Language Programs and Policies- A Review of Discussions on Second Language and Bilingual Education in

the 21st Century

BOOK REVIEWS

Bilingual education in the 21st century: a global perspective, by Ofelia Garcia with contributions by Hugo
Baetens Beardsmore, Oxford, UK, Wiley- Blackwell, 2009, 496 pp.

In Bilingual education in the 21st century: a global perspective, Ofelia Garcia construes the complexity of
bilingual education through a recurring analogy of the banyan tree, coherently woven throughout the
book’s five main parts. It is an image that captures the myriad of contextual variables and choices
involved in bilingualism and bilingual education and allows for growth in different directions at the same
time grounded in the diverse social realities from which it emerges’ (17). As this analogy portrays,
bilingual education is multi-faceted in its complexity since historical, linguistic, cultural, political, and
social realities must be taken into account to begin any useful discussion.
To guide readers, Garcia initially explores language, and most importantly, bilingualism, on an individual
and societal level. She continues with a comprehensive overview of the various frameworks, models,
variables, and program types in bilingual education as practiced in schools and communities all over the
world. Bilingual education policies, practices, pedagogies, and assessment receive extensive attention in
the latter chapters of the book.

Despite the impressive content and global ambitions of this work, the simple principle that motivated its
creation is never obscured; namely, that bilingual education, as practiced according to local needs, can
be valuable for both minority and majority-language children, as well as for adult learners. Such a
visionary proposal demands questioning traditional, monoglossic conceptions of bilingualism as a
problem, and of bilingual individuals as the sum of two monolinguals. In thoughtfully critiquing the
limitations of these notions, a dynamic view of bilingualism is developed which regards the
phenomenon as both a right and resource while engendering a heteroglossic vision of bilingual
individuals who fall all along points of a continuum in receptive and productive abilities in both their first
and second (or multiple) languages. Thus, students labeled English language learners (ELLs) or limited
English proficient students (LEPs) are referred to here as ‘emergent bilinguals’ (175), which reasserts
bilingualism as a resource and recognizes learners’ differing instructional and assessment needs. One
plus one does not always equal two and bilingual education pedagogy as both social justice and social
practice emerge as guiding principles in the pursuit of equitable education for minority-language
children.

Part I maps out the content of the book. Bilingual education is defined in terms of actual language use in
the classroom, departing from abstract notions of how language should function. Part II thoroughly
explores both linguistic and social aspects of bilingualism. Additive and subtractive models of
bilingualism are reviewed and recursive and dynamic models are proposed. The latter are claimed to
more accurately reflect ways in which children use language. Although teaching a standard language in
school is necessary, readers are warned that an exclusive focus on this variety neglects the multiple
discursive practices of bilingual children, referred to here as translanguaging (45; borrowed from Cen
Williams, cited in Baker 2001). Translanguaging is directly linked to the impact of globalization as
advances in technology make it possible to participate in simultaneous language practices through
multiple media sources. Chapter 5 concludes with cognitive and social benefits of being bilingual, such
as greater metalinguistic awareness (e.g. Bialystok 2004), although intervening factors like
socioeconomic status can affect these benefits (101).

Part III treats bilingual education policy in relation to theoretical frameworks and types. Despite the
limitations of models as accurate representations of the daily use, teaching, and learning of academic
language(s), grouping bilingual education models together according to contextual and structural
characteristics facilitates comparison. For example, an additive framework aligns with maintenance,
prestigious, and immersion type programs whereas a dynamic framework translates into poly-
directional or two-way programs (i.e. dual language), content and language integrated learning (CLIL,
EMILE in French) and CLIL-type, and multiple multilingual programs. In Chapter 7, Hugo Baetens
Beardsmore presents macro- factors (situational, operational, and outcome) that determine the nature
of a bilingual education program model. The student population, curriculum, and scholastic achievement
are respective examples that are then illustrated in varying combinations all over the globe. Chapters 8
and 9 trace the historical development of bilingual education and its policy in the USA as compared to
the European context in which a plurilingual, supra-national language policy is promoted by European
institutions like the Council of Europe. In contrast to the restrictive yet tolerant history of US language
policy, European initiatives aim to academically develop both majority and minority languages, though
immigrant languages tend to lack support.
Chapters 10 and 11 identify monoglossic and heteroglossic bilingual education policies by their goals.
For example, when the outcome goal is transition into the majority language without continued literacy
support of the L1 or minority language, policies enacting transitional bilingual education are established.
Each policy type is exemplified in geographical regions ranging from New Zealand, Wales, Scotland, and
Catalonia to Israel, Malaysia, and Shanghai. Out of the countries with multilingual populations (e.g. India
and Singapore), the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is distinguished for its experience and success with
trilingual education. Finally, Debra Cole discusses characteristics of bilingual education for the Deaf, only
having developed since the 1980s, and Zeena Zakharia considers the influence of historical, social,
political, cultural, and economic circumstances on language in schools policy in the Arab Middle East and
North Africa.

Part IV is of most applicability to educators as the how, or the pedagogy and practices of bilingual
education, is covered in detail. How language can be allocated, how language can be arranged (e.g. strict
separation determined by time, teacher, place, or subject), and how language is practiced or used in the
curriculum (e.g. code-switching) are some of the many choices involved. Bilingual education approaches
and methods (grammatical, communicative, and cognitive), covered in Chapter 13, will be familiar to
those educated in the area of second-language acquisition. Contextualization, bridging and schema
building, and differentiated instruction are emphasized as pedagogical means of supporting bilingualism.
Chapter 14 discusses (school-based) biliteracy practices from a sociocultural perspective. Garc ́ıa
recommends a model of pluriliteracy practices described within Hornberger’s (2003) continua of
biliteracy framework where the contexts, media, and content of biliteracy also characterize literacy in a
globalized world, linked to translanguaging, hybridity of language use and practice, and multimodality.
Finally, biliteracy reading and writing workshops stand out among instructional approaches to biliteracy
as they employ explicit instruction as a means of building background knowledge for emergent
bilinguals. Readers are presented with a mini-lesson, reading phases, and differentiated reading
instruction strategies for emergent and fluent bilinguals.

In the final chapter, Garcia

and Baetens Beardsmore address the ‘most thorny issue in bilingual education contexts’ (386).
Distinguishing between language proficiency and content proficiency complicates the design of
adequate bilingual assessments since it remains a challenge to fairly assess the content knowledge of
emergent bilinguals. Nonetheless, the effects of continuing to test bilinguals as two monolinguals (e.g.
the No Child Left Behind [NCLB] act passed in the USA in 2001) have been ‘devastating’ (377) for
minority-language students. The authors, following others, suggest that there should be local control
over assessment, and performance- based, formative, multimodal assessments are preferred over norm
or criterion- referenced summative assessments.

In Part V, words from Jose ́ Marti serve as a reminder that children are at the root of all debate about
bilingual education and each local context should adapt programs to meet different states’ and people’s
desires for their children. As stated by Garcıa, what makes this book different from others is a global
perspective and heteroglossic view of bilingualism as the norm. However, Garc ́ıa concludes that
bilingual education is ultimately enacted in local contexts in accordance with the myriad of variables and
choices presented throughout the book and conveniently integrated into a concluding table. A concise
appendix follows aimed at debunking popular myths about bilingual education with facts grounded in
research.

This book is an excellent professional and academic resource for teachers, curriculum specialists, school
administrators, and policy makers. It would serve as a valuable, main text for graduate or undergraduate
courses on bilingual education, as well as an instructive, accompanying text for courses on bilingualism
or language- in-education policy. The overview of key points opening each chapter and classroom
scenarios clearly set up expectations for discussion. Summaries organized in tables, questions for
reflection, and further reading suggestions are valuable resources provided at the end of each chapter
for the motivated reader and scholar. Though the Deaf population is considered here in relation to
bilingualism and bilingual education, it is not a main focus and those wishing to further explore this
research should consult the indicated resources.

Overall, Garcıa recognizes that to effectively implement bilingual education programs on a national
scale, we must devise practical solutions to barriers like training capable bilingual teachers, providing
high-quality materials in the second language, and designing an equally effective curriculum for
emergent bilinguals with different home languages. Garcia’s work provides several points of departure
from which to start thinking, and hopefully, to start acting in realizing the ‘transformative potential’
(387) of bilingual education in the twenty-first century.

References
Baker, C. 2001. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. 3rd ed. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters. 1st ed. 1993; 2nd ed. 1996; 4th ed. 2006.
Bialystok, E. 2004. Language and literacy development. In The handbook of bilingualism, ed. T.K. Bhatia
and W.C. Ritchie, 577!601. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Hornberger, N., ed. 2003. Continua of biliteracy: An ecological framework for educational policy,
research, and practices in multilingual settings. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.