Diode Characteristics

Aim: To investigate the characteristics of diodes.

Apparatus:

1. Function generator
2. Resistors
3. Variable resistor
4. Multimeter
5. Diodes
6. LEDS
7. Capacitors

Theory:
A diode behaves as a low impedance device when we connect it in the forward
bias direction. When we connect a diode in the reverse bias direction it behaves
as a very high impedance device.
A diode is a two-terminal P-N junction device. Diodes have two active electrodes
between which the current may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional
electric current property.

the ideal diode

Reverse Biased:
If a negative voltage is applied to the ideal diode, no current flows and the diode
behaves as an open circuit (cut off).
Forward Biased:
If a positive voltage is applied to the ideal diode, current flows and the diode
behaves as a short circuit (turned on).

The real diode

Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off directionality but have a more
complex non- linear electrical characteristic, which depends on the particular
type of diode technology.

In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through
the device is very low (in the µA range). At very large reverse bias a process
called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current. In the
diode is forward biased but with a small potential difference, then only a small
forwardcurrent is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an
arbitrarily defined"cut-in voltage" or "on-voltage" or "diode forward voltage
drop (Va)", the diode presents avery low resistance.

Half-wave rectifie
During the positive half cycle the diode is forward biased and the AC voltage
appears across the loadDuring the negative half cycle of the AC input the diode
is reverse biased blocking any current from passing through the load. Therefore
the current through R_{L} is always in the same direction, giving a DC output
across the loadThe output across the load is pulsating DC and we can smooth
this out using a filter circuit

Full-wave rectifier
In the full-wave rectifier current flows through the load in the same direction for
both positive and negative half cycles of the AC input voltageThis can be
achieved with two diodes working alternately. Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
shown below is commonly used for full-wave rectification:

The full-wave bridge rectifier contains four diodes D1,

D2,D3and D4 During the positive half cycle D1and D3 are forward biased while
D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Since D1 and D3 are conducting, the current flows
through these two diodes and RL The two diodes are in series with load and the
current flow through the load is in the AB directionDuring the negative half cycle
D2 and D4 are forward biasedwhich will be in series with RLCurrent flows
through these two diodes and the load and the current through the load is in
the AB direction. Therefore a DC output is obtained through the load.

Procedure:
Experiment 1;
circuit 1

the cathode of the LED was securely connected to one extremity of the 330-ohm
resistor. The opposite terminal of this resistor was then firmly attached to the
positive terminal of the 5V power supply. Furthermore, the anode of the LED
was thoughtfully linked to the cathode of the 1N4007 diode, forming a precise
connection. To complete the circuit, the anode of the diode was connected with
utmost care to the negative terminal of the 5V power supply
circuit 2

The cathode of the LED was inserted into an available row on the breadboard.
One end of the 330-ohm resistor was connected to the same row where the
LED's cathode was inserted. A jumper wire was employed to link the other end
of the resistor to the positive terminal of the 5V power supply. The anode of the
LED was inserted into another row on the breadboard. Furthermore, one end of
the 1N4007 diode was connected to the same row where the LED's anode was
inserted, while the other end of the diode was linked to the common ground or
negative terminal of the 5V power supply

Experiment 2;

Carefully inserted into the breadboard, with attention paid to its

polarity, ensuring that the cathode was accurately connected to the
negative side. Electrical connections were established by attaching one
end of a 100-ohm resistor to the cathode of the diode. The opposite
end of the resistor was connected to one terminal of the ammeter. The
other terminal of the ammeter was linked to the negative terminal of
the voltmeter, while the positive terminal of the voltmeter was
connected to the diode's anode. These connections were securely
fastened on the breadboard using connecting wires. The variable
resistor, also known as a potentiometer, was introduced into the
breadboard configuration, with one end connected to the diode's
anode and the other end to the common ground on the breadboard.
To power the circuit, the positive terminal of the power supply was
attached to the diode's anode, and the negative terminal was
connected to the common ground. The variable resistor was set to its
minimum resistance position, establishing an initial voltage of zero.
With the circuit prepared, the power supply was turned on, and the
voltage was methodically increased using the variable resistor while
closely monitoring readings on the ammeter and voltmeter. The
experiment began with 0 volts and gradually increased the voltage in
small increments, reaching a maximum of 5 volts. For each voltage
increment, the corresponding values of voltage (V) and current (I)
from the voltmeter and ammeter, respectively, were diligently
recorded. A well-organized table was maintained to document the
data as the experiment progressed.
Experiment 3;

In this experiment, a half-wave rectifier circuit was constructed using a

1N4007 diode, a capacitor, a 1kohm resistor, a 1kohm load resistor, an
oscilloscope, and a power supply providing a sine wave source at 60Hz.
The diode was connected to the positive terminal of the power supply,
with its cathode connected to the positive side of the source. A 1kohm
resistor was placed in series with the diode, and its other end was
connected to one terminal of the capacitor. The capacitor's other
terminal was connected to the ground of the power supply, effectively
creating a parallel connection with the resistor. Additionally, a 50ohm
load resistor was connected in parallel with the capacitor to simulate a
load in the circuit. The oscilloscope was connected to observe the
output waveform, and the power supply was adjusted to provide a
sine wave at 60Hz. The experiment aimed to demonstrate the
rectification of an AC input into a DC output by the half-wave rectifier
circuit, allowing current flow in only one direction, as observed in the
output waveform across the load resistor
Experiment 4

The full-wave rectifier circuit was established through a systematic

series of steps. First, all the necessary components, including four
1N4007 diodes, a capacitor, a 1kohm resistor, an oscilloscope, and a
sine wave power supply set at 60Hz, were meticulously arranged on a
clean and organized work surface. Subsequently, the diodes were
paired, with their cathodes being joined together, resulting in the
creation of two parallel branches. The anodes of these diode pairs were
interconnected, thereby forming a crucial bridge configuration. The
circuit was then completed by connecting a 1kohm resistor between
the positive terminal of the power supply and the junction point of the
diode pairs. Additionally, the capacitor was attached, with one
terminal being linked to the diode junction and the other to the
common ground of the power supply. The oscilloscope was
subsequently connected across the load resistor to facilitate the
observation of the circuit's output. .

Discussion:
In Circuit 1, a 1N4007 diode is forward-biased, with its anode connected to a
higher voltage potential and its cathode to a lower voltage potential, allowing
current to flow through it. This diode configuration results in the illumination of
an LED that is also a part of the circuit, as the diode's conduction enables
current to pass through the LED, causing it to emit light. Conversely, in Circuit 2,
the same 1N4007 diode is reverse-biased, with its anode at a lower voltage and
its cathode at a higher voltage, rendering it highly resistant to current flow in
the normal direction. This reverse biasing effectively blocks the flow of current
through the diode, preventing significant current from reaching the connected
LED, which remains unilluminated. These two circuits showcase the pivotal role
of diode biasing in controlling current flow and influencing the behaviour of
associated components, such as LEDs.

Experiment 3 (Half-Wave Rectifier) : In a

half-wave rectifier circuit, the diode allows current to flow
only during one half of the AC input cycle. As a result, the
output is a pulsating DC voltage with significant ripples. The
capacitor in Experiment 3 is connected in parallel to the
output of the rectifier. Its role is to store charge during the
brief moments when the voltage is at its peak (during the
positive half of the AC cycle) and then discharge during the
troughs. This action smoothens out the voltage, reducing the
ripples and creating a steadier DC output. The capacitor acts
as a filter, improving the quality of the DC voltage.

Experiment 4 (Full-Wave Rectifier): In a full-wave rectifier

circuit, the diodes allow current to flow during both halves of
the AC input cycle, resulting in a more continuous DC output
compared to the half-wave rectifier. However, some residual
ripples may still be present. The capacitor in Experiment 4 is
also connected in parallel to the rectified output, performing
the same filtering function as in Experiment 3. It stores
charge during the peaks of the rectified waveform and
releases it during the troughs, further reducing any remaining
ripples and providing a smoother and more stable DC
voltage. The capacitors in both Experiment 3 and Experiment
4 serve as filter components to improve the quality of the
rectified DC voltage. They reduce ripples and fluctuations,
ensuring that the output is a cleaner and more consistent DC
signal suitable for powering electronic devices or other
applications that require a steady voltage source.

In conducting these experiments involving rectifier circuits and

capacitors, the accuracy of the method is of paramount importance to
ensure reliable results. The primary objective is to rectify AC voltage
and produce a stable DC output with minimal ripples. To achieve this
accuracy, precautions are taken to address potential sources of errors.
These include careful component selection to minimize variations in
diode and capacitor characteristics, ensuring a stable and regulated AC
power supply, controlling temperature effects, and maintaining
equipment in good condition. Precision measurements and multiple
experimental trials also contribute to accurate data collection. By
being attentive to these factors and taking appropriate precautions,
the experiments can yield precise and dependable results, facilitating a
deeper understanding of rectification and smoothing processes in
electronics.
conclusion
In conclusion, the series of experiments conducted provided a
comprehensive understanding of diode behavior and various circuit
configurations. The experiments illuminated the distinctions between
forward and reverse biasing in diodes, showcasing their role in
controlling current flow. Additionally, the VI diagram analysis offered
valuable insights into diode characteristics. Furthermore, the
experiments involving half-wave and full-wave rectifiers demonstrated
the rectification process and the utilization of capacitors for
smoothing output. Overall, these experiments contributed to a deeper
knowledge of diode-based circuits and their practical applications in
electronics.
reference :
"Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory" by Robert L. Boylestad and
Louis Nashelsky
"Electronic Principles" by Albert Malvino and David Bates
"Introduction to the Theory of Diodic Rectifiers" by Vadim Rashkeev