Castaños LP BSPsy Cogni-Psych

PWC of Davao Course: PEPC 005 Cognitive Psychology
MODULE 1
Title : Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
At the end of the period, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the study of cognitive psychology as one of the branches of

psychology.
2. Elaborate the history and origins of cognitive psychology.
3. Determine how cognitive psychology emergence through the course of
time.
4. Enumerate the distinctive research methods utilized in cognitive
psychology.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1.Defining Cognitive Psychology
1.2.Origins of Cognitive Psychology
1.3.Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
1.4.Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
2. Educational Resources
Radvansky G.A. & Ashcraft, M.H. (2018). Cognition 7th Edition. Pearson.
Sternberg, R.J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology, 6th Edition.

New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Psychology Unlocked (2020, July 8). Cognitive Psychology Explained

In Less Than 5 Minutes [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VcaAVWtP48A
.
3. Materials
3.1. Course syllabus
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
3.4. Papers/Notebooks
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4. Values Focus
In-depth and broad knowledge, skills, and understanding in the field of study
including how other disciplines relate to other fields in relation to the study of
mental processes.
III.Learning Procedures and Strategies

a. Preparatory Activity
List down 20 words that are associated with your experiences during your
childhood.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Defining Cognitive Psychology
1.1.1 According to Sternberg and Sternberg (2012), cognitive

psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental
processes. The study that involves how people learn, perceive,
remember and think about information.
1.1.2 The word ‘cognition’ derived from the Latin word cognoscere
which means “to know” or “to come to know”. Cognitive
psychologists focus on the various cognitive processes such as
attention, perception, pattern recognition and memory.
1.1.3 Attention refers to the process by which an individual focuses

on a certain stimulus while perception is how an individual
interprets what he/she senses. On the other hand, pattern
recognition is a process by which individuals organize stimuli
into categories. Lastly, memory refers to the process by which
information is stored and later retrieved.
1.1.4 Cognition includes different kinds of information processing that

occurs at different stages. The stages involve perception,
learning and memory storage, retrieval and thinking.
1.1.5 Cognitive psychologists focus not just on how people think but
they also study how people have thoughts of thinking, this
approach is known as dialectic.
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1.1.6 Dialectic is a developmental process that changes over time

through a pattern of transformation. It includes a thesis
statement, an antithesis, and synthesis.
1.1.6.1 A thesis is a statement that is proposed, also known

as the belief. Eventually, an antithesis emerges that
refers to the statement that opposes previous
statements of belief. Lastly, a synthesis integrates the
reliable viewpoints between the thesis and the
antithesis.
1.1.7 The dialectic is important because one might think that one
view is right and the other view is wrong. It helps individuals
understand that there are two contrasting viewpoints.
1.2 History of cognitive psychology
1.2.1 The earliest roots of psychology towards understanding the

human mind began with two approaches, specifically the
approach in philosophy and physiology.
1.2.1.1 Philosophy aims to understand one’s inner world such

as inner ideas and experiences (introspection) in
relation to his or her general nature.
1.2.1.2 Physiology aims to understand living matter that

makes up life itself - through empirical or
observational-based methods.
1.2.2 Some prominent figures in psychology have contrasting beliefs

towards understanding the human mind.
1.2.2.1 Examples of these prominent figures include the two

great Greek philosophers Plato (ca. 428-348 B.C.)
and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.).
1.2.2.2 Rationalists believe that knowledge is attained

through the use of rationalism which explains the
concept of thinking and logical analysis. Plato was a
rationalist who was not interested in the idea of using
experiments to gain or develop new knowledge.
1.2.2.3 On the other hand, Aristotle, the student of Plato,

believes that knowledge is acquired through
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experiments and observations therefore having

empirical evidence. Empiricists believe that
experiments are essential to observe one’s behavior
and motivation.
1.2.2.4 Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French rationalist

believed that in finding truth, introspection of one’s
inner world in a reflective method is essential. Thus,
confirmed his infamous expression “I think, therefore I
am”.
1.2.2.5 John Locke (1632-1704), a British empiricist believed

that individuals are born without knowledge, therefore
through empirical observations, one seeks
knowledge. Locke’s concept for this claim was tabula
rasa meaning “blank slate”.
1.2.3 Early psychologists have approaches way back in

understanding cognition or how the mind works - these
approaches include the structuralism, functionalism,
behaviorism, associationism and behaviorism.
1.2.3.1 Structuralism aims to understand the structures of the

mind in relation to how an individual perceived
through affection, attention, memory, sensation and
etc.
1.2.3.2 Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920), a German

psychologist who is the founder of structuralism used
introspection as a method to understand the human
mind. Introspection is the process of looking inward
to examine one’s own thoughts and emotions.
1.2.3.3 Edward Titchener, one of Wundt’s student, became

the first full-fledged structuralist and contributed in
bringing structuralism in the United States.
1.2.3.4 Functionalism aims to understand the human mind by

studying what they do rather than their structural
contents and elements of the mind.
1.2.3.5 Associationism was a school of thought that also

made an influential approach in studying the human
mind. Associationism aims to determine how the
elements of mind such as experiences or ideas can
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become associated with one another as a result, a

form of learning.
1.2.3.6 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) studied his own

mental processes and was the first experimenter who
applied associationist principles.
1.2.3.7 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 – 1949) termed the

principle “law of effect” in relation to forming
associations. This law states that an individual tend
to react in a specific situation if reward is given
repeatedly.
1.2.3.8 Behaviorism is the study that focus on the relationship

between an individual’s observable behavior in
relation to his or her environmental cues.
1.2.3.9 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) studied behaviorism through

experimentation among dogs. His principle on
behaviorism known as classical conditioning states
that learning occurs through association. In his study,
dogs salivate in response to the sight of the lab
technician.
1.2.3.10 John Watson (1878-1958) believed that psychologists

should merely focus on the observable behavior
(Doyle, 2000) and concentrated on doing experiments
to animal participants rather than humans.
1.2.3.11 B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) believed that operant

conditioning such as rewards and punishments could
explain all forms of human behavior.
1.2.3.12 Gestalt psychology explain the idea that “the whole is

more than the sum of its parts”. It aims to understand
behavior by breaking phenomena into smaller parts.
1.3 Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
1.3.1 Cognitivism is the belief that is opposite to behaviorism. It is the

idea that humans can be understood by which how they think. It
rejects the notion that psychologists should avoid studying
mental processes because they are not observed.
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1.3.2 Karl Spencer Lashley (1890-1958) believe that the human brain
is an active organ and dynamic organizer of thoughts and
behaviors (Sternberg and Sternberg, 2012).
1.3.3 Donald Hebb (1949) emphasizes the role of the early

psychobiology by which he explained that cell assemblies play
an important role for learning in the brain. Cell assemblies
developed through a series of stimulation that are coordinated
neural structures (Sternberg and Sternberg, 2012).
1.3.4 Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct

systems that show intelligence, and, particularly, the intelligent
processing of information (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, 2003).
1.3.5 By the early 1960s. the field of psychobiology, linguistics,

anthropology, and artificial intelligence developed, opposing to
what behaviorist claim pave a way for revolution in
understanding the human mind.
1.3.6 In 1970s, cognitive psychology was recognized as a branch of

psychology that compromises of various set of research
methods. Jerry Fodor (1973) developed the concept of the
modularity of mind by which the mind has a unique module that
deals with linguistic and other kinds of information.
1.3.7 Franz-Joseph Gall, a phrenologist in the late 18 th century

believed that pattern of bumps and swells in the skulls plays a
role in one’s cognitive skills (Boring, 1950).
1.4 Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
1.4.1 Cognitive psychology utilizes research methods such as

laboratory or other controlled experiments, psychobiological
research, self-reports, case studies, naturalistic observation and
computer simulations and artificial intelligence (Sternberg and
Sternberg, 2012).
1.4.2 Laboratory experiment is an experiment that is conducted in a

controlled environment to determine if there is a change in the
independent variable. It is often conducted through a random
assignment of the population of interest.
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1.4.3 Psychobiological research aims to examine how cognition and

emotions combine with biological events. In this type of
research method, techniques such as postmortem studies,
studying the structures and activities of the human brain and
cerebral processes in relation to cognitive activity were
classified.
1.4.4 Self-report refers to an individual’s own account of one’s

cognitive skills or processes. This method is useful how an
individual describes rare events by which there are no other
way to measure.
1.4.5 Case studies refers to an in-depth study of a particular

individual or small groups. This research method are detailed
descriptions of a person’s psychological problems and how a
professional address this particular problem (Rathus, 2012).
1.4.6 Naturalistic observation refers to a scientific method which

organisms or individuals are observed in their natural
environments.
1.4.7 Artificial intelligence and computer simulations are done by

researchers to program computers to imitate a particular human
function or process. Some performance on a specific cognitive
task such as manipulating objects within a 3D space and
performance of a specific cognitive processes such as pattern
recognition (Sternberg and Sternberg, 2012).
Exercise 1
Fill in blanks: Provide the correct answer in the space provided.
1. The word ‘cognition’ derived from the Latin word ________ which means
“to know” or “to come to know”.
2. _________ aims to understand one’s inner world such as inner ideas and
experiences (introspection) in relation to his or her general nature.
3. _________ aims to determine how the elements of mind such as

experiences or ideas can become associated with one another as a
result, a form of learning.
4. __________ are detailed descriptions of a person’s psychological

problems and how a professional address this particular problem.
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5. __________ explain the idea that “the whole is more than the sum of its
parts”
Exercise 2: Choose the correct answer in the box provided.
Donald Hebb Karl Spencer Wilhelm Wundt Edward Ivan Pavlov

Lashley Lee
Thorndike
__________ 1. Believes that the human brain is an active organ and dynamic
organizer of thoughts and behaviors.
__________ 2. Emphasizes the role of the early psychobiology by which he

explained that cell assemblies play an important role for learning in the brain.
__________ 3. A German psychologist who is the founder of structuralism

used introspection as a method to understand the human mind.
__________ 4. Famous for his experiments on dogs which explain the

concept of classical conditioning.
__________ 5. Termed the principle “law of effect” in relation to forming

associations.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the six (6) research methods utilized in
cognitive psychology and define each.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Criteria: 2 points for every correct answer.
IV. Evaluation/Assessment
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1. Critical Thinking Questions: Answer the following questions.
A. Why is it important to study cognitive psychology?

B. What is cognition and how would you relate this concept in your
everyday life? Explain your answer.
C. Why is it necessary to trace back the history of cognitive psychology?
2. Reflection Paper: Write a reflection paper on the learnings that you have
gained in this module.
Rubrics/Criteria:
For Evaluation no. 1:

✔ Content (5 points)
✔ Organization (3 points)
✔ Grammar and Style (2 points)
Evaluation 1: Overall points = 10 points

✔ Depth and Analysis of reflection paper (5 points)
✔ Levels of experiences, learnings, and insights (5 points)
Evaluation: Overall points = 15 points
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MODULE 2
Title : Cognitive Neuroscience
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Explain the fundamental structures and processes in the brain.

2. Identify the various parts of the brain and their functions.
3. Elaborate the existing brain disorders affecting individuals.
4. Discuss some researches or studies in relation to intelligence and
neuroscience.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1.Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain
1.2.Viewing Structures and Functions of the Brain
1.3.Brain Disorders
1.4.Intelligence and Neuroscience
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CrashCourse (2014, Feb 25). Meet Your Master - Getting to Know Your
Brain: Crash Course Psychology #4 [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHrmiy4W9C0.
.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
including how other discipline relate to other fields in relation to the study of
mental processes.

Think of the time you made bad decisions for once in your life. How would
you feel about it?
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Anatomy and the mechanisms of the brain
1.1.1 Cognitive neuroscience refers to the subfield of neuroscience that

studies the functions of the various parts of the brain in relation to
the biological processes underlying human cognition.
1.1.2 The nervous system is responsible for an individual’s ability to

perceive, adapt to, and connect to the world (Gazzaniga, 2000). It
consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
1.1.3 Brain refers to the organ that is responsible for one’s thoughts,
emotions, and motivations (Rockland, 2000). Specific areas of the
brain have their functions that control one’s behavior also known
as localization of functions.
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1.1.4 The forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain are the major parts of the
brain with their individual functions.
1.1.4.1 The forebrain is the part of the brain that is located toward
the top and front of the brain. It consists of the cerebral
cortex, the basal ganglia, the limbic system, thalamus and
hypothalamus.
1.1.4.2 Cerebral cortex is responsible for controlling one’s

thought, senses and voluntary movement. It is the outer
layer of the cerebral hemispheres.
1.1.4.3 Basal ganglia are a group of structures of neurons

responsible for motor functions.
1.1.4.4 Limbic system refers to the part of the brain that is

important to one’s emotion, motivation, memory, and
learning. This part also is responsible for suppression of
instinctive responses. The limbic system consists of
amygdala (emotions), septum (anger and fear) and
hippocampus (memory formation).
1.1.4.5 Thalamus responsible for relaying sensory input into the

brain, located in almost in the center of the brain.
1.1.4.6 Hypothalamus is responsible for fighting, feeding, fleeing

and mating – essential for survival and one’s reaction
towards stress.
1.1.5 The midbrain is the source of control for visual and auditory
information. It consists of superior colliculi (vision), inferior colliculi
(hearing), reticular activating system (consciousness, sleep
arousal, attention and cardiorespiratory functions), gray matter and
substantia nigra (movements).
1.1.6 Hindbrain consists of medulla oblongata, the pons, and the

cerebellum.
1.1.6.1 The medulla oblongata is responsible for cardiorespiratory

function, digestion and swallowing.
1.1.6.2 The pons involves in consciousness, sleep and arousal

and connect neural transmission of the different parts of
the brain and also responsible for facial nerves.
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1.1.6.3 Cerebellum is responsible for balance, coordination and

muscle tone.
1.1.7 Split-brain patients are individuals who have undergone operations

severing the corpus callosum which part of the brain that connects
the right and left hemispheres.
1.1.8 There are four lobes that divide the cerebral hemispheres and
cortex into four parts namely the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital
lobe and temporal lobe.
1.1.8.1 Frontal lobe is located toward the front of the brain and is
responsible for motor and higher thought processes such
as abstract reasoning, problem solving, planning, and
judgement (Struss and Floden, 2003).
1.1.8.2 Parietal lobe is located at the upper back portion of the
brain. This particular lobe is responsible for integrating
sensory information, including touch, temperature,
pressure and pain.
1.1.8.3
1.1.8.4 Temporal lobe is located in the lower lobe of the cortex
and near the ear level within the skull. It is associated with
auditory information and with the encoding of memory
(Murray, 2003).
1.1.8.5 The occipital lobe is associated with visual processing (De

Weerd, 2003). It is responsible with visuospatial
processing, distance and depth perception, color
determination, object and face recognition, and memory
formation.
1.1.9 The nervous system has neurons or the neural cells that transmits
electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous
system (Carlson, 2006). It has four basic parts namely the soma
(cell body), dendrites, axon, and terminal buttons.
1.1.9.1 The soma or the cell body consist the nucleus of the cell,
that reproduces life itself of the neuron that connects the
dendrites to the axon.
1.1.9.2 Dendrites are responsible for receiving information from

other neurons that are branch-like structures.
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1.1.9.3 The axon is a long, thin tube that transmits electrical

impulses from the cell body to axon terminals which can
then transmits the impulse to another neuron.
1.1.9.4 Axons are covered by a myelin sheath, a fatty material

that is responsible for insulation that protects longer axons
from electrical inference by other neurons in the area that
fasten the conduction of information. Nodes of ranvier are
the small gaps in the myelin sheath.
1.1.9.5 The terminal buttons are small knobs found at the end of
an axon that is almost touching the dendrites of the next
neuron, thus a tiny gap exists, which is called the synapse
(Carlson, 2006).
1.1.10 Neurotransmitters are the body’s chemical messengers,

transmitting information across the synaptic gap to the receiving
dendrites of a next neuron (Dermietzel, 2006). The major
neurotransmitters are namely the acethylcholine, dopamine,
epinephrine and norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate and
neuropeptides.
1.2 Viewing the structures and functions of the brain
1.2.1 Postmortem examination also known as autopsy, is the

examination of a body after death. Researchers examine a
patient’s brain for lesion by which part of the brain has damaged
such as from injury or disease.
1.2.2 Studying the human brain on live humans also has various
imaging techniques. These techniques include electrical
recordings, static imaging and metabolic imaging (Sternberg and
Sternberg, 2012).
1.2.2.1 Electrical recordings are utilized to record electrical

frequencies and intensities of the living brain (Picton and
Mazaheri, 2003). An example of this is the
electrocenphalograms (EEGs).
1.2.2.2 An event-related potential (ERP) on the other hand, is a

type of electrical recording that records the brain’s
electrical activity in response to a stimulating event.
1.2.2.3 A static imaging technique uses images to reveal the

structures of the brain. These techniques include
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angiograms, computed tomography (CT) scans, and

magnetic resonance imaging scans (MRI).
1.2.2.4 Metabolic Imaging a type of imaging technique used to

study the human brain by relying on the changes that
takes place within the brain to the increasing consumption
of glucose and oxygen in active areas of the brain. The
techniques include the PET scan, fMRIs, TMS, and MEG.
1.2.2.5 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan provides

information about blood flow and how an individual’s body
consume oxygen and glucose.
1.2.2.6 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a

neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic field to show
a three-dimensional image on the levels of the activity in
different part of the brain.
1.2.2.7 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) TMS is a non-

invasive method of brain stimulation that relies on
electromagnetic induction using an insulated coil placed
over the scalp.
1.2.2.8 Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive

medical test that measures the magnetic fields produced
by your brain's electrical currents.
1.3 Brain Disorders
1.3.1 Vascular disorder is a brain disorder caused by a stroke. Strokes

happen when there is a sudden disruption to the flow of blood to
the brain. It can be categorized into two types, the ischemic stroke
and hemorrhagic stroke.
1.3.1.1 Ischemic stroke is the type of stroke that is caused by a

blockage in an artery that supplies blood to the brain.
1.3.1.2 Hemorrhagic stroke is the type of stroke when a blood

vessel bursts that cause bleeding in the brain.
1.3.2 Brain tumors also known as neoplasms, can affect an individual’s

cognition. Tumors occur mostly in the white matter in the brain
(Mangun, 2009).
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1.3.3 According to Sternberg and Sternberg (2012), the most common

symptoms of brain tumors are the following: headaches, nausea or
vomiting, changes in speech, vision or hearing, problems
balancing or waking, changes in mood, memory problems, and
muscle jerking. Brain tumors can either be benign or malignant.
1.3.4 Head injuries are commonly caused by car accident, contact with a
hard object, or a bullet wound. In closed-head injuries, there is a
damage to the brain but the skull remains intact. In open-head
injuries, the skull is penetrated, for example, shot by a bullet
(Sternberg and Sternberg, 2012).
1.4 Intelligence and Neuroscience
1.4.1 Studies showed that brain size or volume is strongly correlated

with IQ, specifically in the areas of the frontal and temporal
lobes (Haier, Jung, Yeo, Head and Alkire, 2004).
1.4.2 Studies also showed the correlation between the speed of

conduction of the neurons specifically the neural impulses to
intelligence. This study was measured by a Multidimensional
Aptitude Battery and showed that neural conduction velocity
appeared to be a powerful predictor of IQ (Wickett and Vernon,
1994).
1.4.3 In some studies, intelligence and brain metabolism are highly

correlated. According to Haier (1992), higher intelligence
correlates with reduced level of glucose metabolism during
problem-solving tasks. It indicate that a smarter brain consumes
less sugar than less smart brains doing problem-solving tasks.
1.4.4 The parietal-frontal integration theory or the P-FIT theory of

intelligence states the importance of interconnected brain
regions in relation to intelligence. The regions that are included
in this theory are the prefrontal cortex, parietal lobe, the anterior
cingulated cortex and some portions of the temporal and
occipital lobe (Colom et al., 2009). P-Fit theory defines the brain
activity of these regions of the brain in correlation to intelligence.
Exercise 1
1. ____________ refers to the subfield of neuroscience that studies the
functions of the various parts of the brain in relation to the biological
processes underlying human cognition.
Page | 16
2. ____________ is responsible for controlling one’s thought, senses and

voluntary movement. It is the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres.
3. ____________ are individuals who have undergone operations severing

the corpus callosum which part of the brain that connects the right and
left hemispheres.
4. _____________ lobe is responsible for integrating sensory information,

including touch, temperature, pressure and pain.
5. The nervous system is responsible for an individual’s ability to perceive,

adapt to, and connect to the world. It consists of the ______ and the
_______.
Neurotransmitters Post-mortem Static imaging Vascular Neoplasms

studies techniques disorders
__________ 1. Also known as brain tumors that affect an individual’s

cognitive functions.
__________ 2. The body’s chemical messengers.
__________ 3. A brain disorder caused by a stroke.
__________ 4. These techniques include angiograms, computed

tomography (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging scans (MRI).
__________ 5. Researchers examine a patient’s brain for lesion.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate four studies or researches that indicate the
relationship between intelligence and neuroscience.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page | 17
A. How do you take care of your brain? Explain your answer.
B. Describe the importance of neurotransmitters.
Rubrics/Criteria:


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MODULE 3
Title : Visual Perception
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Explain the concept and terms that is associated with perception.

2. Identify the various parts of the visual system and its importance.
3. Elaborate the cognitive disorders and deficits in perception.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
Page | 19
1.1.Perception
1.2.The Visual System
1.3.Approaches to Perception
1.4.Perception of Objects and Forms
1.5.Perceptual Constances and Depth Perception
1.6.Deficits in Perception

CrashCourse (2014, March 18). Perceiving is Believing: Crash Course

Psychology #7 [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=n46umYA_4dM.
.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.

Stand at one end of a room and hold your thumb up to your eye so that it is the
same size as the door on the opposite side of the room. Do you think that your
thumb is really as large as a door?
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Perception
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1.1.1 James Gibson conceptualized the “ecological approach” to the

study of visual perception. This approach states that humans
perceive their environment directly, without mediation by
cognitive processes. He introduced the concepts on perception
such as distal object, informational medium, proximal
stimulation and perceptual object.
1.1.2 Distal (far) object refers to any physical object or event in the
external world that reflects light. An example would be a falling
tree (Sternberg and Sternberg, 2012).
1.1.3 Informational medium refers to the distal object’s pattern, it

could be sound waves, like the sound of a falling tree.
1.1.4 Proximal stimulation refers to when the information from the

light waves is relay to the sensory receptors of the eyes. For
instance, the cells in the retina absorb light waves.
1.1.5 Perceptual objects refers to the object an individual sees.

Perception occurs when a perceptual object reflect properties in
an individual’s environment.
1.1.6 Mental percept is a mental representation of a stimulus that is

perceived.
1.2 The Visual System
1.2.1 Cornea is the part of the eye that covers and protect the eye by
which light passes through.
1.2.2 Pupil is the black circle in the center of the iris. It is the portal
which admits and regulates the flow of light to the retina.
1.2.3 Vitreous humor consists 99% of water and the rest is a mixture
of collagen, proteins, salts and sugars
(visioneyeinstitute.com.au). It is a clear, colourless fluid that fills
the space between the lens and the retina.
1.2.4 Retina is the part of the eye that receives light and converts into
chemical energy – neural electrochemical impulses (Blake,
2000) and transmit these signals to brain for visual recognition.
1.2.5 The retina consists are three main layers of neuronal tissue
namely the ganglion cells, the interneuron cells (amacrine cells,
horizontal cells and bipolar cells) and photoreceptors.
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1.2.5.1 Ganglion cells is the first layer of neuronal tissue that

relay information from the retina to the brain through
the optic nerve.
1.2.5.2 Amacrine and horizontal cells function laterally, it

connects among adjacent areas of the retina in the
middle layer of cells. On the other hand, bipolar cells
transmits visual information from photoreceptors (rods
and cones) to amacrine cells and ganglion cells.
1.2.5.3 Photoreceptors consists of the rods and cones. The

rods are the most sensitive to light and dark changes,
shape and movement. The cons, are most sensitive
to one of the three different colors such as green, red
or blue. Rods and cons are photopigments which are
chemical substances that react to lights that undergo
a chemical change.
1.2.6 Fovea is a part of the retina about the size of the head of a pin
that is responsible for sharp central vision needed for individuals
for reading, driving, or any activity that requires visual details.
1.3 Approaches to Perception
1.3.1 Bottom-up theories refers to a processing of perception that

begins with a stimuli that is perceived through the eye which is
when the stimuli (environment) influence our thinking. It forms a
representation of an individual’s mind.
1.3.1.1 Direct perception also known as Gibson’s theory of

direct perception states that our sense is what an
individual need to perceive anything. This is in
relation to an individual’s environment that cater all
the information needed for perception.
1.3.1.2 Template theories refers to a theory of perception

wherein what an individual perceive or every
perceived object is stored as a set of templates into
our long-term memory.
1.3.1.3 Feature-matching theories states that we break down

visual patterns into a set of a more interpretative
features which we then try to match against features
stored in memory.
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1.3.1.4 Recognition-by-components theory explains that

humans recognizes objects through geons or the
object’s main component parts. For instance, we
break down the mug into two components – the
cylinder and handle. This theory aims to view objects
into objects such as the edges and concavities (area
where edges meet).
1.3.2 Top-down theories is an approach in perception wherein it is

hypothesis-driven and emphasized the importance of higher
mental processes such as expectations, beliefs, values and
social influences. According to Gregory (1970), this is
perceiving the environment from what we already know in order
to interpret new information.
1.4 Perception of Objects and Forms
1.4.1 Viewer-centered representation states that individual perceives

the way object looks to them. It is a representation of the
appearance of the object to the viewer. For instance, when we
try to recognize an object, we have to rotate that specific object
in our mind to know what it is.
1.4.2 Object-centered perception states that individual perceives the

object, independent of its appearance to the viewer. For
instance, when we try to recognize an object, we don’t’ have to
rotate that specific object in our mind to know what it is. Thus, it
will stay stable across different orientations (McMullen and
Farrah, 1991).
1.4.3 Landmark-centered representation states that representation is

distinguished by its relation to a well-known item. For instance,
traveling to a new city you would remember the landmark where
your hotel is located if you leave or go for a short walk.
1.4.4 Gestalt law states that an individual tend to organize one’s

experience in a manner that is orderly and recognizable. It helps
individual understand meaning despite complexities. The gestalt
law is associated with six principles such as the similarity,
continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground and symmetry
and order.
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1.4.4.1 Similarity refers to grouping similar objects that can

be classified by color, shape or size regardless of
their proximity to each other.
1.4.4.2 Continuations states that the human eye will look at

the smoothest path when viewing lines.
1.4.4.3 Closure states that human brain will fill in the missing
parts of a design or image for it to be whole.
1.4.4.4 Proximity states that how close objects or elements

are with each other.
1.4.4.5 Figure/ground states that the human brain will identify

between the objects it considers to be in the
foreground of an image (figure) and the background
(where the figure is located).
1.4.4.6 Symmetry and order also known as pragnanz or

“good figure”. It states that the human brain will
perceive objects as forming mirror images about their
center.
1.5 Perceptual Constancies and Depth Perception
1.5.1 Perceptual constancies refers to a phenomenon by which there

is a tendency for humans to see familiar objects to remain the
same such as their shape, size, color or location regardless to
the shift of angle or distance.
1.5.2 Depth perception is the ability to see objects in a three-

dimensional way that includes the length, width and depth, and
judge how far away an object is.
1.6 Deficits in Perception
1.6.1 Agnosia refers to the loss of the ability to recognize faces,

objects, voices or place. Individuals suffering from agnosia have
trouble in perceiving sensory information (Moscovitch, 1997).
1.6.2 Simultagnosia is a cognitive disorder wherein an individual is

unable to perceive more than one object at a time.
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1.6.3 Prosopagnosia also known as face blindless is a cognitive

disorder in which individuals have the difficulty to recognize
human faces.
1.6.4 Optic ataxia refers to an impairment in the ability to use the

visual system to guide movement. People suffering from optic
ataxia has difficulty reaching for things (Himmelbach and
Karnath, 2005).
1.6.5 Color blindness occurs when an individual has the difficulty to

distinguish colors. They can only see shades of gray as a
function of their vision and having cones – which are
photoreceptors responsible for color vision that are
nonfunctional.
Exercise 1
1. ____________ is the black circle in the center of the iris. It is the portal
which admits and regulates the flow of light to the retina.
2. Proximal stimulation refers to when the information from the light

waves is relay to the ___________ of the eyes.
3. ____________ states that an individual tends to organize one’s

experience in a manner that is orderly and recognizable.
4. _____________ perceiving the environment from what we already

know in order to interpret new information.
5. _____________ states that humans perceive their environment

directly, without mediation by cognitive processes.
Color
Agnosia Simultagnosia Blindness Prosopagnosia Optic Ataxia
__________ 1. Individuals have the difficulty to perceive colors.
__________ 2. Individuals have trouble in perceiving sensory information.
__________ 3. Individuals have the difficulty to perceive more than one

object.
Page | 25
__________ 4. Individuals have difficulty reaching for things.
__________ 5. Individuals have difficulty in recognizing human faces.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate atleast five (5) parts of the visual system and
define their functions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A. What is the difference between the bottom-up and top-down

approaches in perception?
B. Describe the viewer-centered and object-centered representations.
Rubrics/Criteria:

Page | 26

Page | 27
MODULE 4
Title : Attention and Consciousness
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Explain the concept and attention and consciousness.

2. Elaborate the various theories associated with attention.
3. Discuss the difference between habituation and adaption; and automatic
and controlled process in attention.
4. Define conscious and its underlying concepts.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1.Attention
1.2.Problems in Attention
1.3.Habituation and Adaptation
1.4.Automatic and Controlled Process in Attention
1.5.Consciousness

F. Simonh Bries (2020, September 2). Stop, Look, Listen | Attention &
Consciousness (Cognitive Psych #2) [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QZXOi47AWw.
.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
Page | 28
mental processes.

How often are you engaged in more than one task at a time?
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Attention
1.1.1 Attention is the ability of an individual to actively process

particular information in one’s environment while not paying
attention to other details.
1.1.2 According to Sternberg and Sternberg (2012), there are four

main functions of attention which are signal detection and
vigilance, search, selective attention and divided attention.
1.1.3 Signal detection and vigilance refers to when an individual

automatically react or do a quick action when detects a signal
stimulus. This involves being able to be suddenly drawn to a
specific visual, or tactile stimuli such as loud noise or a flash of
light.
1.1.4 Search refers to actively searching for particular stimuli. If we

detect a smoke for example, as a result of our vigilance, we
may actively search for the source of smoke. Another example
would be searching for missing keys, hair pins and other
objects.
1.1.4.1 Feature-integration theory refers to perceiving

stimulus based on the given features. According to
Treisman (1986), our mind has a mental
representation on what we see – for instance, there is
a representation for every color, size, shape or
orientation.
1.1.4.2 Similarity theory states that attention is not drawn in

location but instead to the image of an object based
on similarities between targets and distractors.
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1.1.4.3 Guided Search Theory refers to a type of attention

wherein we first process some basic features such as
color, shape, and motion simultaneously across a
large field. Basic features are then followed by a
combination of basic features at a time in a smaller
area of the visual field.
1.1.5 Selective attention refers to attending to or to focus on a

selected stimulus in the environment while not paying attention
to other stimuli. For example, you might be reading a book and
selectively attend to it while not paying attention to your
neighbor’s barking dog.
1.1.5.1 Broadbent’s Model refers to a theory of selective

attention that filters necessary information for further
processing. The filter helps in preventing overloaded
information to pass through.
1.1.5.2 Selective Filter Model suggests that important

messages may passed through the filtering
mechanism for the reason that the selective filter
blocks out messages that are highly important to the
person receiving the message.
1.1.5.3 Attenuation Model refers to a theory of selective

attention that attenuates rather than eliminates the
unattended material. This theory states that
individuals can still be able to acknowledged the
content of an unattended message and at the same
time know the meaning of the attended messages.
1.1.5.4 Late-Filter Model refers to a theory of selective

attention by which selection occurs after stimulus
identification.
1.1.6 Divided attention refers to engage in more than one or two tasks
at a time. It involves shifting from one task to another. For
example is driving while listening or talking to a friend while
talking.
1.1.7 There are factors that have impact on our ability to concentrate
and pay attention. These factors include anxiety, arousal (like
being tired, drowsy, or drugged), task difficulty, and skills
(MacLean et al., 2009).
Page | 30
1.2 Problems in Attention
1.2.1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – individuals

having difficulty in paying attention, sit still and control one’s
behavior in relation his or her environment. There are three
primary symptoms of ADHD namely: inattention, hyperactivity
and impulsiveness.
1.2.2 ADHD is a mental disorder by which the mostly diagnosed are
children. Boys are more likely to have it than girls and it usually
began during early school years when a child begins to have
problems paying attention (Bhargava, 2021).
1.2.3 Change blindness refers to the tendency for an individual to

have miss changes in their immediate visual environment. It is a
failure to detect that an object has moved or disappeared and is
the opposite of change detection (Eysenck and Keane, 2006).
1.2.4 Inattentional blindness refers to a phenomenon wherein an

individual fails to notice things that are actually there. The usual
cases of inattentional blindness involve a single critical trial in
which an object appears unexpectedly while observers are
performing their task.
1.2.5 Spatial neglect or hemi-neglect is an attentional dysfunction by

which individuals ignore the half of their visual field causing
asymmetric spatial behavior due to brain lesion.
1.3 Habituation and Adaptation
1.3.1 Habituation refers to the decrease in response to a stimulus

then we gradually pay less attention to it. For instance, a new
sound in the environment such as a new ringtone can be
distracting but eventually you will get used to the noise pay less
attention to it and your response to the sound will diminished.
1.3.2 Dishabituation is a change in a familiar stimulus that cause us to

start noticing the stimulus again. It involves no conscious effort.
1.3.3 Sensory adaptation refers to a reduction in sensitivity to a

stimulus after constant exposure to it. It uses our senses and
helps free our attention and resources to attend to other stimuli
in the environment around us. For instance, jumping into a cold
swimming pool may feel unpleasant at first but eventually our
body adjust to the temperature thus it feels only mildly cool.
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1.3.4 Arousal refers to a degree of physiological excitation,

responsivity, and readiness for action. It is often measured
through heart rate, blood pressure and electroencephalograph
(EEG) patterns.
1.4 Automatic and Controlled Process in Attention
1.4.1 Automatic process is an act of performing out from an

individual’s consciousness. It demands little or no effort or even
intention. It is usually performed by parallel processing (having
many actions occurring simultaneously). There are slips that are
associated with automatic processes, some of it includes the
capture errors, omissions, perseverations, and description
errors.
1.4.1.1 Capture errors refers to an activity wherein we tend to

deviate from a routine activity we are implementing in
familiar surroundings. According to Psychologist
William James (1890), he cited an example of his
usual routine which involve undressing from his work
clothes, then putting on his pajamas and climbing into
bed- only to realized that he had intended to remove
his working clothes to dress and go out to dinner.
1.4.1.2 Omission refers to an interruption of a routine activity

may cause us to skip or two in implementing the
remaining portion of the routine. For example, is when
we tend to go to another room and want to get
something, if there is a distraction like a phone call
that interrupts you, you may return to the first room
without having retrieved what you want to get to the
other room.
1.4.1.3 Perseverations refers to when an automatic

procedure has been completed, one or more steps of
the procedure may be repeated. For example, if after
starting a car, you become distracted, you may turn
the ignition switch again.
1.4.1.4 Description errors refers to an internal description of

the intended behavior leads to performing the correct
action on the wrong object. For instance, when
putting away groceries, you may end up putting the
Page | 32
ice cream in the cupboard and a can of soup in the

freezer.
1.4.2 Controlled process is an act of performing consciously by an

individual. It requires full conscious awareness and relatively
time-consuming execution as compared with automatic
processes.
1.5 Consciousness
1.5.1 Consciousness refers to an individual awareness of one’s

unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and
environment. The consciousness is an individual’s awareness of
oneself and to his or her environment.
1.5.2 Views on the consciousness and mental processes were define

by various Psychologists. According to Ericsson and Simon
(1984), they have utilized the concept of protocol analysis in
analyzing individual’s solving problems such arithmetic
problems and chess problems. This view suggested that
individuals have quite good conscious access to their complex
information processes.
1.5.3 Another view of the consciousness and mental processes were

defined by Nisbett and Wilson in 1977. They suggested that
people may think they know how to solve problems, but usually
people’s thought are inaccurate. Individuals are typically
conscious of the products of their thinking but not clearly
conscious at all.
1.5.4 Preconscious refers to the level of the mind that are readily
available to the conscious mind, although not currently in use.
The preconscious mind is responsible for the phenomena such
as priming and tip-of-the-tongue.
1.5.4.1 Priming is a technique by which the introduction of

one stimulus influences how people respond to the
succeeding stimulus. For instance, the word “goat”
will evoke a faster response when it is followed by the
word “boat” because the two words are perceived as
similar.
1.5.4.2 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomena refers to a state in

which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can
recall words of similar form and meaning. This
Page | 33
phenomenon is usually involuntary effect and usually

a lot of people have experienced this.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ refers to the decrease in response to a stimulus then we
gradually pay less attention to it.
2. ___________ refers to a reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after
constant exposure to it.
3. ____________ is an individual’s awareness of one’s unique thoughts,

memories, feelings, sensations, and environment.
4. _____________ is a psychological disorder by which individuals have

difficulty in paying attention, sit still and control one’s behavior in
relation his or her environment.
5. _____________ refers to attending to or to focus on a selected

stimulus in the environment while not paying attention to other stimuli.
Feature- Selective Filter Broadbent’s Guided Late-Filter

integration Model Model Search Model
theory Theory
__________ 1. Theory of selective attention by which selection occurs after

stimulus identification.
__________ 2. A theory that refers to perceiving stimulus based on the given

features.
__________ 3. A theory that refers to a type of attention wherein we first

process some basic features then followed by a combination of basic features
at a time in a smaller area of the visual field.
__________ 4. Suggests that important messages may passed through the

filtering mechanism for the reason that the selective filter blocks out
messages.
__________ 5. A theory of selective attention that filters necessary

information for further processing.
Page | 34
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the four (4) slips that are associated with
automatic processes. Explain each.
1.
2.
3.
4.
A. Why is habituation important?
B. What is the difference between automatic processes and controlled

processes?
C. Explain the Tip-of-the-tongue phenomena and priming.
Rubrics/Criteria:


Page | 35
MODULE 5
Title : Models of Memory
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Elaborate the tasks that are used in measuring memory and its functions.
2. Determine the various models of memory and their differences.
3. Relate how memory is connected to neuropsychology and its
corresponding role.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1.Tasks Used for Measuring Memory
1.2. Models of Memory
1.3. Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology

Page | 36
CrashCoure. (2014, May 6). How We Make Memories: Crash Course

Psychology #13 [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bSycdIx-C48.
.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.
When did you last had your laundry and do household chores? Explain your
answer.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Tasks Used for Measuring Memory
1.1.1 Recall versus recognition tasks is a one way to study memory.

Recall refers to a fact or a word from memory while recognition
refers to identifying a specific object that one has been exposed
to previously.
1.1.2 According to Lockhart (2000), there are three main types of

recall used in experiments namely the serial recall, free recall
and cued recall.
1.1.2.1 Serial recall strategizes in a way that an individual

recall items in the exact order by which they were
presented. For instance, one could ask a participant
in a game show to recall the states in the United
States in alphabetical order.
Page | 37
1.1.2.2 Free call strategizes in a way that an individual recall

any items in any order he choose (Golomb et al.,
2008). In this case, an individual is asked to recall the
states in the Unites States in any order.
1.1.2.3 Cued recall strategizes in a way that an individual is

shown items in pairs - but when asked to recall items,
he is cued with only one member of each pair. Cued
recall is also known as “paired-associates recall”.
1.1.3 Recognition-memory task is also known as tapping receptive

knowledge. Receptive is define as “responsive to a stimulus”. In
this task, an individual respond to stimuli that was presented
and decide whether they have seen them before or not.
1.1.4 Explicit versus implicit memory tasks is another way to study

memory. Explicit memory refers to a type of memory that is
easily and intentionally recalled and recited. On the other hand,
implicit memory refers to a type of memory that an individual
unconsciously recall and unaware of doing so.
1.1.4.1 Examples of explicit memory include remembering

what you have learned in Cognitive Psychology class,
recalling your friend’s cellphone number and etc. On
the other hand, an example of implicit memory
includes singing your favorite song, typing on the
computer keyboard, riding a bike, and etc.
1.1.4.2 Implicit memory involves two tasks such as priming

tasks and tasks involving procedural knowledge.
1.1.4.3 Priming refers to a technique by which an individual is

introduce with a stimulus that influences how he or
she respond to a subsequent stimulus. For instance,
exposing someone to the word “red” will evoke a
faster response to the word “banana” that words like
“cellphone”.
1.1.4.4 Procedural memory refers to an information from the

long-term memory that is responsible for knowing a
specific task. It includes knowing how to perform
certain procedures like walking, biking, and talking.
1.2 Models of Memory
Page | 38
1.2.1 How the memory stores have a unitary structure and own
characteristics in relation to encoding, capacity and duration.
1.2.1.1 Encoding refers in way information is changed so that

it can be stored in memory. There are three main
ways of encoding namely, visual (picture), acoustic
(sound) and semantic (meaning).
1.2.1.2 Capacity refers to how much information that was

gathered can be stored.
1.2.1.3 Duration refers to the period of time by which

information can last that was stored in the memory.
The traditional model of memory
1.2.2 The traditional model of memory includes the three memory

stores which are the sensory store, short-term store and long-
term store (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968).
1.2.2.1 Sensory store refers to the initial depot of information

that eventually enters the short and long-term stores.
It allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory
information for a short period of time after the original
stimulus has ceased.
1.2.2.1.1 Information from the five senses, such as sight

(visual information), sounds, and touch, is
stored in the sensory memory store. The
sensory memory store has a large capacity but
a short lifespan; it can encode information from
any of the senses, but the majority of the data
is lost due to decay.
1.2.2.1.2 The sensory store has three types namely the

echoic memory, iconic memory and haptic
memory.
1.2.2.1.3 Echoic memory is a form of sensory memory. It

can store a lot of information, but only for 3–4
seconds. This echoic sound is replayed in the
mind for a short period of time after the
auditory stimulation has been presented.
Page | 39
1.2.2.1.4 Sensory information to the visual system is

stored in iconic memory, which is named after
the mental representations of visual stimuli.
Iconic memory lasts for 100 milliseconds.
1.2.2.1.5 The sense of touch uses haptic memory, which

is a type of sensory memory. Sensations such
as discomfort, scratching, and pain are
detected by sensory receptors all over the
body and are temporarily stored in haptic
memory before fading or being transferred to
short-term memory.
1.2.2.2 To summarize, it seems that visual knowledge enters

our memory system via an iconic store. This
store keeps visual details for a limited time. This
information can be passed to another store or deleted
in the usual course of events.
1.2.2.3 Erasure happens when other information is
superimposed over it before enough time has passed
for the information to be transferred to another
memory.
1.2.3 Short-term memory refers to the ability to keep a limited amount

of knowledge alive and accessible for a short period of time. It is
distinct from our long-term memory, which stores a large
amount of data for later retrieval.
1.2.3.1 It is capable of transient storage, unlike sensory

memory. The length of time that this storage lasts is
determined by the individual's deliberate effort;
without rehearsal or active maintenance, the period of
short-term memory is estimated to be on the order of
seconds.
1.2.3.2 Rehearsal is the practice of mentally repeating

knowledge to keep it in short-term memory. When the
information is replicated, it is re-entered into short-
term memory, allowing it to be stored for another 10
to 20 seconds, which is the normal storage time for
short-term memory.
1.2.4 Long-term memory is a form of memory that stores data for long
periods of time, varying from a few hours to a lifetime.
Page | 40
1.2.4.1 The last, semi-permanent stage of memory is long-

term memory. Long-term memory, unlike sensory and
short-term memory, has an unlimited capacity and
can store information indefinitely.
The levels of processing system
1.2.5 The levels of processing system, which postulates that memory

does not consist of three or even any fixed number of separate
stores, but rather differs along a continuous dimension in terms
of depth of encoding.
1.2.5.1 Among the levels of processing proposed by Fergus

Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) are the physical,
phonological, and semantic levels.
1.2.5.2 For the physical level of processing, its basis is the

visual apparent features of the letter. For example,
the word is TABLE, the question would be is the word
written in capital letters?
1.2.5.3 For the phonological level of processing, its basis is

the sound combinations associated with the letters.
For instance, the word is cat, the question would be,
does the word rhyme with “mat”?
1.2.5.4 For the semantic level of processing, its basis is the

meaning of the word. For example, the word is
daffodil, the question would be, is the word a type of
plant?
An integrative model: working memory
1.2.6 An integrative model of memory has been proposed by Alan

Baddeley. The working-memory model is combined with the
Levels of Processing (LOP) paradigm. Essentially, he sees the
LOP paradigm as an extension of the working-memory model,
rather than a substitute for it.
1.2.7 The working memory stores transient information in the

subconscious, which can be manipulated. The 1974 model of
working memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch is the most
widely accepted theory of working memory today.
Page | 41
1.2.8 According to Baddeley, working memory has a phonological

loop to preserve verbal data, a visuospatial scratchpad to
control visual data, and a central executive to disperse attention
between them.
1.2.8.1 The phonological loop refers to the auditory and

verbal knowledge such as phone numbers, names,
and general comprehension of what other people are
saying.
1.2.8.2 The visuospatial sketchpad manages visual and

spatial details. This ensures that details about an
object's location and properties can be saved.
1.2.8.3 The central executive controls the phonological loop

and the visuospatial sketchpad. It also connects
working memory to long-term memory, handles long-
term memory storage, and ties working memory to
long-term memory.
1.3 Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology
1.3.1 Understanding the essence of memory can be aided by

neuropsychological approaches, particularly brain imaging.
Neuropsychological evidence backs up the distinction between
working memory and long-term memory.
1.3.2 Investigators have discovered evidence for distinct brain regions

involved in various aspects of working memory through some
interesting new experiments using positron emission
tomography (PET) techniques.
1.3.3 The phonological loop tends to include activation in the left

hemisphere of the lateral frontal and inferior parietal lobes, as
well as the temporal lobe, in order to retain speech-related
information (Gazzaniga et al., 2009).
1.3.4 The visuospatial sketchpad tends to trigger slightly different

areas of the brain. It is determined by factors such as task
complexity and retention interval duration (Logie & Della Sala,
2005). The occipital and right frontal lobes are activated when
the periods are shorter. Longer cycles activate the parietal and
left frontal lobes, respectively.
Page | 42
Exercise 1
1. ___________ refers to a fact or a word from memory while recognition
refers to identifying a specific object that one has been exposed to
previously.
2. ___________ refers to a type of memory that is easily and intentionally

recalled and recited.
3. ____________ a type of memory that includes knowing how to

perform certain procedures like walking, biking, and talking.
4. _____________ refers in way information is changed so that it can be

stored in memory.
5. _____________ a storage in memory that allows individuals to retain

impressions of sensory information for a short period of time after the
original stimulus has ceased.
Phonological Visuospatial Central Alan The levels of

loop sketchpad executive Baddeley processing
system
__________ 1. Proposed the integrative model of memory by which the

working-memory model is combined with the Levels of Processing (LOP)
paradigm.
__________ 2. This ensures that details about an object's location and

properties can be saved.
__________ 3. It tends to include activation in the left hemisphere of the

lateral frontal and inferior parietal lobes, as well as the temporal lobe, in order
to retain speech-related information
__________ 4. It connects working memory to long-term memory, handles

long-term memory storage, and ties working memory to long-term memory.
Page | 43
__________ 5. A model of memory that postulates that memory does not

consist of three or even any fixed number of separate stores, but rather
differs along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the three (3) memory stores that include in the
traditional model of memory. Explain each concept.
1.
2.
3.
A. Why is importance of brain imaging techniques such as the PET scan

in determining the function of memory?
B. What is the difference between phonological loop and visuospatial

sketchpad?
C. Give another example of a physical level of processing based on Craik

and Tulving’s models of memory.
Rubrics/Criteria:

Page | 44
MODULE 6
Title : Memory Research Methods and Processes
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Understand the process of encoding and transferring of information.

2. Determine the various models of memory and their differences.
Page | 45
3. Relate how memory is connected to neuropsychology and its

corresponding role.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1.Encoding and Transfer of Information
1.2.Retrieval
1.3.Processes of Forgetting and Memory
1.4.Constructive Nature of Memory

New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education..
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.

Make a list of 10 or more unrelated items or concepts in this module that

you need to memorize.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Encoding and Transfer of Information
1.1.1 Information must first be encoded for storage until it can be

stored in memory. Even if we retain information in our short-
term memory, it does not always move to our long-term
Page | 46
memory. So, in order to recall events and facts over time, we

must first encode them before transferring them from short-term
to long-term storage.
1.1.2 Subsequent research into how information is stored in short-

term memory has shown strong evidence of at least some
semantic encoding. Semantic encoding refers to a form of
encoding that encodes the meaning of something (a word,
phrase, image, event, or whatever) rather than the sound or
vision of it.
1.1.3 Acoustic encoding is the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to

implant memories. It tends to be the primary mode of encoding
in short-term memory, though there may be some secondary
semantic encoding as well. We often use visual representations
to temporarily encode information.
1.1.4 In addition to semantic and visual information, acoustic

information can be encoded in long-term memory. Thus, there is
considerable flexibility in the way we store information that we
retain for long periods.
1.1.5 The transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term

memory involves consolidation. Consolidation is the method of
combining new data with previously stored data. An individual
makes connections by incorporating new data into the existing
knowledge schemas.
1.1.6 Metamemory techniques include an individual’s way of

reflecting in their own memory mechanisms in order to improve
them. Such techniques are particularly important when an
individual transfers new information to long-term memory.
1.1.7 Metamemory techniques are a part of metacognition, which is

an individual’s ability to learn about and monitor his or her own
thought patterns and ways to improve our thinking.
1.1.8 Rehearsal, or the repeated recitation of an object, is one

technique to keep an information active. Practiced effects are
the results of such rehearsal. Rehearsal may be overt, in which
case it is usually aloud and obvious. It may also be covert, in
which case it is silent and hidden.
1.2 Retrieval
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1.2.1 Memory retrieval is the process of remembering information

stored in long-term memory.
1.2.2 Parallel processing refers to the simultaneous handling of

multiple operations. As added to short-term memory, the objects
stored in the short-term memory will be retrieved all at once,
rather than one by one.
1.2.3 The term "serial processing" refers to operations that are carried
out one after the other. In other words, in a digit-recall task, the
digits will be retrieved in order rather than all at once.
1.2.4 Categorization has a major impact on retrieval. A study by

Bower et al (1969) includes participants who were required to
memorize lists of categorized words. The category "minerals,"
for example, may be at the top, followed by "metals and
stones," and so on. Participants who were given a hierarchical
presentation remembered 65% of the words.
1.3 Processes of Forgetting and Memory
1.3.1 The interference theory holds that forgetting happens when the
recall of one word interferes with the recall of another.
1.3.2 When newly gained information obstructs the recall of older

content, this is known as retroactive interference (or retroactive
inhibition). This type of interference is triggered by an
activity that occurs after remembering something but before we
are asked to recall it.
1.3.3 Proactive interference or proactive inhibition happens when

previously learned information obstructs the learning of new
material. The interfering material appears before, rather than
after, learning of the to-be-remembered. For instance, learning
a foreign language is an example of exposure to this effect.
1.3.4 The serial-position curve depicts the likelihood of recalling a

word based on its serial position (order of presentation) in a list.
Consider the following scenario: you are given a list of words
and asked to remember them.
1.3.4.1 The recency effect refers to superior recall of words at

and near the end of a list.
1.3.4.2 The primacy effect refers to superior recall of words at
and near the beginning of a list.
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1.3.5 Decay theory states that knowledge is forgotten due to the

gradual absence of the memory trace, rather than its
displacement. As a result, according to decay theory, the
original piece of knowledge will eventually fade away unless
anything is done to preserve it.
1.3.6 Decay theory postulates that Information is therefore less

available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well
as memory strength, wears away.
1.4 Constructive Nature of Memory
1.4.1 In real-life situations, memory is also constructive, past

experiences influence how an individual remember things and
what one can recall from memory.
1.4.2 Autobiographical memory refers to an individual's memory of

their own past. Autobiographical memory is constructive. One
has no recollection of what has occurred. Rather, one recalls his
or her own construction or reconstruction of events.
1.4.3 According to Read ad Connolly (2007), middle-aged adult most

likely remembers events from their youthful and early-adult
periods better than they recall events from their more recent
past experiences.
1.4.3.1 Flashbulb memory is a memory of an event so

powerful that a person can clearly recall past
experiences.
1.4.4 Some investigators suggest that flashbulb memories may be

more vividly recalled because of their emotional intensity. Other
investigators, however, suggest that the vividness of recall may
be the result of the effects of rehearsal.
1.4.5 Memory distortion
1.4.5.1 According to Schacter (2001), people have

tendencies to distort their memories. These
distortions tend to occur in seven specific ways which
he refers to as the “seven sins of memory” which are
the following: transience, absent-mindedness,
blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias and
persistence.
Page | 49
1.4.5.2 Repressed memories are memories that are alleged

to
have been pushed down into unconsciousness
because of the distress they cause. Children who
were exposed to a traumatic event can barely recall
their experiences due to the pain it caused them.
1.4.5.3 Many psychologists strongly doubt the existence of

repressed memories. One of the reasons may be for
some therapists, they may inadvertently plant ideas in
their clients’ heads. In this way, they may
inadvertently create false memories of events that
never took place.
1.4.5.4 As studies of constructive memory show, our

cognitive contexts for memory clearly influence our
memory processes of encoding, storing, and
retrieving information.
1.4.5.5 A number of factors, such as emotions, moods, states

of consciousness, schemas, and other features of our
internal context, clearly affect memory retrieval.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ refers an individual’s way of reflecting in their own
memory mechanisms in order to improve them.
2. ___________ are memories that are alleged to have been pushed

down into unconsciousness because of the distress they caused.
3. ___________ is a memory of an event so powerful that a person can

clearly recall past experiences.
4. ___________ states that the original piece of knowledge will

eventually fade away unless anything is done to preserve it.
5. ___________ pertains to which previously learned information

obstructs the learning of new material.
Page | 50
Consolidation Rehearsal Parallel Constructiv Acoustic

Processing e memory encoding
__________ 1. Past experiences influence how an individual remember

things and what one can recall from memory.
__________ 2. Refers to the simultaneous handling of multiple operations
__________ 3. Also known as repeated recitation of an object.
__________ 4. Refers to the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to implant

memories.
__________ 5. An individual makes connections by incorporating new data

into the existing knowledge schemas.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the seven (7) “sins of memory” that is
according to Schacter.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
A. What is the difference between the recency effect and primacy effect?
B. What is the importance of an autobiographical memory?
C. In your own opinion, are repressed memories can be implanted?

Explain your answer.
Page | 51
Rubrics/Criteria:


MODULE 7
Page | 52
Title : Mental Images, Maps, and Propositions
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Explain the key features of mental representation towards understanding

knowledge.
2. Identify how mental manipulation occurs among images.
3. Elaborate on synthesizing knowledge based on images and propositions.
4. Determine the concepts underlying spatial cognition and cognitive maps.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1. Mental Representation of Knowledge
1.2. Mental Manipulation of Images
1.3. Synthesizing Images and Propositions
1.4. Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps

Learn Liberty. (2017, September 25). Heuristics, Explained [Video]. Youtube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReFqFPJHLhA.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.
Page | 53

In your own experience, how do you memorize terms and concepts in

this module for a short period of time? What are your strategies?
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Mental Representation of Knowledge
1.1.1 Declarative knowledge refers to a type of knowledge structure

that are facts that can be stated, for example is the date of your
birth, the name of your dog, and the name of your best friend.
1.1.2 Procedural knowledge refers to a type of knowledge structure

that are procedures, for example are the steps involved in
baking cheesecakes, or driving a car.
1.1.3 In knowledge representation, there are two main sources of

empirical data namely the standard laboratory experiments and
neuropsychological studies.
1.1.4 In standard laboratory experiments, people are being observed

how they handle different cognitive tasks that require
manipulation. On the other hand, neuropsychological studies,
researchers observed how the brain responds to different
cognitive tasks and understand the link of the abnormalities in
the brain.
1.1.5 Symbolic representation refers to the relationship between the

word and what it represents is subjective. Since symbols are
subjective, the usage of it is need to be applied according to
rules. For instance, in forming words, the sounds or letters also
must be sequenced based on the rules (e.g, “c-a-t”, not “t-a-c”
or “a-c-t”).
1.1.6 According to Moulton and Kosslyn (2009), imagery refers to the

mental representation of objects that are not sensed by our
sense organs. For instance, remember one of your first college
experience. You do not actually smell the grass and see the
building of your college campus but you still can imagine them.
Page | 54
1.1.7 Dual-code theory postulates that we use both pictorial and

verbal codes for representing information in our minds. Mental
images are analog codes, for instance trees and rivers might be
represented by analog codes. It resembles the objects they are
representing.
1.1.8 Propositional theory postulates that mental representations are

closely resemble to the abstract form of a proposition. A
proposition is defined as the underlying relationship among
concept. For instance, the statements, “The cat is beneath the
table” and “The table is above the cat”, both indicate the same
relationship with the statement with “Above the cat is the table”.
This theory showed the verbal representation of this
relationship.
1.2 Mental Manipulations of Images
1.2.1 Functional-equivalence hypothesis postulates that there is an

equivalent function of visual imagery and visual perception,
though they are not identical. This view essentially suggests
that we use images rather than propositions in knowledge
representation for concrete objects that can be pictured in the
mind.
1.2.2 Mental rotations is define as the rotational transformation of an

object's visual mental picture. For instance, just like how you
picture a water bottle in your head and rotate it, it is in the same
way as you can physically rotate a water bottle in your hands.
1.2.3 Image scaling research assumes that the central concept

behind image size and scaling is that individuals tend to
interpret using mental images that are functionally similar in
ways to how one represents and use percepts.
1.2.3.1 For instance, when looking at a building from afar,

you won't be able to see as many features. Then if
you look closer, you still won't be able to see things
clearly. Our capacity for resolution is minimal. In
general, it is easier to see details of large objects than
it is to see details of small ones. We react faster
about the large objects we see than the small ones
we observed.
Page | 55
1.2.3.2 Now, if we assume that perception and mental

representations are functionally equivalent, then
participants should respond more quickly to questions
about features of large imagined objects than to
questions about features of small ones.
1.2.4 Image scanning research is based on the premise that images

can be scanned in the same way that physical percepts can be
scanned. Furthermore, our strategies and responses for
imaginal scanning should be the same as for perceptual
scanning.
1.2.4.1 For example, in perception, to scan across longer

distances takes longer than to scan across shorter
ones.
1.2.4.2 In one study by Kosslyn (1999), showed that the

further away from each other the objects were, the
longer it took participants to scan from one object to
the other. Participants seem to have encoded the
map in the form of an image. They actually scanned
that image as needed for a response, just as they
would have scanned a real map (Sternberg, 2012).
1.2.5 Representation neglect is an impairment by which, when a

person is asked to imagine a scene and then described it, that
individual ignores half of the imagined scene.
1.2.5.1 According to Denis et al. (2002), when subjects with

representational neglect were presented with an
image, they can describe the entire image. However,
when the image was removed and they were asked to
describe the image from memory, they failed to
describe the left portion of the image.
1.3 Synthesizing Images and Propositions
1.3.1 Dr. Ronal Finke proposed that how an individual represent

objects and space in one’s mind is called mental imagery or
visual imagery.
1.3.2 Dr. Finke stated that there are five principles of mental imagery
namely the implicit encoding, perceptual equivalence, spatial
Page | 56
equivalence, transformational equivalence and structural

equivalence.
1.3.2.1 Implicit encoding contains all the details one

remembers without having made an effort to actually
remember them.
1.3.2.2 Perceptual equivalence states that individual use the

same type of internal processes for mental
visualization and visual perception. When one think
about an image of an object and when one actually
looks at the object, individuals use the same parts of
their brain in somewhat similar ways.
1.3.2.3 Spatial equivalence refer to the spatial arrangement

of the components of a mental image that
corresponds with the way objects and their parts are
organized on or in real, physical space.
1.3.2.4 Transformational equivalence states that visual

representations can be changed in an individual’s
minds in the same way that physical objects can.
1.3.2.5 Structural equivalence states that mental images

have the same structure as real imagined objects;
they are coherent, well-organized, and can be
reorganized.
1.3.3 According to Johnson-Laird’s mental models, he claimed that

there are three forms of mental representation namely the
propositions, images, or mental models.
1.3.4 Mental models refers to structures individuals tend to create in

understanding and explaining their experiences. For instance,
one has a mental model in understanding how planes fly into
the air – depending on how one believes in them.
1.4 Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps
1.4.1 Spatial cognition refers to the acquisition, organization, and use

of knowledge on a certain objects and actions in a two and
three-dimensional space.
Page | 57
1.4.2 Cognitive maps refer usually to be the subset of spatial

cognition. These are internal representations of our physical
environment, specifically centering on spatial relationships.
1.4.3 According to Sternberg (2012), there are three types of

knowledge when forming and using cognitive maps namely, the
landmark knowledge, route-road knowledge, and survey
knowledge.
1.4.3.1 Landmark knowledge refers to an information of a

specific details at a location that can be based both
on imaginal and propositional representation.
1.4.3.2 Route-road experience entails understanding

complex routes for getting from one place to another
that could be focused on both procedural and
declarative knowledge.
1.4.3.3 Survey knowledge pertains to estimated distances

between landmarks, much as they might appear on
survey maps. It can be imagined or expressed as a
proposition (e.g., in numerically specified distances).
1.4.4 Heuristics is a mental shortcut that helps people solve problems

and make decisions more quickly. These rule-of-thumb
techniques reduce decision-making time and allow people to
work without continually pausing to consider their next step.
1.4.5 Heuristics are useful in both problem-solving and decision-

making because individuals tend to turn to these mental
shortcuts when one need a quick solution.
1.4.6 The type of heuristics includes the availability heuristic,

representative heuristic and the affect heuristic which occurs in
different contexts.
1.4.6.1 Availability heuristics refers to making choices based

on how simple it is to recall something. When you're
trying to make a decision, you may recall a few
specific examples quickly. You would definitely judge
these results based on how regularly it
occurs since they are more readily accessible in your
mind.
Page | 58
1.4.6.2 The representativeness heuristic involves making a

decision by comparing the present situation to the
most representative mental template.
1.4.6.3 The affect heuristic involves making decisions based

on emotions that an individual is experiencing at that
moment.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ refers to a type of knowledge structure that are
procedures, for example are the steps involved in baking
cheesecakes, or driving a car.
2. ___________ knowledge refers to a type of knowledge structure that

are facts that can be stated, for example is the date of your birth, the
name of your dog, and the name of your best friend.
3. ___________ is define as the rotational transformation of an object's

visual mental picture.
4. ___________ is based on the premise that images can be scanned in

the same way that physical percepts can be scanned.
5. ___________ is an impairment by which, when a person is asked to

imagine a scene and then described it, that individual ignores half of
the imagined scene.
Johnson-Laird’s Finke’s theory Functional- Propositional Dual-code

mental models of mental equivalence theory theory
imagery. theory
__________ 1. Postulates that there is an equivalent function of visual

imagery and visual perception, though they are not identical
__________ 2. States that we use both pictorial and verbal codes for
representing information in our minds.
Page | 59
__________ 3. Claimed that there are three forms of mental representation

namely the propositions, images, or mental models.
__________ 4. Postulates that mental representations are closely resemble

to the abstract form of a proposition.
__________ 5. Stated that there are five principles of mental imagery namely
the implicit encoding, perceptual equivalence, spatial equivalence,
transformational equivalence and structural equivalence.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the five (5) principles of visual imagery

according to Dr. Finke.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. What is the difference between image scanning and image scaling?
B. In what aspect in your life did you apply heuristics?
C. Give three examples of procedural knowledge based on your own

experiences.
Rubrics/Criteria:
Page | 60


MODULE 8
Title : The Organizational Knowledge in the Mind
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Distinguish the difference between declarative knowledge and procedural

knowledge.
2. Explain the concepts underlying declarative and procedural knowledge.
3. Elaborate the models that represent declarative and non-declarative
knowledge.
4. Identify the importance of declarative and procedure knowledge and its us
in learning.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1. Declarative Knowledge
1.2. Procedural Knowledge
1.3. Models Representing Declarative and Non-Declarative Knowledge
Page | 61

Hidayah Nadzri. (2019, November 7). Declarative & Procedural Knowledge

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnmFTBFs3co.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.

Research online on what are the steps in baking a chocolate cake.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Declarative Knowledge
1.1.1 Declarative knowledge refers to a type of knowledge structure

that are facts that can be stated, for example is the date of your
birth, the name of your dog, and the name of your best friend.
1.1.2 The organization of declarative knowledge involves concept and

categories.
1.1.2.1 Concept refers to the knowledge about something

which provides a means in understanding the world.
1.1.2.2 A category is a group of items into which various

objects or ideas may be grouped because they share
certain common characteristics. It is classified into
natural and artifact categories.
Page | 62
1.1.2.3 Natural categories are groupings that are based on

what is naturally occurring like birds or trees.
1.1.2.4 Artifact categories are groupings by which humans

designed and invented like cars and cellphones.
1.1.3 Feature-based theory claims that categories are uniquely

defined by several essential elements. For any candidate object
you could use the definition as a kind of checklist, investigating
the candidate for the various features.
1.1.4 In feature-based theory, if an object lacks the defining features

of a specific object, chances are, it is not a member of the
category.
1.1.4.1 For instance, when it comes to family resemblance

which is a category wherein family members share
certain characteristics features, but there is no
defining feature that is common to all members.
1.1.5 Prototype theory is defined as the categorization that are made

because of a similarity to an average model of the category. It is
formed by averaging all of the object one categorizes which he
or she previously encountered.
1.1.5.1 Prototype is an abstract average of all the objects in

the category we have encountered before. It is
the template that objects are compared in order to
classify them.
1.1.6 In a prototype theory, objects with a “family resemblance” to the

characteristic features of the prototype are place in the
category. It consists of various type of people, with different life
experiences thus will have different prototypes.
1.1.7 In a study by Smith et al. (1974), responses of the participants

are slower for sentences like "a penguin is a bird" than for
sentences like "a robin is a bird" in experiments using the
sentence verification task.
1.1.7.1 Prototype theory suggests participants made their

decisions by comparing each candidate to their
prototype for that category.
Page | 63
1.1.7.2 Participants begin at the center of the category and

work outward, so objects close to the prototype are
discussed first, followed by objects that are somewhat
dissimilar from the prototype.
1.1.8 Theory-based approach states that individuals understand and

categorize concepts in terms of implicit theories, or general
knowledge that an individual have in relation to those concepts
(Markman, 2003).
1.1.9 Semantic-network models suggest that knowledge is

represented in our minds in the form of concepts that are
connected with each other in a hierarchical web-like fashion.
1.1.10 Schema refers to a mental framework for organizing knowledge.

It creates a meaningful structure of related concepts. It includes
the relationship between concepts and attributes within
concepts.
1.1.11 Schematic representations states that schemas are similar to

semantic networks but schemas are more task-oriented.
1.1.12 Scripts are a type of schema that contains details about

a specific order events will occur. It provides a mental structure
for behaving in certain circumstances where we need to fill in
the gaps within a given context.
1.2 Procedural Knowledge
1.2.1 Procedural knowledge refers to a type of knowledge structure

that are procedures, for example are the steps involved in
baking cheesecakes, or driving a car.
1.2.2 It is a type knowledge consists of instructions for the

performance of series of operations. As often as not, procedural
knowledge is difficult or even impossible to verbalize.
1.2.3 Serial processing of information is one of the various models by

which procedural information is represented and processed. In
this model, information is handled through a linear sequence of
operations, one operation at a time.
1.2.3.1 Production refers to the output of a procedure which

are a set of rules in representing and organizing
procedural knowledge.
Page | 64
1.2.3.2 Production system consists the entire set of rules

(production) for executing the task or by using the
skill.
1.2.4 Nondeclarative knowledge may be represented by perceptual,

motor, and cognitive skills. In addition, simple associative
knowledge and simple non-associative knowledge is included,
and lastly, priming. It may encompass a broader range of
mental representations.
1.3 Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge
1.3.1 ACT-R theory also known as adaptive control of thought is

created by Canadian Psychologist John Anderson. The “R”
stands for ‘rational’.
1.3.1.1 The ACT-R theory attempts to explain how the brain

works when an individual is learning. It is a method of
describing how the brain is structured in such a way
that individual can process modules to generate
cognition (Anderson, 1993).
1.3.1.2 Anderson's research has looked at people's neural

processes as they solve complex problems like
algebraic equations using the ACT-R model.
1.3.2 Connectionist models, also known as Parallel Distributed

Processing (PDP) models, are a type of computational model
that is frequently used to simulate aspects of human perception,
cognition, and behavior, as well as the learning processes.
1.3.2.1 The connectionist model underpins these behaviors

and the storage and retrieval of knowledge from
memory.
1.3.2.2 The method embodies a particular perspective in

cognitive science, one that is focused on the premise
that our knowledge of the neural mechanisms that
underpin cognition can inform and constrain our
understanding of behavior and mental states.
Exercise 1
Page | 65
1. ___________ refers to the knowledge about something which provides

a means in understanding the world.
2. ___________ refers to a mental framework for organizing knowledge

that creates meaningful structure of related concepts
3. ___________ is define as the rotational transformation of an object's

visual mental picture.
4. ___________ refers to a type of knowledge structure that are facts that

can be stated, for example is the date of your birth, the name of your
dog, and the name of your best friend.
5. ___________ is a group of items into which various objects or ideas

may be grouped because they share certain common characteristics
Prototype Prototype Semantic- ACT-R Theory-

theory theory. network models Theory based
approach
__________ 1. Suggest that knowledge is represented in our minds in the

form of concepts that are connected with each other in a hierarchical web-like
fashion.
__________ 2. Attempts to explain how the brain works when an individual is

learning. It is a method of describing how the brain is structured in such a way
that individual can process modules to generate cognition.
__________ 3. States that individuals understand and categorize concepts in

terms of implicit theories, or general knowledge that an individual have in
relation to those concepts
__________ 4. Defined as the categorization that are made because of a

similarity to an average model of the category. It is formed by averaging all of
the object one categorizes which he or she previously encountered.
Page | 66
__________ 5. Theory claims that categories are uniquely defined by several

essential elements, if an object lacks the defining features of a specific object,
chances are, it is not a member of the category.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the five (5) functions of a procedural

knowledge.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. What is the difference between declarative and procedural knowledge?
B. What is the importance of feature-based theory?
C. What is a script that you use in your daily life? How might you make it
work better for you?
Rubrics/Criteria:

Page | 67

MODULE 9
Title : Language and its Context
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Distinguish the various terms and concepts related to language.

2. Discuss the importance of language in an individual’s everyday interaction.
3. Determine the various theories involves in the acquisition of language.
4. Identify the role of neuropsychology in relation to language.
II. Subject Matter
Page | 68
1. Topics
1.1. Defining Language
1.2. Language Comprehension
1.3. Reading
1.4. Discourse
1.5. Language and Thought
1.6. Language in a Social Context
1.7. Neuropsychology of Language

CrashCourse. (2014, May 27). Language: Crash Course Psychology #16

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s9shPouRWCs.
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.

Mark an asterisk next to the sentences that are not grammatical, regardless of
whether the sentences are meaningful or accurate:
1. The student the book.

2. Bought the book.
3. Bought the student the book.
4. The book was bought by the student.
5. By whom was the book bought?
Page | 69
6. By student the bought book.

7. The student was bought by the book.
8. Who bought the book?
9. The book bought the student.
10. The book bought.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Defining language
1.1.1 According to Lewis (2009), there are almost 7,000 languages

spoken in the world today. Language refers to an organized
means by which combining of use occur in order to
communicate and understand people around us.
1.1.2 Psycholinguists is defined as the psychology of one’s language

as it communicates with the human mind. There are four areas
in psycholinguistics which are the following: linguistics,
neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics and computational linguistics.
1.1.2.1 Linguistics refers to the study of language structure

and change.
1.1.2.2 Neurolinguistics refers to the study of the

relationships among language, the brain and
cognition.
1.1.2.3 Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship

between an individual’s social behavior and language.
1.1.2.4 Computational linguistics is the study of language

through computational methods.
1.1.3 Language is communicative, it allows an individual to interact

with one or more people who share one’s language.
1.1.4 Language has arbitrarily symbols, by which it paves a way for

an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what it
represents such as an ideal, a thing, a process, a relationship,
or a description.
1.1.5 Language is regularly structured, specific patterned

arrangements of symbols have meaning and various
arrangements reflects different meanings.
Page | 70
1.1.6 The structure of language can be determined at more than one

level for instance, it can be analyzed through sounds, meaning
units, words, and phrases.
1.1.7 Language is dynamic and therefore, it constantly evolve from

time to time.
1.1.8 The basic components of words include the phoneme, which is

the smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to
differentiate one utterance in a given language from another.
1.1.9 Phonetics is the study of how to produce speech sounds or to

understand them with written symbols.
1.1.10 Syntax refers to how individuals put together to form sentences.

It consists of a noun and a verb phrase that plays a major role in
understanding language.
1.1.11 Semantics refers to the study of meaning in a language, it is

therefore essential to know the meaning of a whole
conversation.
1.2 Language comprehension
1.2.1 Coarticulation is the process by which the brain organizes vowel

and consonant sequences, combining the individual movements
required for each into a single smooth whole.
1.2.2 Phonetic refinement theory claims that we begin by analyzing

auditory stimuli before moving on to higher-level processing. We
recognize words by narrowing down the possibilities for
matches for each of the phonemes and the words we already
know from memory.
1.2.3 Phonemic-restoration effect involves integrating what we know

with what we hear when we perceive speech (Kashino, 2006).
1.2.4 Categorical perception refers to the discontinuous categories of

speech sounds.
1.2.5 Categorical perception postulates that we interpret speech

sounds categorically, despite the fact that the speech sounds
we actually hear are a continuum of variance in sound waves.
The interpretation of the consonant–vowel combinations “ba,
da, and ga” demonstrates this phenomenon.
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1.2.6 The motor theory of speech perception states that people

interpret spoken words by recognizing the vocal tract
movements in which they are articulated rather than by
identifying the sound patterns that speech produces.
1.2.7 Denotation is the process of translating a sign's meaning to its

literal meaning, similar to how dictionaries attempt to describe it.
1.2.8 Connotation refers to the meaning of a word that is perceived

by sensible attitudes toward the phenomenon, while the
denotational meaning is viewed by visible concepts.
1.2.9 Syntax refers to the order or arrangement of words and phrases

to form proper sentences. A subject + verb + direct object
formula is the most basic syntax. For example, "Kyrie hit the
ball," thus, syntax allows us to not to write, "Hit Kyrie the ball,".
1.2.10 Syntax is a part of Grammar. Syntax is how linguistic elements

(such as words) are put together to form constituents (such as
phrases or clauses). In other words, Syntax can be called a part
of Grammar which specifically deals in structuring of words or
sentences.
1.2.11 Transformational grammar, also known as Transformational-

generative Grammar, is a language analysis method that
recognizes the relationships between the different elements of a
sentence and the possible sentences of a language and
expresses these relationships using processes or laws (some of
which are called transformations).
1.3 Reading
1.3.1 Dyslexia is a learning disability characterized by difficulties
recognizing speech sounds and learning how they relate to
letters and phrases (decoding). Dyslexia, also known as reading
disorder, affects the parts of the brain that interpret language.
1.3.2 Orthographic is an aspect by which it involves the use of our

ability to recognize letters. It is a very simple yet crucial phase in
reading.
1.3.3 Orthographic states that when reading, you somehow manage

to recognize the correct letter despite the fact that it is shown in
a variety of typestyles and typefaces
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1.3.4 Lexical access is an important aspect of reading by which

individuals identify a word that allows them to gain access to the
meaning of the word from memory.
1.3.5 Most psychologists who study reading believe that lexical

access is an interactive process. It combines various types of
data, such as letter characteristics, letters themselves, and the
words that make up the letters.
1.3.6 Word-superiority effect refers to when letters are embedded in

sentences, they are easier to read than when they are
presented alone or with letters that do not shape
words. Reading unrelated letters takes significantly longer than
reading letters that forms a word.
1.4 Discourse
1.4.1 Discourse includes conversations, lectures, novels, essays, and

even textbooks that use greater units of language than
individual sentences (Di Eugenio, 2003).
1.4.2 Discourse passages are organized in the same way as

grammatical sentences are structured according to formal
syntactical laws.
1.4.3 Semantic encoding is the process by which we convert sensory

input (that is, the written words we see) into a coherent
representation.
1.4.4 To engage in semantic encoding, the reader must first

understand the meaning of a given word. The ability to
comprehend text is inseparably linked to the ability to
understand word meanings (vocabulary).
1.4.5 Semantic encoding postulates that people who are familiar with
word definitions are more likely to be good readers, and vice
versa. One explanation for this relationship seems to be that
readers cannot fully comprehend text unless they are familiar
with the meanings of the component terms.
1.4.6 Another way in which having a larger vocabulary contributes to

text comprehension is through learning from context.
1.4.6.1 We must use some kind of technique to extract

meaning from the text if we are unable to semantically
Page | 73
encode a word since its meaning is not yet stored in

memory.
1.4.6.2 In general, we must either look for a definition using

external tools like dictionaries or teachers, or we must
formulate one ourselves.
1.4.6.3 Using context cues, we formulate the meaning based

on the existing information stored in memory.
1.4.7 Propositional representations claims that as we learn, we strive

to keep as much knowledge in working (active) memory as
possible in order to comprehend what we're reading.
1.4.7.1 We do not, however, attempt to memorize the exact

words we read in working memory (active memory).
Rather, we strive to derive the core ideas from a set
of terms.
1.4.7.2 In addition, we then store those fundamental ideas in

a simplified representational form in working memory.
Thus, the representational form for these fundamental
ideas is the proposition.
1.4.8 Overall, our ability to comprehend what we read is dependent

on a number of factors.
1.4.8.1 The first step is to retrieve the meanings of words,

either from memory or from context.
1.4.8.2 The second step is to derive meaning from the main

points of what we've read.
1.4.8.3 Third, depending on the contexts in which we read

and the ways in which we expect to use what we
read, we extract key information from the text.
1.4.8.4 And fourth is forming mental models that simulate the

situations about which we read.
1.5 Language and Thought
1.5.1 Linguistic relativity is the idea that people who speak different
languages have different cognitive systems, and that these
cognitive systems affect how people think about the world.
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1.5.2 The linguistic-relativity hypothesis is also known as the Sapir-

Whorf hypothesis, named after the two men who were most
influential in its promotion.
1.5.2.1 The theory is named after the American

anthropological linguist Edward Sapir (1884–1939)
and his student Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941).
1.5.2.2 According to Sapir (1964), “we see and hear and

otherwise feel so much as we do because the
language patterns of our culture predispose those
choices of interpretation”.
1.5.3 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a linguistic theory which claims

that a language's semantic structure shapes or restricts how a
speaker constructs concepts.
1.5.4 Bilingualism is the phenomenon of speaking and understanding

two or more languages.
1.5.4.1 Some cognitive psychologists have been interested in

finding out how the two languages are represented in
the bilingual’s mind.
1.5.4.2 According to the single-system theory, two languages

are expressed in a single system or brain region.
1.5.4.3 The dual-system theory, on the other hand, proposes

that two languages are represented in different
mental structures.
1.5.5 Cognitive psychologists can learn more about natural language

processing by studying speech mistakes. One way of using
language incorrectly is through slips or “slips of the tongue”.
1.5.6 When slips of the tongue happens, what we think and mean to
say don't always match up with what we actually say.
1.5.7 The verbal slips in Freudian slips, according to Freudian

psychoanalysts, represent some kind of unconscious
processing with psychological meaning. The slips are said to be
a sign of repressed emotions.
1.6 Language in a Social Context
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1.6.1 Pragmatics refers to the study of how people use language. It

includes sociolinguistics and other aspects of the social context
of language.
1.6.2 Speech acts involves the question of what can an individual

accomplish with speech. It can be indirect and direct speech
acts.
1.6.3 Indirect speech acts involves asking or making statements

about abilities, stating a desire, stating a future action and citing
reasons.
1.6.4 Pinker’s theory of indirect speech states that communication is

always a combination of cooperation and conflict. It includes the
speaker of an indirect speech the chance to voice an
ambiguous request that the listener can accept of decline
without reacting unpleasantly to it.
1.6.5 Cooperative principle is one characteristic of a successful

conversation. It seeks to relay information in ways that it is
easier for the listener to understand what the speaker means.
1.6.6 Cooperative principle has four maxims namely, the maxim of

quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and maxim
of manner.
1.7 Neuropsychology of Language
1.7.1 The brain plays an important role on why people can able to
communicate and interact with each other through language.
1.7.2 There are five regions wherein it involves in the storage and
retrieval of meaning: the ventral temporal lobes, the angular
gyrus, the anterior aspect of the inferior frontal gyrus, the dorsal
prefrontal cortex and the posterior cingulate gyrus.
1.7.3 The left and right hemisphere plays a role in language

acquisition. The left hemisphere seems to be better at
processing well-practiced routines. The right hemisphere seems
to be better at dealing with novel stimuli.
1.7.4 Aphasia refers to the impairment of language functioning

caused by damage to the brain.
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1.7.4.1 Wernicke’s aphasia refers to the impairment in

understanding of spoken words and sentences. It is
caused by the damage to Wernicke’s area of the
brain. It also includes the production of sentences that
have the basic structure of the language spoken but
cannot be understood.
1.7.4.2 Broca’s aphasia refers to the impairment to the

production of grammar to speech at the same time
that verbal comprehension ability is largely preserved.
It is caused by damage to Broca’s area of the brain.
1.7.4.3 Global aphasia is the combination of highly impaired

comprehension and production of speech. It is
caused by the lesions to both Broca’s and Wernicke’s
areas.
1.7.4.4 Anomic aphasia includes difficulty in naming objects

or in retrieving words. An individual may look at a
certain object and cannot be able to retrieve the name
of it.
1.7.4.5 Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a complex

neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by
abnormalities in social communication and unusual
behaviors and interests.
1.7.4.6 It includes every aspect of the child’s interaction with

his or her world, involves abnormalities in many areas
of the brain such as the frontal and parietal lobes,
cerebellum, brainstem, corpus collosum, basal
ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus (Wall et al.,
2009).
1.7.4.7 Children with autism display repetitive movements

and stereotyped patterns of interests and activities.
1.7.4.8 In addition, children with autism often repeat the

same motion, over and over again, with no obvious
purpose to the movement. When they interact with
someone, they are more likely to view their lips than
their eyes.
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1.7.4.9 Autism Spectrum Disorder undermines the traits that

make us human—our social responsiveness, ability to
communicate, and feelings for other people.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ refers to the process by which the brain organizes vowel
and consonant sequences, combining the individual movements
required for each into a single smooth whole.
2. ___________ has arbitrarily symbols, by which it paves a way for an

arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what it represents such as
an ideal, a thing, a process, a relationship, or a description.
3. ___________ refers to the study of language structure and change.
4. ___________ refers to the impairment of language functioning caused

by damage to the brain.
5. ___________ is how linguistic elements (such as words) are put

together to form constituents (such as phrases or clauses).
Denotation Discourse Dyslexia Cooperative Orthographic

Principle
__________ 1. Includes conversations, lectures, novels, essays, and even

textbooks that use greater units of language than individual sentences.
__________ 2. A learning disability characterized by difficulties recognizing

speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and phrases
(decoding).
__________ 3. Is the process of translating a sign's meaning to its literal

meaning, similar to how dictionaries attempt to describe it.
__________ 4. It seeks to relay information in ways that it is easier for the

listener to understand what the speaker means.
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__________ 5. States that when an individual is reading, he or she somehow

manage to recognize the correct letter despite the fact that it is shown in a
variety of typestyles and typefaces.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate the five (5) types of aphasia. Explain each

type.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. What is the importance of language in our everyday interaction?
B. Give at least five roles of our brain in relation to language or

communication.
C. What is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)? Why are children with

autism must be provided with special attention in relation to their
special needs?
Rubrics/Criteria:

Page | 79

Page | 80
MODULE 10
Title : Problem Solving and Creativity
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Determine the various terms and concepts related to problem solving and
creativity.
2. Elaborate the common types of problems in cognitive psychology.
3. Identify the obstacles and aids in relation to problem solving and creativity
in understanding one’s cognition.
4. Explain the importance of problem-solving and creativity in an individual’s
daily experiences.
II. Subject Matter
5. Topics
5.1. Problem-Solving Cycle
5.2. Types of Problems
5.3. Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving
5.4. Expertise
5.5. Creativity

Pee Jean Villamin. (2017, June 6). Problem Solving and Creativity
(Facilitating Learning) [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ni-QU1Z5Ur0.
7. Materials
3.2. Handouts
Page | 81
3.3. Worksheets
8. Values Focus
mental processes.

What is your definition of peace? Illustrate a symbol of peace in

relation to the study of human mind, which is psychology.
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Problem-Solving Cycle
1.1.1 Problem solving is an effort to obstacles that brought a

hindrance to the path of a solution (Reed, 2000).
1.1.2 The problem-solving cycle are the following: problem

identification, strategy formulation, organization of information,
allocation of resources, monitoring and evaluation.
1.1.3 Problem identification includes identifying and defining a

problem after a consideration of the given data that has been
gathered.
1.1.4 Strategy formulation refers to the ways on how to solve a

problem. It includes analysis - is the breaking down of a
complex problem into simple elements, and synthesis which is
putting together various elements in order for it to be useful.
1.1.5 Organization of information aims to know how the various

pieces of information in the problem will be fit together.
1.1.6 Allocation of resources aims to determine if how much time,

effort, money and other factors shall be put into the problem.
1.1.7 Monitoring is the tracking of one’s progress in finding solution to

the problem.
Page | 82
1.1.8 Evaluation aims to determine if the problem is solved

accurately.
1.1.9 Emotions can play an important play in solving problems.

Research has shown that people with high emotional
intelligence can more regulate their emotions that can greatly
affect how they solve problems (Jordan and Troth, 2004).
1.2 Types of Problems
1.2.1 Well-structured problems include clear paths to their solutions.
1.2.1.1 It includes a set number of possible solutions -

solutions are either 100% right or 100% wrong. An
example of a well-structured problem is a typical
mathematical (2 + 2 = 4) question. This question has
a definitive correct answer.
1.2.2 Isomorphic problems refer to the problems with the same

solution procedures—in choosing the example-problem pair.
1.2.3 Ill-structured problems are problems that may have many

possible answers because they are complex and poorly defined.
1.2.3.1 Since ill-structured problems are more difficult to

"solve," individuals need to have higher-order thinking
skills and the ability to make a compelling case for
one solution above all others.
1.2.3.2 Insight is a distinctive and sometimes seemingly

sudden understanding of a problem or of a strategy
that aids in solving the problem.
1.2.4 Max Wertheimer (1945-1959), a Gestalt psychologist, wrote

about productive thought, which entails insights that go beyond
current associations. He distinguished it from reproductive
thought, which is focused on pre-existing connections involving
previously known information.
1.2.5 Smith (1995a) claimed that discoveries do not have to be “a-ha”

moments. They can happen gradually and incrementally over
time, and they often do.
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1.2.5.1 When one needs an insightful approach but can't

seem to find one, sleep may be able to help. Sleep
has been shown to increase the probability of
producing an insight in both mathematical problem
solving and task solving (Stickgold and Walker,
2004).
1.3 Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving
1.3.1 Mental sets or known as entrenchment is one factor that can

hinder problem solving by which it is a frame of mind that
include an existing model for representing a problem, a problem
context, or a procedure for problem solving.
1.3.2 Functional fixedness is the failure to recognize that anything in

which anything is known to perform one function which
may also be used to perform another function.
1.3.2.1 Functional fixedness prevents us from solving new

problems by using old tools in novel ways.
1.3.3 Stereotypes are assumptions that members of a social group

share those traits in a more or less uniform way.
1.3.4 Transfer is any carryover of knowledge or skills from one

problem situation to another. Transfer can be negative and
positive.
1.3.4.1 Negative transfer happens when solving one problem

makes solving another more difficult. An early
problem can lead to a person going down the wrong
path.
1.3.4.2 For example, a political crime may be difficult for

police to solve because it is so different from the
types of crimes they usually deal with.
1.3.4.3 Positive transfer is when the solution to an earlier

problem makes it easier to solve a new problem. That
is, the transition of a mental collection can often help
with problem solving.
1.3.4.4 For example, early math skills like addition can be

applied to more advanced math problems like algebra
or physics.
Page | 84
1.3.5 Negative transfer can be minimized by incubation, which is

described as placing a problem aside for a period of time
without actively thinking about it. It entails pausing in the middle
of the problem-solving process.
1.4 Expertise
1.4.1 Expertise is superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-

developed and well-organized knowledge base.
1.4.2 The difference between experts and novices are the amount,
organization, and use of knowledge.
1.4.3 Experts and novices also differ in comes to classifying various

problems, describing the essential nature of problems and
determining and describing solutions.
1.4.4 In addition, experts and novices also differ in the amount of time
spent on different aspects of problems, as well as the
relationship between problem-solving methods and the
solutions found.
1.4.5 Experts appear to spend proportionately more time determining

how to represent a problem than do novices, but they spend
much less time actually executing the solution plan than
novices.
1.4.6 Through practice in applying strategies, experts may automatize

various operations. When working forward, they can easily
retrieve and perform these operations
1.4.6.1 It employs two crucial procedures: The first is

schematization, which entails creating detailed, well-
organized schemas; the second is automatization,
which entails combining several steps into a single
routine that requires little to no conscious control.
1.4.7 There is a consideration by which experts and novices are

different from each other, which can be explained by innate
talent or an acquired skill.
1.4.7.1 Many people believe that “practice makes perfect”. It

should be a deliberate or centered activity. It should
place a greater emphasis on learning new skills and
Page | 85
applying them rather than mindless repetition of what

the emerging expert already knows.
1.4.8 The Turing Test is a form of artificial intelligence (AI) research

that determines whether a machine can think like a human
being.
1.4.8.1 The Turing Test is named after Alan Turing, an

English computer scientist, cryptanalyst,
mathematician, and theoretical biologist.
1.4.8.2 Turing proposed that a computer can be said to

possess artificial intelligence if it can mimic human
responses under specific conditions.
1.5 Creativity
1.5.1 Creativity is the ability to produce, develop, or discover new

ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Creative individuals have a
deep understanding of a topic, work on it for years, consider
innovative ideas, seek out the advice and assistance of other
experts, and take risks.
1.5.2 According to Simonton (2012), there are three criteria of

creativity, namely originality, usefulness and surprise.
1.5.2.1 Originality refers to the idea of having low probability,

which makes one work or output unique.
1.5.2.2 Usefulness refers to a work or output that has value

on it.
1.5.2.3 Surprise refers to the idea that it is surprising and

non-obvious.
1.5.3 Cognitive scientists have long been fascinated by the mental

mechanisms that contribute to novel ideas.
1.5.3.1 Creativity tests are simply assessments of the

thinking processes that are thought to underpin the
creative process of an individual. It includes the
Remote Associates Test (RAT) and Unusual Uses
Test.
Page | 86
1.5.3.2 The Remote Associates Test (RAT) states that the

creative process requires the ability to associate
ideas that are considered very far apart conceptually.
The RAT is made up of objects in which the
respondent must recognize a word that can be linked
to three different stimulus terms.
1.5.3.3 The Unusual Uses Task is a test for creativity by

which an individual is asked to think of new ways to
use a familiar item, such as a stone. The responses
are graded on four dimensions:
1.5.3.3.1 Fluency, which refers to the total number of

suitable uses produced.
1.5.3.3.2 Originality, which refers to the statistical rarity

of the uses provided
1.5.3.3.3 Versatility, which refers to the number of

distinct conceptual categories implied by the
various uses
1.5.3.3.4 Elaboration, which refers to the amount of

information provided for the generated uses.
1.5.4 Divergent thinking refers to a problem-solving approach that

involves presenting a variety of alternative solutions in an effort
to find the one that works. It typically happens in a free-flowing,
unscripted way, with numerous innovative ideas being produced
and evaluated.
1.5.5 Convergent thinking is a problem-solving strategy that involves

combining ideas from various participants or fields in order to
arrive at a single best answer to a clearly identified problem.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ include clear paths to their solutions and a set number
of possible solutions - solutions are either 100% right or 100% wrong.
2. ___________ is one factor that can hinder problem solving by which it

is a frame of mind.
Page | 87
3. ___________ happens when solving one problem makes solving

another more difficult. An early problem can lead to a person going
down the wrong path.
4. ___________ is the failure to recognize that anything in which

anything is known to perform one function which may also be used to
perform another function.
5. ___________ is superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-

developed and well-organized knowledge base.
Divergent
Ill-structured Creativity The Turing Test Convergen Thinking
problems t Thinking
__________ 1. Includes conversations, lectures, novels, essays, and even

textbooks that use greater units of language than individual sentences.
__________ 2. A learning disability characterized by difficulties recognizing

speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and phrases
(decoding).
__________ 3. Is the process of translating a sign's meaning to its literal

meaning, similar to how dictionaries attempt to describe it.
__________ 4. It seeks to relay information in ways that it is easier for the

listener to understand what the speaker means.
__________ 5. States that when an individual is reading, he or she somehow

manage to recognize the correct letter despite the fact that it is shown in a
variety of typestyles and typefaces.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate five (5) characteristics of an expert.

1.
Page | 88
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. What is the importance of having problem-solving skill and creativity in

an individual’s life?
B. Relate to your own experiences by which you have applied the various
concepts under problem-solving: problem identification, strategy
formulation, organization of information, allocation of resources,
monitoring and evaluation.
Rubrics/Criteria:


Page | 89
MODULE 11
Title : Decision Making and Reasoning
Period : 4 hours
I. Objectives:
1. Determine the various terms and concepts related to decision making and
reasoning.
2. Explain the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning.
3. Identify the concepts and terms underlying the alternate view of reasoning.
4. Elaborate the parts of the brain that are responsible for reasoning and
decision making.
II. Subject Matter
1. Topics
1.1. Judgment and Decision Making
Page | 90
1.2. Deductive Reasoning

1.3. Inductive Reasoning
1.4. Alternative View of Reasoning
1.5. Neuroscience of Reasoning

Don’t Memorise. (2019, July 31). Introduction to Inductive and Deductive

Reasoning |Don't Memorise [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAjkQ1YqLEE
3. Materials
3.2. Handouts
3.3. Worksheets
4. Values Focus
mental processes.

Answer the following analogy:
1. hammer : nail :: comb: ___________ a. hair b. feet c. hands

2. short : light :: long : ______________ a. light b. heavy c. weightless
3. speak : sing :: walk: ______________ a. dance b. act c. cry
4. chef : food :: sculptor : ____________ a. stone b. rock c. clay
5. like : love :: dislike : ______________ a. unlove b. unlike c. hate
b. Lesson Proper
1.1 Judgement and Decision Making
Page | 91
1.1.1 Judgment and decision making are used to select from among
choices or to evaluate opportunities.
1.1.2 Classical decision theory refers to the earliest model by which

people make decision. It is commonly devised by economists,
statistician and philosophers.
1.1.3 Subjective expected utility theory explains the idea that

individuals aim to achieve satisfaction and avoid pain. In making
decision, individuals will make choices to maximize pleasure
(positive utility) and minimize pain or discomforts (negative
utility).
1.1.4 Researchers claimed that that human decision-making is not

totally and fully logical. Humans, in fact, are not always
irrational. Rather, we demonstrate bounded rationality in which,
we are logical, but within limits.
1.1.5 Satisficing is a strategy wherein individuals consider options

one by one, and then choose an option as soon as one finds
that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet an individual's
minimum level of acceptability.
1.1.6 Elimination by aspects is a method in making decisions which

states that we remove alternatives by focusing on aspects of
each alternative, one at a time.
1.1.7 Availability heuristic is another method of decision making by

which an individual make judgement on the basis of how one
can easily remember in mind what one perceived as relevant
instances of a phenomenon.
1.1.8 Biases often influence how an individual make decision, these

biases include illusory correlation, overconfidence, and
hindsight bias.
1.1.8.1 Illusory correlation refers to a phenomenon by which

individuals are predisposed to see particular events or
attributes and categories as going together, even
when they do not.
1.1.8.2 Overconfidence happen when people tend to

overevaluate his or her own skills, knowledge, or
judgements.
Page | 92
1.1.8.3 Hindsight bias refers to when people tend to look at a

situation reflectively, people tend to believe easily to
see all the signs and events leading up to a particular
outcome.
1.1.9 Gambler’s fallacy refers to a mistaken belief that the probability

of a given random event, such as winning or losing at a game,
is influenced by previous random events.
1.1.10 Conjuction fallacy refers to when an individual gives higher

estimate for a subset of events than for the larger set of events
containing the given subset.
1.1.11 Sunk-cost fallacy happens when the decision to continue to

invest in something simply because one has invested in it
before and one hopes to recover one’s investment.
1.1.12 Opportunities costs refers to the prices paid for availing oneself
of certain opportunities.
1.1.13 Naturalistic decision making happens when making a decision

occurs in natural environments. Mostly naturalist decision
making happens in hospitals, or nuclear plants.
1.1.14 Group decision making happens when groups from decisions by

which groupthink occurs by which it is characterized by
premature decision making that is generally the result of group
members attempting to avoid conflict.
1.2 Deductive Reasoning
1.2.1 Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a logically

certain conclusion by reasoning from one or more general
statements about what is known.
1.2.2 Logic propositions are the foundation of deductive reasoning.

Propositions are assertion which may either be true or false.
Deductive reasoning helps individual connect various
propositions to draw conclusions.
1.2.3 Conditional reasoning is one of the most common forms of

deductive reasoning, in which the reasoner must reach a
conclusion based on an if-then proposition.
Page | 93
1.2.4 Syllogistic reasoning uses deductive logic which starts with the
assumption that a fact or belief is unquestionably right.
1.2.5 In syllogistic reasoning, the writer shows that the position being
argued proceeds logically from the assumption, and that it is an
extension of what is already undeniably valid, by a sequence of
steps.
1.2.6 Another example of syllogistic reasoning is where the writer

introduces a set of facts from other sources and then draws a
logical inference based on these facts, demonstrating how each
group of facts leads to a hypothesis that the viewer will accept
as true, and then how these conclusions, when combined, lead
to a specific conclusion.
1.2.7 A categorical syllogism is a collection of three categorical

propositions (two hypotheses and a conclusion) in which each
categorical concept is used exactly twice.
1.2.7.1 Minor term refers to the subject term of the conclusion

of the syllogism.
1.2.7.2 The major term of the syllogism is whatever is

employed as the predicate term of its conclusion.
1.2.7.3 The third term in the syllogism doesn’t occur in the

conclusion at all, but must be employed in
somewhere in each of its premises; hence, we call it
the middle term.
1.2.7.4 Consider, for example, the categorical syllogism: No

geese are felines. Some birds are geese. Therefore,
some birds are not felines.
1.3 Inductive reasoning
1.3.1 Inductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from specific

facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may
explain the facts.
1.3.2 The inductive reasoner will then try to predict possible real
instances based on that likely inference (Johnson-Laird, 2000).
Inductive reasoning differs from deductive reasoning in that we
can never draw a logically definite conclusion in inductive
reasoning.
Page | 94
1.3.3 At least two of the explanations why people use inductive

reasoning are likely to be agreed upon by cognitive
psychologists.
1.3.3.1 First, it assists individuals in becoming increasingly

capable of making sense of their environment's great
variability.
1.3.3.2 Second, it aids them in anticipating events in their

surroundings, reducing their uncertainty.
1.3.3.3 As a result, cognitive scientists are interested in

learning how inductive reasoning works rather than
why it works.
1.3.4 In a causal inference, one deduces that something is, or is likely

to be, the cause of something else.
1.3.4.1.1 For example, hearing the sound of piano music

might lead one to believe that someone is (or
was) playing the piano. However, while this is
a possible conclusion, it is not definite, since
the sounds may have been created by an
electronic synthesizer.
1.3.5 In a categorical inference, one makes a judgment about

whether something is, or is likely to be, a member of a certain
category.
1.3.5.1 For example, upon seeing an animal one has never

seen before, a person with a limited knowledge of
dogs may be confident that what he is seeing is a dog
but less certain about the specific species.
1.3.6 Reasoning by analogy is a form of inductive argument in which

perceived similarities are used to conclude any additional
similarity that has yet to be discovered. Analogical reasoning is
one of the most popular ways that people try to make sense of
the universe and make decisions.
1.3.6.1 Consider an example analogy problem: Fire is to

asbestos as water is to: (a) vinyl, (b) air, (c) cotton, (d)
faucet.
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1.3.6.2 The reasoner must observe the first pair of items

(“fire” and “asbestos” in this case) and infer one or
more connections (in this case, surface resistance
since surfaces coated with asbestos will resist fire)
from those two items.
1.3.6.3 In the second part of the analogy, the reasoner must

apply the specified relation. Since surfaces coated
with vinyl will withstand water, the reasoner chooses
“vinyl” as the solution in the example analogy.
1.4 Alternative View of Reasoning
1.4.1 Dual-process theory, an alternate viewpoint on reasoning,

claims that two complementary systems of reasoning can be
separated.
1.4.1.1 The first is an associative method, which entails

mental operations based on observed similarity and
temporal proximity (i.e., tendencies for things to occur
close together in time).
1.4.1.2 The second type of system is a rule-based system,

which includes manipulations based on symbol
relationships.
1.4.2 In syllogistic reasoning, the belief-bias effect happens when we

agree more with syllogisms that confirm our convictions,
regardless of whether or not these syllogisms are logically true.
1.4.3 The false-consensus effect is an example of how the

associative method works. People here assume that their
actions and decisions are more normal and acceptable than
those of others.
1.4.4 The rule-based system of reasoning usually requires more

deliberate, sometimes painstaking procedures for reaching
conclusions. We carefully evaluate relevant features (e.g.,
defining features) of the available data using this scheme, which
is based on rules stored in memory.
1.5 Neuroscience of Reasoning
1.5.1 Prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is responsible for
reasoning and decision making.
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1.5.2 Basal ganglia is responsible for cognition and learning. It is also

associated with the prefrontal cortex through a variety of
connections (Melrose, Poulin & Stern, 2007).
1.5.3 For both conditional and syllogistic reasoning, the left fronto-
lateral cortex and the basal ganglia were stimulated when
people were integrating knowledge (solving the syllogistic and
conditional reasoning problems).
1.5.4 In one study, malfunctions were found in several areas of the

prefrontal cortex, including the dorsal and ventral regions, in
people who displayed antisocial actions that were indicative of
weak moral reasoning (Raine & Yang, 2006).
1.5.5 There were also problems with the amygdala, hippocampus,

angular gyrus, anterior cingulate, and temporal cortex.
1.5.6 The anterior cingulate is involved in decision-making, while the

hippocampus is involved in working memory. As a
consequence, it is to be anticipated that malfunctions in these
areas will lead to reasoning errors.
Exercise 1
1. ___________ is the part of the brain that is responsible for reasoning
and decision making.
2. ___________ entails mental operations based on observed similarity

and temporal proximity (i.e., tendencies for things to occur close
together in time).
3. ___________ one makes a judgment about whether something is, or

is likely to be, a member of a certain category.
4. ___________ is the process of reasoning from specific facts or

observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts.
5. ___________ is the process of reaching a logically certain conclusion

by reasoning from one or more general statements about what is
known.
Page | 97
Logic Syllogistic Conditional Reasoning Causal

propositions reasoning reasoning by analogy inferences
__________ 1. uses deductive logic which starts with the assumption that a
fact or belief is unquestionably right.
__________ 2. is one of the most common forms of deductive reasoning, in

which the reasoner must reach a conclusion based on an if-then proposition.
__________ 3. are the foundation of deductive reasoning. Propositions are

assertion which may either be true or false.
__________ 4. States that if one deduces that something is, or is likely to be,
the cause of something else.
__________ 5. is a form of inductive argument in which perceived similarities

are used to conclude any additional similarity that has yet to be discovered.
Exercise 3
Enumeration: Enumerate five (5) parts of the brain that are involved in
decision-making and reasoning.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. What is the difference between inductive reasoning and deductive

reasoning?
B. How would you apply inductive and deductive reasoning in your daily
life? Cite some examples and explain your answers.
Page | 98
Rubrics/Criteria:


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PWC of Davao Course: PEPC 005 Cognitive Psychology

Title : Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

1. Explain the study of cognitive psychology as one of the branches of

II. Subject Matter

Sternberg, R.J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology, 6th Edition.

Psychology Unlocked (2020, July 8). Cognitive Psychology Explained

III.Learning Procedures and Strategies

1.1 Defining Cognitive Psychology

1.1.1 According to Sternberg and Sternberg (2012), cognitive

1.1.3 Attention refers to the process by which an individual focuses

1.1.4 Cognition includes different kinds of information processing that

1.1.6 Dialectic is a developmental process that changes over time

1.1.6.1 A thesis is a statement that is proposed, also known

1.2 History of cognitive psychology

1.2.1 The earliest roots of psychology towards understanding the

1.2.1.1 Philosophy aims to understand one’s inner world such

1.2.1.2 Physiology aims to understand living matter that

1.2.2 Some prominent figures in psychology have contrasting beliefs

1.2.2.1 Examples of these prominent figures include the two

1.2.2.2 Rationalists believe that knowledge is attained

1.2.2.3 On the other hand, Aristotle, the student of Plato,

experiments and observations therefore having

1.2.2.4 Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French rationalist

1.2.2.5 John Locke (1632-1704), a British empiricist believed

1.2.3 Early psychologists have approaches way back in

1.2.3.1 Structuralism aims to understand the structures of the

1.2.3.2 Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920), a German

1.2.3.3 Edward Titchener, one of Wundt’s student, became

1.2.3.4 Functionalism aims to understand the human mind by

1.2.3.5 Associationism was a school of thought that also

become associated with one another as a result, a

1.2.3.6 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) studied his own

1.2.3.7 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 – 1949) termed the

1.2.3.8 Behaviorism is the study that focus on the relationship

1.2.3.9 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) studied behaviorism through

1.2.3.10 John Watson (1878-1958) believed that psychologists

1.2.3.11 B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) believed that operant

1.2.3.12 Gestalt psychology explain the idea that “the whole is

1.3 Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

1.3.1 Cognitivism is the belief that is opposite to behaviorism. It is the

1.3.3 Donald Hebb (1949) emphasizes the role of the early

1.3.4 Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct

1.3.5 By the early 1960s. the field of psychobiology, linguistics,

1.3.6 In 1970s, cognitive psychology was recognized as a branch of

1.3.7 Franz-Joseph Gall, a phrenologist in the late 18 th century

1.4 Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

1.4.1 Cognitive psychology utilizes research methods such as

1.4.2 Laboratory experiment is an experiment that is conducted in a

1.4.3 Psychobiological research aims to examine how cognition and

1.4.4 Self-report refers to an individual’s own account of one’s

1.4.5 Case studies refers to an in-depth study of a particular

1.4.6 Naturalistic observation refers to a scientific method which

1.4.7 Artificial intelligence and computer simulations are done by

3. _________ aims to determine how the elements of mind such as

4. __________ are detailed descriptions of a person’s psychological

Exercise 2: Choose the correct answer in the box provided.

Donald Hebb Karl Spencer Wilhelm Wundt Edward Ivan Pavlov

__________ 2. Emphasizes the role of the early psychobiology by which he

__________ 3. A German psychologist who is the founder of structuralism

__________ 4. Famous for his experiments on dogs which explain the

__________ 5. Termed the principle “law of effect” in relation to forming

Criteria: 2 points for every correct answer.

1. Critical Thinking Questions: Answer the following questions.