Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Reviewing the role of coal bottom ash as an alternative of cement

Navdeep Singh ⇑, Shehnazdeep, Anjani Bhardwaj
Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar 144 011, India

h i g h l i g h t s

 Coal bottom ash (CBA) is the vital constituent of coal combustion products sourced from thermal power plants.
 Coal bottom ash is used in form of cement additions as a partial alternate of Portland cement (PC) in concrete.
 The influence of Grinded CBA has been examined to study the performance of concretes.
 The investigation recaps fresh, mechanical, durability along with microstructural variations in Grinded CBA based concretes.
 The investigation supports the beneficial use of Grinded CBA as an alternate of PC.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Coal bottom ash (CBA) is a by-product of coal industry and is produced in large extent from coal fired
Received 23 May 2019 thermal power plants. Utilization of CBA in the manufacturing of concrete proposes economic and
Received in revised form 8 October 2019 ecological way of its disposal. Simultaneously, its usage conserves the natural resources and promotes
Accepted 13 October 2019
sustainability. This review article focuses on the utilization of CBA incorporated in place of Portland
Cement (PC) used in manufacturing of concrete. The reduction in particle size of CBA leads to increase
in surface area while its incorporation as partial replacement of PC feedbacks in improved strength,
Keywords:
durability and microstructural features of concrete. The studies related to the use of CBA are scarce in
Concrete
Coal bottom ash
quantum till date in which various properties of concrete have been investigated. Since the current area
Microstructure needs more attention as most of the investigations have favoured in use of CBA as partial replacement of
Mechanical and durability properties PC whereas few of them have reported against its use. The current investigation reviews fresh, mechan-
ical, durability properties and microstructural characteristics of concrete made with partial incorporation
of CBA. The literature demonstrates that CBA has significant potential to be used as replacement of PC for
structural grade concrete.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Coal bottom ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Chemical composition of coal bottom ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Microstructure of coal bottom ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1. Mineralogical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2. Pozzolanic activity and reactivity of coal bottom ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. Physical properties of coal bottom ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6. General environmental considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7. Properties of concrete made with CBA as replacement of PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.1. Fresh properties of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.2. Compressive strength of coal bottom ash based concrete and mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.2.1. Microstructural analysis of concrete with incorporation of coal bottom ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.3. Flexure strength of coal bottom ash based concrete and mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.4. Capillary water absorption and carbonation of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: navdeeps@nitj.ac.in (N. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117276
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

7.5. Chloride permeability of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7.6. Acid and sulphate resistance of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.7. Drying shrinkage of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.8. Sound absorption of coal bottom ash based concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.9. Thermal conductivity of coal bottom ash based concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8. Critical comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1. Introduction plants [18–20]. In an estimate, India is generating around 105 Mil-

Flexibility, robustness, sustainability and inexpensiveness are
some of the advantages which have made concrete one of the most
usable material on the globe. It has been expected by the designers
that the designed concrete mixes will last long for at least their
expected service life [1]. Such expectations lead to the formation
of the concrete which resist most of the deterioration practices
to which it may be subjected during its service life. Concretes
which survive against natural as well manmade deterioration pro-
cesses are classified as durable concretes. Generally, the exposed
concrete deteriorates through internal and external factors which
are mostly in physical, chemical and mechanical form. After
achieving the mechanical criterion, improving the durability aspect
is the key factor for enhancing the overall performance of concrete.
Considering the durability aspect, permeability and pore structure
are the most prudent aspects of any type of concrete [1–3]. The
researchers and technocrats are focusing on various by product
either mineral or artificial to resolve the concern of continuing
exhaustion of natural resources.
It is well known that the cement industries are creating much
more times of carbon dioxide than other industries. According to
estimation in the previous studies 50% of world’s carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions come from cement manufacturing sector [3]. The
production of one ton of PC generates around 0.55 tons of CO2
and requires an additional 0.39 tons of CO2 in fuel emissions for
baking and grinding, accounting for approximate one ton of CO2
[2–5]. On an average, for every one ton production of PC roughly
generates one ton of CO2 [3–6] To reduce the constant depletion
of natural resources and cutting the carbon footprints, the use of
mineral admixtures has become an essential requirement of the
current time. Currently, common mineral admixtures like Fly ash
(FA) [7–10], coal bottom ash (CBA) [11,12], silica fume (SF), meta-
kaolin (MK), ground granulated blast slag (GGBS), limestone pow-
der (LP), rice husk-bark ash (RHA), bagasse ash (BA) [13,14], copper
slag (CS) etc., [15–17] are adopted as partial replacement of ordi-
nary Portland cement (PC) to improve the properties of concrete.
Coal bottom ash is one of the biggest sources of industrial
wastes that have been produced from coal based thermal power
Table 1
Coal combustion products (CCPs) worldwide [4].
Countries CCP’s Production (Mt)
Canada 6.8
Japan 11.1
Australia 13.1
Russia 26.6
China 395
U.S.A 118
Europe 52.6
Middle East and Africa 32.2
India 105
lion metric tonnes (Mt) of coal ash comprising fly ash (FA) and CBA
ranging from 70 to 80% and 10 to 20% respectively. Out of the total
generation, around 60%–65% of coal ash has been reused out of
which a marginal utilization of CBA has been carried out only in
the construction sector [4]. According to the study of World of Coal
Ash (WOCA) the estimated generation of CBA from coal thermal
power plants has been moved to an approximate amount of 730
Mt. Out of which Asian countries are having share more than
66% out of total generation followed by European/American coun-
tries [5].
Table 1 presents coal combustion products (CCPs) worldwide.
Coal bottom ash is generally reclaimed in ash ponds or is disposed
of in landfills and adjoining areas thereby posing risk to human
health and environment [6,21]. The hazardous components
present in CBA tend to dissociate and contaminate the ground
water/surface water as well the surrounding air thereby affecting
the ecosystem. It has been expected that the significant and produc-
tive use of CBA can potentially ease the burden on natural resources
as well as in balancing the ecosystem. The incorporation of CBA in
structural grade concretes in form of either mineral admixture or
in place of fine aggregates is a novel move in concrete manufactur-
ing sector and would probably revolutionize the current and future
construction industry [14,15]. Further, its usage would probably
sustain the economy in the cement industry to some extent and
offers the probable reduction in the carbon footprints.
The current paper reviews some of the important investigations
which emphasises on fresh, mechanical, durability properties and
microstructural characteristics of the concrete made with Natural
Aggregates (NA) with incorporation of Grinded CBA at alternate
replacement levels of PC. Also, based on the literature it has been
observed that the behaviour of CBA has not been widely explored
with various types of aggregates, though it considerable potential
to use as a substitute material in concrete industry successfully.
2. Coal bottom ash
Across the globe coal is one of the most recommendable natural
resource that has been used for in form of fuel for energy and
steam production for around more than one and half past century.
The coal demand in energy generation has significantly grown
within the developing and developed countries [6]. Coal is gener-
ally black in colour and it comprises mainly carbon as its prime
CCP’s Utilisation (Mt) compound. According to Pei [22] coal is classified as an organic
2.3 sedimentary rock. On burning of coal in coal fired boilers, it leaves
10.7 behind the various types of ashes like fly ash, coal bottom ash, boi-
6
ler slag, flue gas desulfurization materials, other types of fluidised
5
265 bed combustion ash, cenospheres and scrubber residues etc. are
49.7 obtained [23].
47.8 Fly ash is also known as pulverized fuel ash which is emitted
3.4
from furnace of the coal thermal power plants. It is collected
14.5
through electrostatic precipitators which are installed to lower
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276 3

the air pollution [24–26]. Silica, alumina and ferric oxides, MgO,
SO3, and Na2O are its chief constituents. Also, FA is considered as
an artificial pozzolan, which is normally used with PC as addition/
partial replacement [24–27].
Boiler slag is one of other residues which has been generated in
thermal power plants. It is generally present in two types of wet-
bottom boilers (slag-tap boiler and cyclone boiler). Slag is collected
from the top of molten iron and at the bottom of the furnace.
Likewise, FA, SiO2 (27–42%), Al2O3 (5–33%), MgO (0–21%) and
CaO (30–50%) are its chief constituents [26,28,29].
Further, Flue gas desulfurization materials (FGD) are solids par-
ticles generated in coal-fired power plants. These particles are
formed when the sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas is removed before
releasing the generated exhaust gases to atmosphere [28,29]. Fur-
thermore, FGD are responsible for producing scrubber sludge or
scrubber ash. The obtained discharge from the scrubber is in form
of off-white colour slurry with percentage of solids content ranges
from 5 to 10% [28,30].
Fluidised bed combustion ash (FBD) has dark gray or black
appearance which indicates high carbon content compared to the
amount present in that of FA. Fluidised bed combustion ash con-
tains large amounts of calcium-based minerals along with calcium
sulfates which are produced during capture of SO2 [30].
Cenospheres are inert, hollow, lightweight spherical shaped
particles mainly comprising silica and alumina. Cenospheres are
normally filled with air or gases, and are residues of the coal ther-
mal power plants. The different types of coal having varying min-
eral content influences the formation of cenospheres. Cenospheres
generally have characters like high strength, improved workability,
high thermal resistance and low bulk density [31–33].
Out the mentioned residues, the heavier and coarser particles
that are collected from the bottom of the boiler furnace are gener-
ally termed as CBA [34]. The chief residues have been collected in
form of FA and CBA [4,20]. Physically, CBA is generally coarser in
size, porous, light and glassy in nature with granular in shape
and is having similar colour to that of PC [35].
3. Chemical composition of coal bottom ash
Depending on the type of coal burnt and the furnace conditions,
the chemical composition of CBA may vary and it further
influences its overall performance. In general, CBA obtained from
lignite comprises calcium and other alkaline elements while CBA
attained from anthracite is lower in calcium and higher in iron con-
tent [36,37]. The results of the experimental investigation carried
out by Muhardi et al. [36] indicates that mullite (Al6Si2O13), SiO2,
and silicon phosphate (SiPO4) are the predominant crystalline
forms which are present in CBA. Further, silica (SiO2) was also
found to be present partly in the crystalline forms of quartz
(SiO2) and partly in combination with alumina as Al6Si2O13. Also,
the presence of iron (Fe) was identified partly as the oxide mag-
netite (Fe3O₄) and hematite (Fe2O3). Coal bottom ash also com-
prises heavy metals such as Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ba and Cd which are
generally considered as hazardous materials in accordance to var-
ious environmental protection sources [38–40].
Table 2 is based on the observations sourced from the most of the
existing literature [11,12,48–57,21,41–47] demonstrates the chem-
ical composition of CBA. In general, CBA has higher percentage of sil-
ica (50.8 ± 9.26), alumina (21.7 ± 4.26) and iron (8.4 ± 2.75) with
lesser amount of calcium (8.0 ± 6.11), magnesium (2.1 ± 1.33) and
sulfate (0.8 ± 0.85). According to ASTM C618-05 2010 [58] the poz-
zolanic materials are classified as Class-F if the summation of SiO2,
Al2O3, Fe2O3 is more than 70%. The desired pozzolanic activity can
be obtained after grinding the CBA particles until 70%–80% by
weight is passed through 45-mm sieve [52]. The presence of higher
silica content makes CBA hydrophilic in nature which eventually
attracts water to its surface [6]. Correspondingly, in view of chemical
aspect, the presence of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) in CBA are the prime compounds which attribute to its addi-
tional pozzolanic nature similar that in FA [59]. These compounds
react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) during hydration process
of cement, to form additional calcium silicates hydrates (C-S-H)
and Calcium aluminate hydrates (C-A-H) [34].
Table 2 depicts the higher loss on ignition (LOI) values for CBA
which indicates the presence of unburnt carbon. Increased figures
of LOI also confirm the porous nature of CBA particles which sub-
sequently captivates more water. The exceptional LOI values of
CBA considerably affect the several characteristics of concretes/
mortars which are made with CBA as an alternate ingredient over
conventional ones. The inclusion of CBA with higher LOI leads to
discoloration, weak air entrainment, segregation and low compres-
sive strength [60,61].

Table 2
Chemical composition of CBA.

Author (s) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO Na2O LOI MgO SO3 K2O Mn2O3 TiO2 P2O₅ Others
Hopkins et al. [84] 79.8 11 4.6 2.5 0.34 0.3 0.8 0.05 0.67 0.08 – – –
Kula et al. [51] 50.98 14.96 9.63 2.63 0.47 15.7 4.01 0.16 1.3 – – – –
Targan et al. [42] 42.39 21.35 6.41 17.57 – 10.17 1.52 2.34 1.11 – – – –
Canpolat [47] 44.26 21.48 6.4 17.57 0.29 – 1.29 2.17 0.77 – – – –
Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot [11] 48.12 23.47 10.55 11.65 0.07 4.02 3.45 1.76 3.45 0.07 – – –
Targan et al. [43] 42.39 21.35 6.41 17.57 – 10.17 1.52 2.34 1.11 – – – –
Kurama and Kaya [12] 55.95 16.65 9.69 4.39 0.084 4.65 5.14 0.7 1.44 – – – –
Martins [52] 52.02 23.23 9.11 6 0.49 2.94 2.17 0.65 1.14 1.23 0.71 –
Kizgut et al. [55] 61.36 21.86 6.78 2.55 0.44 1.75 2.1 trace 3.5 – 1.03 – 0.38
Wongkeo et al. [48] 42.51 23.52 10.2 12.55 2.2 3.82 2.45 – 2.12 0.05 0.41 0.17 –
Wongkeo et al. [91] 44.56 22.48 14.93 10.54 0.77 1 2.54 0.65 1.76 0.12 0.46 0.19 –
Arenas [44] 52.32 25.14 9.23 2.37 0.66 1.07 1.84 0.03 3.72 0.07 1.45 0.25 –
Menendez et al. [49] 49.97 26.95 8.34 8.28 0.14 1.85 1.12 0.11 0.78 0.05 2.25 0.95 0.07
Kim [21] 45.37 25.12 5.81 0.99 0.64 13.1 1.16 – 3.87 0.06 2.84 0.18 –
Aydin [45] 55.1 28.1 8.3 1.1 – 3.9 0.3 0.3 1.5 – – – –
Bras and Faustino[50] 49.7 22.6 6.7 6.9 – 5.1 4.9 0.3 – – – – –
Oruji [53] 58.7 20.1 6.2 9.5 0.1 0.8 1.6 0.4 1 – – – –
Argiz [54] 52.4 27.5 6.6 2.4 0.36 3.8 1.83 0 3.48 0 0.97 0.12 0.006
Abdulmatin et al. [46] 35.6 19.6 14.9 18.7 1.2 3.6 2.4 1.7 2.3 – – – –
Mangi et al. [41] 52.5 17.65 8.3 4.72 – 4.01 0.58 0.84 – – 2.17 –
Rathnayake et al. [57] 34.49 17.74 14.24 21.97 – – 1.90 1.71 1.42
Khongpermgoson et al. [56] 35.6 19.6 14.9 18.7 – 3.6 2.4 1.7 2.3 – – – 0.01
4 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

Fig. 1. Morphology images of coal bottom ash by SEM at 20 lm magnification (a) and at 10 lm magnification [62].

According to British codes ASTM C618-05 2010 [58] CBA with different processing stages which finally exhibit unlike physical
LOI less than 7% can be inculcated in cement mortar and concretes. and chemical properties.
Also, as per recommendations, the content of silicon trioxide (SO3)
must not exceed by 5% out of total composition to avoid loss in 4. Microstructure of coal bottom ash
strength and bulging phenomenon. Moreover, the over amount of
SO3 (3%) increases the probability of drying shrinkage [58]. Coal 4.1. Mineralogical characteristics
bottom ash also bears some percentage of heavy metals like Cu,
Cd, Ni and Pb etc. The probability of leaching of theses metals The combustion temperature and cooling rate are vital param-
has been found to be less when CBA has been used as cementitious eters in incineration process which considerably influence the
material. The tendency of trapping of these heavy metals has been microstructure of CBA. Fig. 1 presents the SEM images acquired
found to be better for the mixes containing CBA as partial replace- at magnification of range varying from 10 to 20 lm. Asokbunyarat
ment of PC [38]. Coal bottom ash is generally attained from et al. [62] demonstrated that at the magnification of 20 lm the
spherical geometries with irregular texture were spotted in CBA.
Table 3
Further, at magnification of 10 lm, the agglomerated and unevenly
Elements in CBA from SEM–EDS analysis [62]. amorphous particles were observed in CBA which were mainly in
form of polycrystalline, amorphous and glassy. Fig. 1 presents
Point Surface Morphology Element
some of the prime features of CBA particles. The observations from
1, 2, 3, 8, 9 Smooth surface texture Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Asokbunyarat et al. [62] investigation verified that the major ele-
Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca) as oxides
4 White sphere surface texture Iron (Fe) as oxides
ments in CBA were silicon (Si), Al, iron (Fe) and calcium (Ca) as oxi-
5, 7 White and black irregular Silicon (Si), Calcium (Ca) as des. Also on the other hand, principal elements in all mentioned
surface texture oxides points of Fig. 1 on surface of CBA are shown in Table 3. Further,
6, 10 White bar surface texture Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), the diffracto-gram in as mentioned in Fig. 2 shows the X-ray
Calcium (Ca) as oxides
diffraction (XRD) analysis of the CBA samples. The results indicated

Calcium hydroxide
plates overlapping
CBA particle

CBA

Fig. 2. X-ray Diffraction pattern of coal bottom ash [62]. Fig. 3. Coal bottom ash particle starting to react with Ca(OH) 2 [65].
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
that CBA was highly amorphous besides the presence of crystalline
phases like mullite, feldspar, magnetite and quartz [62].
Furthermore, another experimental investigation supported
Muhardi et al. [36] the microstructural analysis of CBA. The find-
ings illustrated the presence of mullite, silicon oxide and silicon
phosphates are vital crystalline forms which are present in CBA.
It has also been confirmed from the aforesaid investigation that sil-
ica was present partially in the crystalline shapes of quartz and in
blend of Al as mullite. Also the presence of iron was detected partly
in the form of oxide magnetite and hematite. Similar findings have
been experienced by Gorme et al. [23].
4.2. Pozzolanic activity and reactivity of coal bottom ash
In general, the pozzolanic response of material is the capacity to
react with Ca(OH)2 [63]. According to Massazza [64] the entire
quantum of calcium hydroxide with which pozzolanic materials
can associate, governs on various aspects like, duration of curing,
silica content of reactive phases, ratio of Ca(OH)2 to pozzolan,
and content of reactive phase in the pozzolan. Also in addition to
preceding factors, the frequency of reaction of pozzolanic materials
with Ca(OH)2 is strongly dependent on the surface area of the poz-
zolan, alkaline content in PC, temperature and water/solid ratio.
The pozzolanic action of material is generally estimated by chem-
ical, physical and mechanical methods. In chemical method, the
drop of calcium ions is evaluated generally when the pozzolanic
material is dissolved in saturated lime solution. The procedure
which is adopted for this measurement is in accordance to
International Organization of Standards (ISO) recommendations
R863-1968. The strength activity index offers the idea mechanical
pozzolanic activity. As per European standard EN-450, the strength
activity index is defined as ‘the ratio of compressive strength of
mortar bar prepared with 75% PC and 25% ash or pozzolanic
material by mass and that of mortar bar prepared with cement
alone’.
According to European standard EN-450, the coal ash is only
permissible to be used as pozzolan in concrete if the strength activ-
ity index is greater than 0.75 after 28 days and 0.85 after 90 days of
curing. Cheriaf et al. [65] conducted an experimental investigation
in which the influence of CBA and calcium hydroxide was studied
in concrete. The findings proved that at curing period of 7–90 days,
the compressive strength of CBA based concrete mixes (50% CBA
+ 50% Ca(OH)2 with water/solid ratio = 0.42) was 1.8–17.3 MPa
respectively. Likewise, for the same curing ages the consumption
of Ca(OH)2 for the aforesaid mixes was reported to be 5%, 15%,
37%, and 60% of total amount respectively. Besides, the strength
activity index of these concrete mixes was noted as 0.72, 0.764,
0.88, and 0.97, respectively. The investigation revealed that the
advantageous pozzolanic action of CBA initiates after crossing
14 days of curing while, the utilisation of Ca(OH)2 come in to play
after crossing 90 days of curing. Fig. 3 demonstrates the corre-
sponding effect of CBA and Ca(OH)2.
It has already been mentioned that CBA has strong reactive frac-
tion along with additional pozzolanic characteristics. In addition to
that, CBA holds vitreous fractions in form of mullite. Hashemi et al.
[66] discussed the microstructural characterization of CBA based
mortars. The microstructural analysis was conducted using SEM
and XRD analysis on various combinations of mortars containing
CBA as replacement (0% to 100% with regular increment of 20%)
of fine aggregates. The SEM and XRD results of different combina-
tions indicate the presence of higher reactive silica in CBA which
consequently results in formation of more amount of C-S-H gel.
The investigation also reported that the quantification of reactive
silica obtained through XRD analysis specifies the better dissolv-
ability of CBA which subsequently proved to be beneficial for PC
based composites. An identical validation has been previously con-
5
Table 4
Physical properties of CBA (%) reported by various authors.
Author(s) Physical Properties
Specific Water Fineness
gravity absorption (%) modulus
Naik et al. [94] 2.09 13.6 –
Andrade et al. [95] 1.67 – 1.55
Yuksel and Genc [87] 1.39 6.1 –
Kou and Poon [96] 2.19 28.9 1.83
Ghafoori and Bucholc [75] 2.33 7.0 2.8
Kim and Lee [97] 1.87 5.4 2.36
Singh and Siddique [69] 1.5 30.4 –
Malkit and Rafat [6] 1.39 31.5 1.37
ducted for dissolution process adopted for FA where it is subjected
to alkali activation in the process of geopolymerization. Herein, it is
worthwhile to mention that the ratio of Si/Al (aluminosilicate pre-
cursors) share an equivalent importance as that of the quantum of
other reactive materials [33].
5. Physical properties of coal bottom ash
The physical properties of CBA depend on the variability of par-
ent rock fragments collected from different sources. Degree of pul-
verization and firing temperature are additional factors which
affects the physical properties of CBA. In general, the particles of
CBA are much coarser than the particles of FA. For, CBA the unit
weight/density ranges from 1200 to 1620 kg/m3 while the density
of FA ranges from 1900 to 2800 kg/m3 [67,68]. As mentioned
above, the particles of CBA are coarser in size but are not heavy
than that of FA particles.
Also, the particles of CBA are mostly angular and irregular in
shape with visible apertures and have rough/gritty texture along
with interlocking features [34,69,70]. Mangi et al. [71] indicates
in his experimental programme that pulverization or grinding of
CBA significantly affects its physical behaviour. The grinding peri-
ods proportionally vary the specific gravity of CBA as it increases
with increase in time. Similarly, a continuous variation has been
noticed for values of specific surface with increment in time of
grinding. A range of 2.36–3.10 of specific gravity and 2347.73–
4870.81 cm2/g has been reported after grinding period of 2 h to
40 h [71].
In a similar investigation conducted by Bajare et al. [72], a range
of 1164–9849 m2/g of specific surface has been noticed after grind-
ing period ranging from 4 to 45 min [72]. Further, Hannan et al.
[29] quoted that a good correlation exists between sizes of CBA
particles with that of compressive strength [29]. According to
Singh et al. [34] the firing temperature affects chemical properties
more compared to that of physical variation.
The physical examination shows that particle size of CBA is
comparable to that of the fine aggregates and it is lighter, weaker
and more brittle material in its comparison. Jaturapitakkul and
Cheerarot, Singh and Siddique [11,60,69] indicated that gradation
of CBA resembles to that of natural fine aggregates (NFA). The gra-
dation also depicts that 80%-90% particles of CBA pass through
4.75 mm sieve, 10%-60% particles pass from 600-lm sieve and
0%-15% particles pass through 75-lm sieve [34].
The specific gravity (SG) and fineness modulus (FM) of CBA var-
ies from 1.20 to 2.47 and from 1.39 to 2.88 (Table 4) depending on
quality and source of coal respectively. The CBA bearing low SG has
porous texture comprising micro and macro pores. Rashidi and
Yusup [73] reported the observed BET surface area for raw sub-
bituminous as 7.62 m2/g while Hussain et al. [74] has mentioned
BET surface area value of CBA as 17.64 m2/g. Further, CBA obtained
from low-rank coals and having high sulphur are dense and less
6 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

porous in nature [75]. Besides, the dry unit weight generally varies erties and microstructural characteristics of concrete. The discus-
from 7.07 to 15.72 kN/m3, the water absorption of CBA lies sion in the following sections includes nearly most of the
between 5% and 32%, respectively. Table 4 presents the wide vari- investigations (till date) in which fresh, mechanical and durable
ation in physical properties of CBA as reported in some of the ear- behaviour/performance has been examined whereas few of the
lier investigations. Coal for thermal power stations is generally important investigations related to microstructure analysis have
obtained from the sedimentary rocks, the nature of these rocks var- been presented in brief. Herein it is worthwhile to mention that
ies from source to source with effect of their age as well as depth of current review focuses only on utilization of CBA as partial replace-
occurrence. Hence, the parameters like water absorption, density ment of PC, irrespective to the variation of aggregates (coarse and
and specific gravity show wide variation in accordance to their par- fine) with alternate materials. In brief, the current review investi-
ental source [30,34,70,76]. gation also summarizes the mechanical behaviour of CBA based
mortars in which Grinded CBA has been replaced with PC.
6. General environmental considerations
7.1. Fresh properties of coal bottom ash based concrete
The transportation of raw coal and availability of cooling water
The behaviour of freshly made concrete is of vital importance as
normally favours the proposed sites for construction of coal based
it permits in understanding the overall performance of concrete. In
thermal power plants. The coal ashes (FA, CBA, slag and others
general, the workability of freshly made concrete is primarily influ-
products) obtained as residue are generally dumped nearby the
enced by surface area, shape, water content and texture of the
coal power plants. These ashes are usually discarded from the bot-
added materials [34]. The presence of CBA as alternate material
tom of boilers with the application of pressurized water [65,72].
for PC affects the fresh properties of concrete. The linking feature
The toxic trace elements like cadmium, chromium, lead etc., of coal
of CBA particles enhances the inter-particle friction thereby ham-
ashes dissolve and percolate in form of leachate which subse-
pering the free flow of fresh concrete [80]. The influence of CBA
quently contaminates the ground water. The use of CBA as alter-
as replacement of PC has been discussed scarcely as couple of
nate material can minimize the quantity of harmful leachate.
investigations are available in literature.
Further, the concentration of trace elements like Cadmium, Chro-
It has been reported that the workability of concrete/mortar
mium, Lead etc., makes CBA less toxic than FA as in the latter the
containing Grinded CBA as alteration of PC depends on various fac-
same are found in higher levels [77,78]. The presence of acidic con-
tors like grinding period, fineness modulus/gradation, source of
ditions in the surroundings of the CBA dumps enhances the leach-
collection etc. Out of the aforesaid, the effect of grinding period
ability of Chromium and Nickel compared to that of FA [77].
has been discussed by Mangi et al. [81]. The findings confirmed
Furthermore, Eshel et al. [79] investigated the radiological
that concrete containing 10% of Grinded CBA results in lower val-
safety characteristics of concrete with CBA. In terms of radioactive
ues of slump flows in contrast to flow spread of control concrete.
exposure, the use of CBA in concrete industry reduces the damage
Mangi et al. [81] prepared the concrete mixes (M1 and M2) with
towards the environment to some more extent rather than its
0% and 10% replacement of PC with grinded CBA. The results indi-
application in piles and ponds. From Table 2 it has been noticed
cate that a reduction of around 10% has been noticed in slump val-
that the content of TiO2, Mn2O3, K2O, P2O₅ etc holds approximately
ues due to incorporation of grinded CBA (Fig. 4) in comparison to
3% of the total chemical composition. Though these chemical com-
that of control concrete. The loss in the workability was mainly
positions of heavy compounds are sufficient to cause significant
due to the presence of Grinded CBA in concretes which captivate
loss of living beings in form of various life-threatening diseases.
additional water during the time of mixing. The uneven surface
The presence of CBA in open spaces enhances the probability of
texture of CBA particles also accounts for lower slump values
inhalation of heavy metals containing mercury, cadmium, chro-
[81]. On contrary, conflicting observations for different combina-
mium arsenic, lead and aluminum, antimony, barium, cobalt, man-
tions of mortars were observed in which the slump values have
ganese, nickel, and zinc etc. The intake of these metals
been found to be enhanced [11]. Three control mortar mixes
consequently lead to risk of permanent damage of lungs, respira-
(CC25, CC35, CC45) were prepared correspondingly with three
tory systems, kidneys, reproductive systems, gastrointestinal, birth
combinations of grinded CBA (GBC25, GBC35, GBC45). The investi-
defects and weaker bone intensity in children.
gation revealed that with increase in content of grinded CBA the
In case of landfills, solidification and stabilization techniques
slump values of grinded CBA based mortars were found to be
are preferred as of the most practical methods for pre-treatments
increased, however the anticipated clarification has not been dis-
of hazardous or toxic materials like CBA. Coal bottom as is consid-
cussed by the authors (Fig. 4).
ered as hazardous material due to contamination of heavy metals
such as Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ba and Cd. Hashemi et al. [38] conducted
7.2. Compressive strength of coal bottom ash based concrete and
an experimental investigation in which the possibility of heavy
mortar
metals leaching of Cu, Cd, Ni and Pb has been evaluated by solidi-
fication and stabilization techniques. The experimental investiga-
The most reliable and hand to hand tests performed on concrete
tion infers the probability of leaching of heavy metals in the
to evaluate its performance is the compressive strength test. Com-
environment has been found to be more for higher contents of
pressive strength test generally gives an idea about several charac-
CBA. Further, the rate of controlling of leaching is not similar for
teristics of concrete [82]. Several mechanical and durability
various types of leachates like deionized water, acetic acid and
properties of concrete are directly or indirectly correlated to its
nitric acid leachates. Herein, it is worthy to mention that the leach-
compressive strength. The overall quality of concrete can be easily
ing is generally dependant on the type of sample, since CBA parti-
judged by knowing the compressive strength. Abdulmatin et al.
cles bears higher surface areas thereby elevates the probability of
[46] investigated the influence of partial replacement of PC in con-
more leaching towards the ground surface [38].
crete with Grinded CBA. The effect of grinding has been discussed
in accordance to percentage by-weight of CBA retained specifically
7. Properties of concrete made with CBA as replacement of PC on 45 mm sieve. Five different levels (3.7, 14.5, 24, 35.3, and 43.7) of
percentage by-weight were adopted for studying the effect of
The following paragraphs summarize the influence of CBA used Grinding of CBA. The results revealed that the compressive
as partial replacement of PC on fresh, mechanical, durability prop- strength values corresponding to 3.7% by weight with median par-
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
Fig. 4. Slump flow values of Grinded CBA based concrete mixes.
ticle size of 4.3-mm showed an increase at all curing ages. An
increase to an extent of 6%, has been noted for this percentage level
while for the remaining levels (as mentioned above) the compres-
sive strength values have been dropped from 8% to 30% after 28–
90 days of curing compared to that of control concrete.
However, the observed gap in compressive strength tends to
drop when curing age is extended to 90 days. Cheriaf et al. [65]
has mentioned the probable reason for improvements in compres-
sive strength of concrete after 90 days of curing containing Grinded
CBA as PC replacement. Since the pozzolanic activity of CBA initi-
ated after 28 days of curing, hence due to higher formation of
hydration products at later ages consequently increased the com-
pressive strength. Further, the incorporation of finer CBA i.e. 4.3-
mm depicted an improvement in compressive strength due to
inherent pore refinement action as finer particles filled the pores
in the paste thus increasing the hydration products formed during
pozzolanic reactions [46].
Brás and Faustino [50] evaluated the performance of Grinded
CBA as partial substitution of PC with contents of 10%, 15% and
20% by weight. The equivalent compressive strength was obtained
with incorporation of 15% and 20% replacement level of Grinded
CBA at 28 days of curing age. A considerable increase of about
15%-20% was noticed at 60 days of curing for the aforesaid levels
of Grinded CBA. Brás and Faustino [50] also confirmed in his find-
ings that repair mortars up to 20% substitution levels of Grinded
CBA in place of PC results in satisfactory performance as decrement
in the porosity levels has been noticed compared to that of control
mix.
Further, Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot [11] used two different
approaches to evaluate the behavior of Grinded CBA in mortar
and concrete. In the mortar mixes Grinded CBA was used at the
rate of 10%, 20% and 30% by weight of cementitious material. It
was noticed that the compressive strength was increased by 8–
12% at curing period of 90 days compared to that of control mortar.
Likewise, in the second approach the cement content was varied
from 260-440 kg/m3 while maintaining a constant w/c ratio. The
replacement level of Grinded CBA as alteration of PC in concrete
mixes was limited to 20%. The rate of development of compressive
strength was found to be much quicker with increase in cement
content due to pozzolanic reaction between Ca(OH)2 and Grinded
CBA.
7
Jaturapittakkul and Cheerarot, Abdulmatin et al., Oruji et al.
[11,46,53] considered the variation of Grinded CBA at 9%, 23%,
33% and 41% by percentage weight of binder with constant w/c
ratio of 0.55 in degree of fineness by grinding for periods of ½ hour
and 3 h. An enhancement in compressive strength up to 10% after
28 days of curing for 3 h of grinding period was reported for all
replacement levels of Grinded CBA.
It has also been reported that for percentage weight of binder
beyond 33%, the compressive strength was not improved signifi-
cantly for ½ hour of grinding period after 90 days of curing. How-
ever, the overall trend of low compressive strength is similar for
the higher replacement levels where the grinding period is con-
stricted to ½ hour. Alike investigation was conducted by Khan
and Ganesh [83] in which equivalent results were reported up to
20% variation of Grinded CBA for ½ hour grinding at 28 days of cur-
ing in terms of compressive strength in comparison to control con-
crete. Similarly, in another investigation the effect of Grinded CBA
up to 20% have shown a maximum drop of around 15% in compres-
sive strength for same age of curing compared to control concrete
[12,21,49,84]. The presence of cement additions affects the com-
pressive strength of Grinded CBA based concretes significantly.
Hopkins et al. [84] used 4% of Silica fume with replacement level
of 20% with Grinded CBA. The enhancement in compressive
strength to an extent of 22% was reported at 28 days in comparison
to control concrete. Likewise, Targan et al. [43] observed the
enhancement in compressive strength of concrete with increase
in content of Grinded CBA (with a fineness of 25 by percentage
mass on 40 mm sieve). Five different levels (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%
and 25% by mass) of replacement of PC were used for investigating
the mechanical properties of CBA based concrete. The compressive
strength at 28 days of curing was found to be increased by 5–16%
in contrast to that of control concrete mix. As quoted above the
compressive strength was increased considerably for low replace-
ment levels of Grinded CBA while the same was not true for
replacement level  20%. The observed decrement in compressive
strength was attributed to relatively low reactivity of Grinded
CBA at early ages in relation to higher increments at 90 days of cur-
ing. Similar to the investigation conducted by Wongkeo and Chai-
panich, Hopkins et al. [48,84] reported the consistent increment in
compressive strength of CBA based concrete with fusion of SF (5%
by weight) up to 30% replacement level of Grinded CBA with PC.
8 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
Kula et al. [85] has conducted his investigation in making differ-
ent concrete combinations by using tincal ore waste with Grinded
CBA in varying proportions. The tincal ore is also known as borax
and is a natural as well as a by-product of tin mining industry. Kula
et al. [85] found that the addition of tincal ore waste up to 5% by
weight with Grinded CBA at 10% replacement of PC results in com-
parable values of compressive strength to that of control concrete
combination at 90 days of curing. However, the compressive
strength has been dropped with tincal core waste for higher pro-
portion of Grinded CBA (10%) as replacement of PC.
Further, in a similar investigation conducted on mortar speci-
mens the change in compressive strength results of mortar mixes
made with fusion of colemanite waste along with Grinded CBA
as replacement of PC. It has been found that the use of colemanite
ore waste (at 4% by weight) in combination with Grinded CBA (at
10% by weight) enhanced the compressive strength of PC based
mortar for a curing period of 90 days [48]. Apart from the above-
mentioned Targan et al. [43] studied the influence of natural poz-
zolan at varying proportions (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%) with
fixed amount of Grinded CBA (10% by weight). The investigation
confirmed the substantial enhancement in compressive strength
at all curing ages. The possible reason for this improvement attri-
butes to the bridging between the pastes of PC, Grinded CBA and
natural pozzolan. Though higher replacements (>15%) with natural
pozzolan along with Grinded CBA causes significant drop in com-
pressive strength of concrete. The observed reduction was possibly
due to excess of small sized particles of pozzolan and Grinded CBA
which further tend to dissociate PC particles, thereby causing
reduction in compressive strength. Targan et al. [42] also studied
the effect of Grinded CBA (with a varying fineness) along with
addition of bentonite. The addition of bentonite dropped the com-
pressive strength at all percentages (5–20%) irrespective of varying
dosage levels along with constant proportion of Grinded CBA (at
10% with PC) for all curing regimes. As described in the investiga-
tion the increased in level of porosity due to presence of bentonite
ascribes negative influence on mechanical performance of the mor-
tar [43]. Grinded Coal bottom ash has been used further in ternary
blended concrete mixes. The studies on ternary blends with zeolite
and Grinded CBA (5% by weight) in place of PC (in fixed proportion)
resulted in increase in compressive strength of concretes. As it has
been noticed that comparable mechanical properties (compressive
strength) with greater resistance to aggressive agents has been
noted [47].
Grinded Coal bottom ash has also been used in high proportions
as replacement of PC. For example, Aydin [45] studied the feasibil-
ity of developing concretes with 70% and 80% replacement levels of
PC with Grinded CBA. However, the compressive strength was
dropped considerably compared to control concrete. Further, the
compressive strength tests were performed with incorporation of
lime (5% by weight) with Grinded CBA (70% by weight) in place
of PC. The investigation concludes that a significant increase
(around 20%) in compressive strength was noticed in comparison
Table 5
Compressive strength of concrete at 28 days of curing at different contents of Grinded CBA.
Author(s) Grinded Coal Bottom Ash (%)
0% 5% 10%
Khan and Ganesh [83] 28 – 35
Bras and Faustino [50] 65 – 58
Kim [21] 80 – –
Menendez et al. [49] 52.5 – 55
Bajare et al. [72] 47 – –
Kizgut et al. [55] 46 44 42
Kurama and Kaya [12] 40.9 40.4 40.3
Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot [11] 40.8 – 40.5
to control concrete combination. The addition of lime with high
volume of Grinded CBA enhanced the hydration process and lead
to reduction in the voids which are present in the paste of
concretes.
An mixed behavior in compressive strength tests results have
been noticed in the preceding paragraphs comprising most of the
available studies in which Grinded CBA has been used in place of
PC. The general trend of the compressive strength based on the lit-
erature at 28 days of curing has been summarized in Table 5.
7.2.1. Microstructural analysis of concrete with incorporation of coal
bottom ash
The arrangement comprising C-S-H gel, Ca(OH)2, ettringite, cal-
cium hydrates (CH), aggregates and interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
among aggregates (coarse/fine) and other cement hydration prod-
ucts constructs the microstructure of concrete [34]. Commonly, the
microstructure considerably impacts on the mechanical properties
of concretes. Besides, the microstructure is affected primarily by
numerous parameters like water-cement (w/c) ratio hydration per-
iod, type of cement and mineral/cement additions used in concrete
etc. The microstructure of CBA based concretes made with replace-
ment of FNA has been explored widely compared to the concretes
containing Grinded CBA as replacement of PC.
According to Singh and Siddique [69,86] during the maturation
of concrete the alite and belite converts into C-S-H and Ca(OH)2.
The presence of C-S-H can be identified from the geometry of the
fibrous structure along with sometimes reticular network at initial
stage of hydration. With further progress in hydration process, C-S-
H phase can be envisaged in form of equant grains. The concrete
containing CBA also projects the presence of Ca(OH)2 which can
be seen in various geometries/shapes like giant platy form, large-
thin elongated and blocky masses to finely dispersed crystals. Cal-
cium sulfoaluminate hydrates (C-A-H) also appear as in form of
ettringites and monosulfates. Ettringite generally appears as
needle-like Ettringites generally appear as needle-like crystals
crystals while, the monosulfates appear as hexagonal form of crys-
tals. Fig. 5 highlights some of the aforesaid geometries in concrete
specimen containing 75% CBA by weight of PC at 28 days of curing.
Correspondingly, Fig. 5 also presents the EDS spectrum of C-S-H gel
for the same concrete specimen.
Likewise, the microstructural investigation has been conducted
by Yuksel et al. [87] on concrete specimens containing CBA and FA
(10% by weight) as alteration of FNA and PC respectively. On use of
CBA as an alternate of FNA (10%,20%,30%,40% and 50%), the granu-
lar phase of hydration products reformed in to circular geometry
with appropriate reduction in pores compared to concrete made
with natural river sand. The investigation also revealed that the
observed improvement in the overall microstructural network
attributes to the regular increments in the content of CBA in con-
crete mixes.
A series of investigations have been conducted by Heidrich
et al., Singh and Siddique [5,69,86] where the microstructure of
15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
– 35 – 32 – –
55 50 – – – –
72 – – – – –
– – 42.5 – 35 –
– 45 – – – 27
41 40 38 – – –
33.6 – 29.1 – – –
– 39.7 – 38.3 – –
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
Ettringite
Fig. 5. SEM and EDS spectrum of concrete containing 75% CBA at 28 days showing ettringite (needle-shaped) in the concrete matrix [6].
Ettringite
Weak and
Flaky CSH
Fig. 6. SEM image of concrete containing 50% CBA at 28 days [86].
CBA based concreters have been studied. The beneficial pozzolanic
activity of CBA has been re-validated in these investigations. Fig. 3
shows the ongoing reaction phase of CBA with the portlandite. A
duality in pozzolanic activity of CBA in concrete has been noticed
as for low replacements, the pozzolanic action improved the over-
all microstructure whereas it deteriorates for higher contents at
28 days. For example, at 50% content of CBA, delay the microstruc-
tural improvements in form of lower production of C-S-H gel has
been experienced. The preceding statement can be validated from
the observed Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image which
presents, needle shaped ettringite adjacent to the round shaped
particles of CBA with part of Ca(OH)2 crystals near the cracks.
Fig. 6 presents the SEM image of concrete specimen made with
50% of CBA as FNA. Significant improvements have been noticed
at 90 days of curing in the microstructure of CBA based concretes.
Similarly, the SEM investigations of CBA based concrete made as
replacement of FNA has been conducted by Yuksel and Genc, Bilir
[87,88]. The SEM images indicate the establishment of discrete
grains and porous areas adjacent to the aggregate surfaces. The
addition of CBA disturbs the microstructure of concrete and results
in formation of pores. Likewise, as reported by Rafieizonooz et al.
[89] the inclusion of CBA enhances the quantum and size of voids
along with less formation of C-S-H gel i.e., non- monolithic and less
compacted in nature compared to control concrete.
Mangi et al. [81] investigated the effect of Grinded CBA with
alteration of PC with 10% by weight. The SEM tests were conducted
on the specimens that were immersed in (i) water (ii) 5% of sodium
9
sulphate (Na2SO4) and (iii) 5% sodium chloride (NaCl) for 56 days.
For water cured specimens, well-defined/monolithic shapes of C-S-
H crystals have been noticed. Likewise, the development of ettrin-
gite for 5% of Na2SO4 solution partially clogged the voids, thereby
enhancing the strength development of concrete mix [81,90]. The
negative effect of 5% of NaCl in concrete mixes can easily be judged
from the SEM image which depicts the weak formation of C-S-H
gel. The ingression of 5% of NaCl results in initiation of cracks
thereby lead to reduction in the strength properties of concrete.
The SEM images for abovementioned solutions are shown as
Fig. 7(a–c).
7.3. Flexure strength of coal bottom ash based concrete and mortar
In general, the flexural strength represents the maximum stress
and the force experienced within the unreinforced concrete speci-
mens to withstand any bending failures. Kurama and Kaya [12]
used pretreated CBA which was subjected to wet screening for
removal of floated particles, primarily the carbon particles. After
pretreatment the CBA was grinded in a ball mill to achieve the fine-
ness of 25% by mass retained on 38 mm sieve. The results after
achieving the desired level of fineness confirmed the increment
in compressive strength up to 15% substitution level whereas the
decrement in the same were reported beyond 15% replacement
of Grinded CBA with PC. The rate of gain in compressive strength
increases with addition of Grinded CBA as alteration of PC at curing
of 28 and 56 days compared to base concrete. The probable cause
for the observed drop in the compressive strength (28 day and
56 day) beyond 15% level of Grinded CBA was due to lower binder
content.
Further, Wongkeo et al. [91] revealed the outcomes of concrete
mixes made up to 30% replacement levels of Grinded CBA which
was grounded for 6 h in ball mill with 0.2% by weight of Aluminum
(Al) powder. The flexural strength has been increased around 23%
with 30% content of Grinded CBA as replacement of PC in relation
to control concrete. However, for the concrete mix made without
Al powder the flexural strength tests results containing 30% of
Grinded CBA as replacement of PC was comparable to the control
concrete mix.
Furthermore, Targan et al. [42] investigated the effect of
Grinded CBA with fusion of bentonite on flexural strength of con-
crete. The results for the flexural strength tests pursued the similar
trends as that of the compressive strength tests for 10% replace-
ments level of Grinded CBA with PC. Likewise, identical figures in
flexural strength were observed with incorporation of natural poz-
zolan as cement replacement along with Grinded CBA. Aydin, Tar-
gan et al. [43,45] reported the decrement in flexural strength in
10 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

Fig. 7. SEM micrograph of a) with water solution b) with 5% Na2SO4 solution c) with 5% Nacl solution [81].

concrete mixes with the presence of Grinded CBA as high volume
substitution of PC (70% by weight). The concrete mixes made with
lime (5% by weight) as substitution of PC along with Grinded CBA
(70% by weight) results in higher flexural strength at all curing
ages. In concrete mix containing 100% of Grinded CBA as alteration
of PC results in shear drop in compressive and flexural strength in
comparison to control concrete at lower and higher curing periods
[45]. The aforementioned discussion on flexural strength tests
results offered by various authors are shown in brief in Table 6.
Table 6 also presents the effect of different levels of replacement

Table 6
Flexural strength of concrete mixes at different curing ages.

Aydin [45] 0% CBA 70% CBA 100% CBA The flexural strength tends to decrease with increase in partial/full replacement
Curing period of CBA with PC at 7 and 28 days of curing age
7 days 1.68 1.25 0.25
28 days 2.28 1.65 0.39

Targan et al. [42] Reference 5% B + 10% 10%B + 10% 15%B + 10% 20%B + 10% Similar trend has been followed for curing age of up to
Curing period Mix CBA CBA CBA CBA 90 days of curing age
7 days 5.4 4.2 4.1 3.2 3.9
28 days 7.6 7.2 6.2 4 5.6
56 days 7.8 7.8 7.2 6.7 6.1
90 days 7.9 8 7.8 7.2 6.8

Kurama et al. [12] Reference 5% CBA 10% CBA 15% CBA 25% CBA At later ages (28 and 56 days of curing age), the flexural
Curing period Mix strength increases for different replacement levels of CBA
7 days 6.08 6.27 6.07 5.77 4.72
28 days 6.6 6.75 6.62 6.57 6.22
56 days 6.86 7.35 7.6 7.2 6.69

Wongkeo et al. [91] Reference 0% 10% 20% 30% Higher replacement of CBA in concrete mixes tends to have lower flexural strength
Curing period Mix CBA CBA CBA CBA compared to Reference mix
28 days 4 2.6 2.7 2.7 3.2

Targan et al. [43] Reference Mix 5% NP + 10%CBA 10% NP + 10%CBA 15% NP + 10%CBA 20% NP + 10%CBA 25%NP + 10% CBA 30% NP + 10% CBA
Curing period
7 days 5.5 5.9 5.2 5.1 4.8 4.3 3.5
28 days 7.5 7.2 6.4 6.2 5.8 5.2 4.8
56 days 7.8 7.8 7.2 6.9 6.5 5.8 5.4
90 days 7.9 8 7.4 7.2 6.6 6 5.6
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
Fig. 8. Capillary absorption tests results of concretes with varying binder contents
at 28 days of curing [52].
of Grinded CBA and curing age. Herein, it is worthwhile to mention
that limited investigations are available on the behavior of flexural
strength of concrete having Grinded CBA as replacement to PC.
However, the noticed results of flexural strength tests have been
found in good correlation with compressive strength tests results.
7.4. Capillary water absorption and carbonation of coal bottom ash
based concrete
Capillary suction is the degree of the medium to absorb liquid
by action of capillarity. In this particular test the increment in
the mass of the concrete specimens is recorded with time. It has
been noticed from the available sources that the performance of
concretes made with Grinded CBA in terms of capillary water
absorption is quite insufficient. Most probably, Martins et al. [52]
performed an investigation on the capillary absorption of concrete
mixes containing Grinded CBA at two different replacement levels
(25% and 33% by weight) for different curing periods. The CBA
based concrete mixes were compared to concretes made with sim-
ilar amount of FA (25% and 33% by weight) along with same binder
(300, 350, 400 kg/m3) and curing ages.
The observations confirmed that the capillary absorption values
of concrete specimens were decreased with increasing binder con-
tent for both type of concretes. Specifically, the concrete mixes in
which PC was replaced by Grinded CBA resulted in marginal drop
in terms of capillary absorption coefficients as compared to con-
crete mixes made with FA. The expected drop in capillary absorp-
tion coefficients was noticed due to reduction the in overall
porosity levels. Fig. 8 presents Capillary absorption tests results
of concretes with varying binder contents at 28 days. Martins
et al. [52] also evaluated the effect of Grinded CBA and FA in con-
crete in terms of carbonation resistance. The probability of con-
crete corrosion can be estimated through accelerated carbonation
Fig. 9. Carbonation resistance with varying binder contents [52].
11
test. Accelerated carbonation tests were conducted for 65 days of
exposure at 65 days of curing. The carbonation resistance has been
evaluated for concrete specimens made with two different replace-
ment levels of each, Grinded CBA (25% and 33%) and FA (25% and
33%). The investigation disclosed that the carbonation resistance
of concrete mixes made with Grinded CBA in place of PC depicts
equivalent values of carbonation depth as that of concrete mix
made with FA at 65 days curing periods [52]. Fig. 9 presents the
observed variation of carbonation resistance for concrete mixes
made with Grinded CBA and FA [52].
7.5. Chloride permeability of coal bottom ash based concrete
In general perspective, for any concrete structure it is essential
to have satisfactory performance while maintaining the required
strength and serviceability characteristics. The test of chloride per-
meability is an indication of durable performance of concrete
under severe exposure. Usually, the concrete durability is nega-
tively influenced by the penetration of chloride ions. In general,
the addition of Grinded CBA in concrete leads to lower migration
and diffusion coefficients than the concrete made without Grinded
CBA. Argiz et al. [92] found the effect of Grinded CBA and FA (10%
and 25% by weight of PC) on the vibrated concrete. The chloride
diffusion coefficients were evaluated at lower and at higher curing
periods (28 and 132 days). The results for different concrete mixes
made with Grinded CBA present the lower chloride migration coef-
ficients compared to concretes containing FA. The possible cause
for the noticed variation was due to increase in fineness of concrete
mixes due to fusion of Grinded CBA thereby making the concrete
dense and make impermeable. On comparison of coal ashes (CBA
and FA), it has been revealed that the chloride migration values/co-
efficients of concretes with made with Grinded CBA (on replace-
ment of 10% by weight) was around 1.7 times lower compared to
that of the concretes made with same amount of FA (on replace-
ment of 10% by weight).
Likewise, the chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete mixes
having 25% Grinded CBA was around 3.8 times lower than the con-
crete mixes made with 25% FA. In the case of the control concrete,
the chloride penetration depth was significantly high with the
value nearly 76 mm. Further, at replacement level of FA by 10%
in concrete, the chloride ingression was noted near to 37 mm.
However the improvement in chloride ingression was noticed with
use of Grinded CBA as the depth has been restricted to about
27 mm. On increasing the amount of FA in concrete mixes (from
10% to 25%), the penetration depth was found nearly to be
22 mm. The observed value was further reduced to 17 mm on
increasing content of Grinded CBA [92]. The noticed improvement
in chloride resistance was due to similar reasons as discussed in
the previous section. Figs. 10 and 11 presents the depth of chloride
penetration and the migration coefficient with varying content of
FA and Grinded CBA respectively.
7.6. Acid and sulphate resistance of coal bottom ash based concrete
Acid and sulphate resistance are the two another important
parameters, which relates with the long term/durable performance
of concrete. Khan and Ganesh [83] studied the resistance against
acid in concrete mixes made with different replacement level of
PC by Grinded CBA (10%, 20% and 30%) at several curing ages pre-
sented in Fig. 12. In this test, the loss in mass due to deterioration
of the concrete specimens was estimated before and after the
immersion period of 28–90 days of curing. It was noticed that con-
crete mixes having highest percentage of Grinded CBA (at 30% by
weight) offers the highest resistance against weight loss. Simulta-
neously, the concrete mixes containing lowest percentage of
Grinded CBA (10% by weight of PC) results in less resistance against
12 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276

Fig. 10. Depth of chloride penetration of concrete mix at different replacement level (%) [92].

containing Grinded CBA shows marginal gain in weight in compar-

ison to the percentage weight gain in control concrete mix. The
reduction in the penetrability of migrated salts could be the most
probable reasons for the noticed improvement due to presence of
Grinded CBA [81].

7.7. Drying shrinkage of coal bottom ash based concrete

The removal of water from concrete stored in unsaturated air

generally causes drying shrinkage. Kim [21] studied the effect of
drying shrinkage on concrete made with Grinded CBA (30% by
weight of PC) and FA (30% by weight of PC). The concrete speci-
Fig. 11. Migration coefficient of concrete mixes at different replacement level (%)
mens individually were compared with the control concrete mix
[92]. at different curing periods (6 and 32 days). The investigation
demonstrated that up to 6 days of curing, the shrinkage of the con-
crete mix made with Grinded CBA was dropped by approximately
30% on comparison to shrinkage of control concrete mix. The
observation proved to be vital in relation to the durability of con-
crete structures. At the early age when the concrete has not gained
the desired strength the probability of the crack nucleation is more
due to shrinkage. On the other hand while increasing the curing
period (up to 32 days) the shrinkage of the control concrete mix
was still found to be in the range of 15%–30% than concretes made
with partial replacements of Grinded CBA and FA [21].

Fig. 12. Percentage loss in weight of concrete mixes at different curing ages [83].

weight loss at all curing periods. The observed pattern for variation
in resistance to acid attack was seemed to be alike to that of the
compressive strength tests.
The resistance against sulphate attack of concrete mixes made
with replacement of PC with Grinded CBA by 10% were measured
at different curing periods (28–90 days). The findings were com-
pared with the values of control concrete mix made without
Grinded CBA. The variations in the weight of control concrete
and concrete containing 10% of Grinded CBA at the curing of Fig. 13. Thermal conductivity of concrete mixes at different CBA replacement level
28–90 days were evaluated. The results confirmed that concrete (%) [91].
 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276 13

7.8. Sound absorption of coal bottom ash based concrete 8. Critical comments

The impact of Grinded CBA has been analysed on concrete in
relation to the effective sound absorption. Generally, the acoustic
absorption of any material is dependent on the thickness of the
samples. It has been experienced from the impedance tube method
that with increase in thickness of the sample/specimen the maxi-
mum absorption coefficients expatriated towards low frequencies.
Arenas et al. [44] studied the effect of Grinded CBA mixed with PC
in the use of highway noise barriers. For this study, the sound
absorption values of a porous material were related to the loss in
energy by friction in walls. The best sound absorption coefficients
have been estimated in the mortar specimens made from the big-
ger particle size of CBA, with higher porosity. As a result, the mor-
tar made with Grinded CBA bearing higher void ratios resulted in
improved sound absorption coefficients for every series of
frequencies.
7.9. Thermal conductivity of coal bottom ash based concrete
The property of thermal conductivity is mainly dependent on
the pore structure of the aggregates (light/heavy; natural/recycled
etc.), density of concrete and on cement matrix [93]. Wongkeo
et al. [91] revealed the performance of concrete in terms of thermal
conductivity in an experimental investigation. The thermal con-
ductivity of autoclave aerated concrete made with partial substitu-
tion of PC with Grinded CBA at 10%, 20% and 30% by weight of PC
was estimated. Apart from the aforementioned substitutions, the
Al powder (0.2% by weight of PC) was incorporated to generate
the aerated concrete which further reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form
hydrogen (H2) gas. The results revealed that the addition of Al as
cement addition considerably affect the thermal conductivity of
the concrete mixes. A drop was noticed from 0.88 to 0.57 W/mK
on comparison of Grinded CBA and Al based concrete mixes with
control concrete. Further it has been observed that the thermal
conductivity was increased with increment in Grinded CBA
replacement of PC as its addition enhances the overall unit weight
of concrete specimens [91]. The noticed variation of thermal con-
ductivity in different concrete mixes at different Grinded CBA
replacement levels is presented in Fig. 13.
It is worthwhile to mention that different authors have tested a
wide range of parameters in their investigations. Further, the
authors of this investigation have selected some previous studies
and the considered parameters such as w/b, w/c ratio, curing per-
iod, percentage replacement of CBA and compressive strength are
listed in Table 7. However, the authors are of the opinion that in
such varying situations, it is rather difficult to arrive at meaningful
comparison. Furthermore, to the best of the authors following
inferences have been made based on the earlier findings:
(i) With the incorporation of Grinded CBA as addition of PC the
mechanical properties of concrete have not been affected
significantly on instances where compressive strength is
the governing factor. The fineness is important aspect of
CBA when used as supplementary cementitious materials
(in place of PC). The grinding of CBA for specified time and
up to specific size/fineness has made it possible to achieve
the equivalent compressive strength and other mechanical
properties to that of the respective reference/control
concretes.
(ii) Based on the earlier findings, the Grinded CBA is presented
as another durable supplementary cementitious material
which has considerable potential to be used an alternate
ingredient in concrete/mortars due to similar chemical com-
position with coal FA and good performance in durability.
(iii) The microstructural studies confirm the variation in the
behaviour of concretes/mortars on inclusion of CBA as
cement addition/supplementary cementitious material.
Concretes made with Grinded CBA are denser and compact
in nature with improved microstructure which is mainly
dependent on the fineness of CBA.
(iv) The appropriate recommendations of probable usage of
Grinded CBA in civil engineering industry and other engi-
neering construction applications will probably prevent the
unviable use of natural resources to some extent. The utiliza-
tion of Grinded CBA in cement/concrete industry assuredly
contributes in resolving energy, resources and conservation
concerns.

Table 7
Comparison of some of the previous studies with various parameters.

Author (s) Curing period (days) % CBA W/C W/B (Cementitious material) Compressive strength range (N/mm2)
Hopkins et al. [84] 28 20 0.56 0.45 50.50
Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot [11] 28 10 – 0.72 28.40
20 0.80 20.10
30 0.90 13.60
10 (Grinded) 0.69 40.50
20 (Grinded) 0.69 39.70
30 (Grinded) 0.68 38.3
Kurama and Kaya [12] 28 5 0.52 0.50 40.38
10 0.55 40.28
15 0.58 33.57
25 0.66 29.13
Kizgut et al. [55] 28 5 (Grinded) 0.52 0.50 44.00
10 (Grinded) 0.55 42.00
15 (Grinded) 0.58 41.00
20 (Grinded) 0.62 40.00
25 (Grinded) 0.66 38.00
Menendez et al. [49] 28 10 (Grinded) 0.50 – 55.00
25 (Grinded) 42.50
35 (Grinded) 35.00
Aydin [45] 28 70 (Grinded) – 0.45 12.34
100 3.12
5% Lime + 70% GCBA 14.73
5% Lime + 80% GCBA 11.15
5% Lime + 85% GCBA 10.71
Mangi et al. [81] 28 10 (Grinded) 0.55 0.50 43.5
14 N. Singh et al. / Construction and Building Materials 233 (2020) 117276
(v) The inclusion of Grinded CBA can only be proposed in con-
crete prior to the well thorough knowledge of source of dis-
posal (dry/wet) and mode of collection. The quality of
parental coal (sub-bituminous/lignite/anthracite/bitumi
nous) has direct influence on the amount of cementitious/
pozzolanic compounds with varying contents of silica, cal-
cium, iron, alumina etc. which are responsible for imparting
better performance. Considering, the benefits and significant
preservation of existing resources, it is advisable to utilize
Grinded CBA in concrete industry for various applications.
9. Conclusions
The current review investigation highlights mainly the chemi-
cal, microstructure, physical, fresh, mechanical, durability proper-
ties of concretes made with Grinded CBA. In addition to this, the
paper covers the environmental considerations of Grinded CBA in
brief. The available literature has been summarised and subse-
quently the conclusions are drawn based on the aforementioned
properties:
(i) Chemically, CBA resembles to class FA as percentage of silica,
alumina and iron oxide are generally greater than 70% out
total composition. Coal bottom ash particles are generally
coarser in size compared to FA particles and there is a wide
variation in the physical properties. The specific gravity,
fineness modulus and dry unit weight generally depend on
the quality of coal. In general, the structural grade concretes
made with Grinded CBA fulfils the workability requirements.
(ii) The microstructure analysis of concrete containing Grinded
CBA clarifies the possible reasons for the observed variations
in mechanical and durability performance. The observed
SEM images concluded that reformation and the change in
geometry of various hydration products come into being in
concrete due to increased fineness of CBA.
(iii) Grinded CBA resembles FA both physically and chemically.
Based on almost all investigations it was observed that addi-
tion of Grinded CBA reduces the compressive strength at
early ages but for longer curing periods (28 days) the same
has been found to be more in relation to their respective
control concretes. The fusion of cement addition (s) has been
proved to be favourable for refining the compressive
strength. Likewise, the flexural strength has been improved
only for low alteration levels of Grinded CBA.
(iv) In context to durability aspect of concretes, replacing PC up
to certain level with Grinded CBA helps in increasing the
resistance towards chloride penetration, acid attack and sul-
phate attack. Amongst of aforementioned, the maximum
beneficial effect of Grinded CBA has been noticed against
chloride penetration. Moreover, concrete containing Grinded
CBA offers in delivering acceptable strength performance
under acid and sulphate attack. The capillary water absorp-
tion has been dropped with increase in content of Grinded
CBA. The capillary water absorption coefficients have been
reduced more effectively in CBA based concretes compared
to FA based concretes.
(v) The resistance against carbonation has been enhanced on
addition of Grinded CBA along with increase in binder con-
tent. The sound absorption coefficients of concrete have
been reduced with inclusion of coarser CBA in contrast to
medium and fine CBA. Likewise, the thermal conductivity
is considerably affected with porous nature of CBA. Grinded
CBA up to 30% in concrete mixes helps in lowering the dry-
ing shrinkage values for low and higher curing ages com-
pared to the shrinkage values of the control concrete.
(vi) The utilization of Grinded CBA as a pozzolanic material
probably presents a viable solution for solving the concerns
like scarcity of dumping sites, environmental impacts and
reduction in overall production cost of concrete.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The financial aid to authors by Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Government of India is acknowledged.
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