents’ SWB, and help-seeking from teachers
are the main variables the current research focused on in trying to predict PSE.

The Research Rationale and Hypothesis

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1997) proposes four main sources of self‐efficacy
for any particular behavior: mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion,
and somatic and affective states. Bandura (2010) discussed these sources, as well as
studies that have examined the impact of these sources upon self‐efficacy and high-
lights the effectiveness of mastery experiences, because people judge their capabilities
according to their own direct experiences and observable successes or failures during
goal pursuit. Building on operant conditioning, Bandura (1997) assumes that previous
successes foster self‐efficacy beliefs, and thereby enhance behavior likelihood because
they represent desired outcomes; whereas failures undermine self‐efficacy beliefs because
they represent undesired outcomes (Bandura, 1997).
In the present study, we seek to examine the effect of additional personal charac-
teristics on parental self-efficacy: the combined effect of parenting style, parents’
help-seeking from teachers, and parents’ subjective well-being.
Based on the literature background presented, we hypothesized that autonomy
help-seeking, the authoritative parenting style, as well as subjective well-being, would
be positively associated with PSE, with each variable significantly predicting the latter’s
scores (Hypothesis 1). Further to this hypothesis, we also expected that dependent
help seeking and non-authoritative parenting styles (i.e. authoritarian and permissive)
would be negatively associated with PSE, with each variable significantly predicting
the latter’s scores (Hypothesis 2). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt
to analyze the combined effect of these individual differences on parental self-efficacy.

Method
Participants
The research is based on 132 Israeli Jewish parents with at least one child in elemen-
tary school (104 females, 30 males) aged 26–60 (M = 38.26; SD = 7.19). 88% are married,
 The Journal of Psychology 577

another 6% are single parents (divorced or widowed), and 6% cohabiting without

marriage. Thirteen percent of the participants have one child, 33% have two children,
29% have 3 children, and 25% have 4 children or more. About 13.5% self-defined as
lower class, 46.5% as middle class, 30% as upper-middle class, and 10% as higher
class. Thirty-two percent of the participants had no academic education, 41% had a
B.A. degree, and 27% had a master’s degree or higher. The age of the oldest child (as
a measure of years of parental experience) runs from 6 to 28 years (M = 12.22; SD = 5.40;
Med = 11).
Parents were asked to answer four questionnaires regarding their child in primary
school: Parenting Sense of Competence Scale; Parenting Style PSDQ scale; Help-seeking
orientation scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). They also answered a
General Background Questionnaire.

Measures
Parenting Sense of Competence scale PSOC (Gibaud-Wallston & Wanderson, 1978, cited
in Johnston & Mash, 1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and parental self-efficacy,
well known as the Parental Self-Efficacy Scale (PSOC), was used. This 17-item self-report
questionnaire was designed to measure parents’ satisfaction with parenting, and their
self-efficacy in the parenting role. It is a 6-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly
disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (6). Nine items are reverse scored, so that high scores
indicate positive parental experience. It is divided into two subscales:
Satisfaction from parental experience: items 1–9, e.g. “Even though being a parent
could be rewarding, I am frustrated now while my child is at his/her present age,” “A
difficult problem in being a parent is not knowing whether you’re doing a good job
or a bad one.” Cronbach’s α = .75.
Parental self-efficacy: items 10–17, e.g. “Being a parent is manageable, and any
problems are easily solved,” “If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my
child, I am the one.” Cronbach’s α = .78. As in other studies (e.g. Coleman &
Karraker, 2000), we used the total score (17 items) as an indicator of parental
self-efficacy. The total scores recorded in the current sample for the overall scale
appear in Table 1.
Parenting Style PSDQ (permissive, authoritative, authoritarian). The short form of
the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ: Robinson et al., 2001) is
a 32-item instrument designed for measuring the three fundamental parenting styles
in mothers and fathers of preschool and school-aged children (Robinson et al., 2001).

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients for the Research Scales.
Variable M SD Min–max Cronbach’s Alpha
PSE 4.464 0.696 2.470–5.590 .75
Permissive parenting style 2.617 0.675 1.000–4.400 .73
Authoritative parenting style 3.910 0.478 2.070–4.930 .83
Authoritarian parenting style 2.192 0.565 1.000–4.000 .80
Dependent HSO 3.004 1.610 1.000–7.000 .83
Autonomy HSO 4.730 1.583 1.000–7.000 .85
SWB 5.170 1.123 1.600–7.000 .87
578 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

The PSDQ is a parental self-report and spouse-report measure widely used around
the world in studies on parents of children and adolescents (Olivari et al., 2013). In
the current study, we used the Hebrew self-report version of the short-form PDSQ
(Yaffe, 2018), while omitting three items (2, 6, 32) dealing with aspects of corporal
punishment. These items were excluded from the questionnaire following the IRB
instructions, as they embody a parental disciplinary practice that is legally prohibited
in the state of Israel. Participants were asked to answer to what extent the behavior
described was consistent with their behavior, on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
‘the behavior is very inconsistent’ (1) to ‘the behavior is very much in line with my
behavior’ (5). Each respondent receives three grades (as average of the answers), pro-
viding his or her parenting style tendencies: Authoritative parenting style (e.g. “I respond
to our child’s needs and feelings.”), Permissive parenting style (e.g. “I find it difficult
to discipline our child”), and Authoritarian parenting style (e.g. “punishing our child
by denying his rights, without much explanation, when required”). The scores recorded
for these scales in the current sample appear in Table 1.
Help-Seeking Orientation (HSO) scale (Komissarouk et al., 2017). A 14-item ques-
tionnaire for assessing three help-seeking orientation strategies was used (Komissarouk
et al., 2017). The participants were asked to answer the questionnaire concerning the
kind of help they prefer to ask from their child’s teacher while dealing with difficulties
at school (Harpaz & Grinshtain, 2020). It is a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly
disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (7). Each respondent received three grades (as average
of the answers), providing his or her tendencies to seek dependency- vs. autonomy-
oriented help, or avoid any help altogether. Dependent help-seeking orientation (e.g. “I
often ask for help in resolving a problem, even if I can deal with it on my own.”),
Autonomy help-seeking orientation (e.g. “When I encounter a problem, I tend to ask
for other opinions to get a new perspective, and then face the problem again on my
own.”), and Avoidant help-seeking orientation (e.g. “I usually do not ask for help, even
if this could hinder my performance.”). In the present study, we used the help-seeking
subscales only, (dependent vs. autonomy help seeking). The scores obtained for these
scales in the current sample are reported in Table 1.
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al., 1985). A measure of SWB,
well known as the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), was used. Participants were
asked to rate their agreement with five items on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from
‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (7). All five items together make up one grade
of SWB. The higher the grade, the better the SWB, e.g. “In most ways my life is close
to my ideas.” The scores obtained for this scale in the current sample is reported in
Table 1.
General background questionnaire. Includes the following variables: gender, age,
family status, number of children, socioeconomic-status (SES), higher education, and
the age of the oldest child as a measure of years of parental seniority.

Procedure
After receiving approval from the research ethics board, URLs of Google forms con-
taining questionnaires were sent using snowballing sampling (e.g. Facebook and email).
Using this chain referral method was carefully planned in advance. Each one of the
 The Journal of Psychology 579

three researchers applied to 20–25 parents (friends and colleagues) and asked them
to identify other participants for the study through their social networks and to give
them the researcher’s email in order to receive the link for the questionnaire. The
estimation of the chain of acquaintance for each parent is 4–10 participants. While
this recruiting technique is a last resort, it was necessary, as the responding rate for
questionnaires in previous studies we conducted was very low. Choosing this technique
enabled us to reach parents from different backgrounds and diverse features who fit
our profile as being parents of at least one child in elementary school. Data were
collected between June to October 2019.

Data Analysis
SPSS 25 was used to analyze the data in two phases. In the first phase, we studied
descriptive statistics related to the background and research variables. In the second
phase, we conducted a multiple regression analysis, testing PSE as predicted by par-
enting style (Permissive, Authoritarian, and Authoritative), Help seeking-orientation
(Dependent and Autonomy) and SWB.
Missing values were handled by excluding five cases where a significant amount of
data was missing. Specific missing values were completed by calculating the mean of
series scores.

Results
For descriptive statistics, see Table 1.
As can be seen from Table 1’s means, we recorded significant differences in the
sample’s parenting styles (F (2, 130) = 291.36, p < .001). Specifically, the post-hoc
analyses confirmed that the sample’s parents perceived themselves as significantly more
authoritative than authoritarian (mean difference = 1.72, p<.001) and permissive (mean
difference = 1.29, p<.001), and more permissive than authoritarian (mean difference
= .43, p<.001). Also, the prominent help-seeking orientation among the present sample
is autonomous rather than dependent, with the orientations means differing significantly
(t (131) = 10.39, p< .001), in accordance with previous research (Komissarouk et al.,
2017). Ultimately, SWB scores demonstrated a normal range in accordance with pre-
vious studies, and the parents exhibit a normal subjective wellbeing level (for a review
of previous research on the norms of this scale, see: Arrindell et al., 1999; Pavot &
Diener, 1993)
Table 2 displays the correlational matrix between the study variables.
A few main patterns are noteworthy in this regard. First, as expected, the author-
itative parenting style is significantly-inversely correlated with the non-authoritative
parenting styles (i.e. the permissive style and the authoritarian style), meaning that
increased authoritative parental patterns are associated with decreased authoritarian
and permissive parental patterns (and vice versa). Surprisingly, we found that the
authoritarian and the permissive parenting styles are positively and significantly cor-
related. Moreover, as has happened in some previous studies in the field (Komissarouk
et al., 2017), the dependent and autonomous help-seeking orientations were positively
580 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

Table 2. Correlations Matrix – Main Research Variables.

Permissive Authoritative Authoritarian
parenting parenting parenting Dependent Autonomy
style style style HSO HSO SWB
1. PSE −0.512*** 0.505*** −0.405*** −0.398*** −0.123 0.596***
2. Permissive – −0.169* 0.480*** 0.355*** 0.075 −0.309***
3. Authoritative – −0.218** −0.228** −0.002 0.342***
4. Authoritarian – 0.239** 0.047 −0.240**
5. Dependent HSO – 0.284*** −0.233**
6. Autonomy HSO – −0.006
7. SWB –
*
p < 0.05.
**
p < 0.01.
***
p < 0.001.

correlated. This positive correlation can be interpreted through the lens of the idea
that although these are two different types of help-seeking, the common denominator
in both help-seeking orientations is asking for help when dealing with a difficulty,
making use of the social environment to mobilize support in difficult situations.
Nevertheless, the parents’ subjective well-being was, for the most part, associated with
the parenting and help seeking variables, as expected, with the former variable posi-
tively correlated with authoritative parenting, and negatively associated with the
non-authoritative styles, and with the dependent help-seeking orientations.
In order to test the two research hypotheses, we conducted a multiple regression
analysis, with PSE as the dependent variable and parenting style (permissive, author-
itative, authoritarian), HSO (dependent help-seeking, autonomy help-seeking), SWB as
independent variables. Apart from parental education, the demographics (i.e. child’s
age, parent’s gender, and family size) did not have a significant effect on the dependent
variable. Therefore, these variables were not taken into account in the regression
analyses for testing the research hypotheses. As the sample’s parents did not differ by
all the research variables (apart from autonomous help-seeking orientation, where
mothers scored significantly higher), and also due to the imbalanced parental gender
distribution, we treated the sample as a whole without employing separate analyses
for mothers and fathers (Table 3).
Controlling for parents’ education and parental experience (which explained a
proportion of 10.8% of the variance of the dependent variable scores), based on
the regression analyses, two variables positively predicted parental self-efficacy:
subjective well-being and the authoritative parenting style. These findings generally
confirm our first hypothesis. Moreover, partially in accordance with our second
hypothesis, the permissive parenting style significantly and negatively predicted PSE,
and dependent help-seeking was negatively correlated with PSE at a borderline
significance level of about 9%. While the latter’s contribution to predicting the PSE
was not significant here, with a value approaching significance its predictive potential
should not be discarded (as it might have reached significance in larger parental
sample).
Contrary to the first research hypothesis, autonomy help-seeking did not significantly
predict PSE. Taken together, the study’s independent variables explain about 53% of
the variance of the parental self-efficacy scores, with subjective well-being (partial r
= .45) and parenting styles being the salient contributors. As for the parenting styles,
 The Journal of Psychology 581

Table 3. Results of the Multiple Regression Analysis for Predicting PSE.

PSE
β SE t p
Control variables (step 1)
Parent education .22 .07 2.47 .015
Parental experience .19 .01 2.20 .029
R² adj. 0.108
F (2, 129) = 7.81
F .001
Research variables (step 2)
Permissive parenting −0.249 .071 −3.602 .000
Authoritative parenting 0.292 .090 4.720 .000
Authoritarian parenting −0.087 .082 −1.333 .233
Dependent HSO −0.110 .028 −1.692 .093
Autonomy HSO −0.056 .026 −.931 .354
SWB 0.355 .050 5.508 .000
R² adj. 0.495
F (6, 123) = 25.55
F .000

the authoritative parenting and non-authoritative parenting styles are inversely correlated
with self-efficacy, with the authoritative style being uniquely associated with high
self-efficacy (partial r = .39), and the permissive parenting style being uniquely asso-
ciated with low self-efficacy (partial r = −.31). That is to say, that authoritative par-
enting is associated with higher levels of parental self-efficacy, while permissive
parenting is associated with lower levels of parental self-efficacy. The authoritarian
parental style, however, was not significantly correlated with parental self-efficacy.
Finally, an interaction effect between parenting style and help seeking orientation was
ruled out, as the interaction terms of Authoritative x Dependent HSO (β = −.07,
p=.27) and of Permissive x Dependent HSO (β =.06, p=.31) yielded an insignificant
additional contribution to explaining parental self-efficacy’s variance (F (2, 121) =1.24,
p = .29).
To conclude, according to the research hypotheses, authoritative parents with high
SWB will be characterized by high PSE, while permissive parents who usually ask for
dependent help from their child’s teacher will be characterized by low PSE.

Discussion
The current study aims to test the associations between parenting style (PS), parents’
help-seeking from teachers (HSO), subjective well-being (SWB), and parental self-efficacy
(PSE). The study was designed with the aim of better understanding the personal and
parental factors that may contribute to a sense of efficacy in parents.
As for the first hypothesis, it was found that high SWB and authoritative PS predict
high levels of PSE. This finding goes in line with previous studies that highlight the
positive effect of the authoritative style (Yaffe, 2020) and the contribution of well-being
(Lucas & Diener, 2008). Yet, while other studies have mainly focused on the contri-
bution of these variables to children (Al-Elaimat et al., 2020; Lnafea & Curtis, 2017),
the current study focused on the parents and their functioning as separate individuals.
As parenting and parenthood have become extremely complex and demanding
582 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

(Kutrovátz, 2017; Polivanova, 2018), attention should be given to the social and emo-
tional characteristics of the parents themselves.
Regarding the second hypothesis, we found that permissive parent style led to low
self-efficacy. Examining previous studies can support this direction. The permissive
parenting style, also classified as non-authoritative, represents low-demanding parents
(Yaffe, 2020) and is considered as less favorable in various context of child development
(Pinquart & Kauser, 2018).
Contrary to the research hypotheses, no significant predictive effect was found for
HSO on PSE. Although a negative correlation was found between dependent HSO and
PSE, it did not reach the level of significance necessary in regression analysis, in
contrast to existing support in the literature for these connections. Dependent help
reflects a low tendency of providing meaningful and effective help (Nadler, 1997, 2015).
It was already found to be connected to low self-efficacy, in addition to findings of
connections between autonomy HSO and high PSE (Halabi & Nadler, 2017; Harpaz
& Grinshtain, 2020). It should be emphasized that although positive relationships were
found in the past between dependent and autonomy HSO (as in the present study),
their effect on self-efficacy was reversed. Further research with a broader and larger
sample of participants could improve the generalizability and statistical power of these
findings, which may contribute to enhancing our comprehension of these variables’
effect on PSE. It is worth mentioning that both the permissive parenting style and
dependent HSO are used by parents, despite their disadvantages, particularly in the
long term. Permissive parenting emphasizes low demands and high responses, while
dependent help reflects the willingness to seek help in the short term and not neces-
sarily in the advisable way. Parents desire to be described or perceived as doing their
job as expected of them as parents. Thus, they focus on ways that seem productive
in the short term, but are not usually actually productive in either the short or the
long term, as well-described in the helicopter parent model (Schiffrin & Liss, 2017)
and the overparenting approach (Locke et al., 2016). The combined effect of both
these variables on self-efficacy is worth noting, we therefore expect further studies to
find a significant negative relationship between these two variables and PSE.
An integrative examination of the findings of both hypotheses emphasizes the
meaning of PS as associated to PSE which can be of high relevance to the parents as
individuals. Although their preference toward a certain style is associated with their
relations with their children, it mostly reflects their own characteristics, and alongside
their SWB, this preference can lead to their self-efficacy. It turns out that their parental
style enables or disenables them to function well as adults who are also parents.
Parental style is not only the expression of the impact on the future of their children
or their relations with them, but a major tool for their self-adjustment and adaption
to their role as parents. A better understanding of the implications of parenting style
and SWB on PSE could encourage parents to go through personal development pro-
cesses, enlist the help of professionals, and receive counseling that can both directly
contribute to their PSE and affect their children. In this context, a lengthy study that
will accompany a process of intervention that includes parental guidance, and deals
with, among other things, parental style and its implications for PSE, could help
understand the possible contribution of such intervention to PSE and parent-child
relationships in general. Parental self-efficacy should be an important target for
 The Journal of Psychology 583

intervention, and thus professionals should become aware of the parental self-efficacy
beliefs as they are shaped by parental well-being, children’s needs status, and the social
context (Teti et al., 1996).
When we come to discuss the methodological limitations of the present study and
further research, there are several points that need to be considered. To begin with,
the need for replication and additional samples. Alongside the study’s moderate sample
size, our findings should be considered in replication or a follow-up study with a
larger sample that represents the entire population in Israel. Note that we did move
on and continue to collect data, yet, the additional data was collected during the
Covid-19 pandemic. Thus, a future study will refer to this complex and dynamic
change regarding the research variables. Moreover, it is important to examine the
findings obtained in the present study in a larger sample that is culturally diverse.
The current study was conducted in Israel, and it should be mentioned that the
citizens in Israel are constantly threatened by the possibility of terror attacks and war,
and thus it can be assumed that parenting, self-efficacy, and subjective well-being
might be influenced by this context (Eshel & Kimhi, 2016). For these reasons, Israel
does not represent a common sample of the countries of the world. Further research
is needed to find out how these security-political characteristics may affect the variables
of the current study and its results. This has not been tested in the present study. In
a study that examined life satisfaction in more than 130 countries, Israel was in the
58th place (Abdallah et al., 2008). It will be important and interesting to examine the
findings of the present study in countries located at different points in the global
ranking of SWB. Furthermore, we do not recognize a world ranking of PSE. It is
therefore important to examine the findings of the present study through the lens of
cultural comparison. Additionally, using single-informant reports (i.e. from the parent)
in cross-sectional study designs might contain a potential risk for inflated correlations.
With respect to our findings, this flaw might be reflected in the large proportion of
the variance in parents’ self-efficacy explained by the study’s independent variables.
While some of the study’s variables are indeed subjective in nature and therefore
usually feasible with self-reporting, the assessments of parenting styles could be
improved and validated by using both parent and child perspectives. We suggest that
observational research can add another perspective of parental self-reporting HSO by
using teachers’ reporting.
In conclusion, we found in the present study that a parent’s personal characteristics
such as parenting style and SWB, may have a significant impact on PSE. With a lower
degree of confidence and subject to the need for further confirmation, it can be said
that there may be a contribution of the parent’s characteristic style of HSO to the PSE
as well. In addition to the implications mentioned above, concerning PS and parental
SWB and its impact on family and children’s lives, it is important to consider the
possible implications of the variables discussed in the present study in the context of
academic achievement. Tazouti and Jarlégan (2019) found a significant effect of moth-
ers’ PSE and parental involvement on children’s academic achievement. The possible
implications of PS on PSE in academic settings deserve to be examined in further
research, to encourage professional guidance and assistance to parents in these matters.
It is worthwhile considering the possibility that through appropriate parental guidance,
a parent may demonstrate a PS that establishes PSE and may have a positive impact
584 G. HARPAZ ET AL.

on the academic achievements of his or her children. The importance of these concepts
is based on their impact on the parents’ life experience, and their ability to conduct
themselves in the world with a sense of ability and effectiveness. The impact these
factors have on children’s lives and the importance of exploring ways to influence
these characteristics through parental interventions emphasize the importance of
research and its possible contribution to parents and children.

Author Notes
Gal Harpaz is a social psychologist, PhD, in the Open University of Israel.
Yael Grinshtain, PhD, is a Lecturer in Tel-Hai Academic College, Israel.
Yosi Yaffe, PhD, is a senior lecturer at Tel-Hai Academic College, Israel.

ORCID
Gal Harpaz http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6117-1538
Yael Grinshtain http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1205-0083

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