Glossary of Key Terms from US History

“10 percent” Plan/ Lincoln’s Reconstruction plan (1863) Introduced by President Lincoln, it proposed
that a state be readmitted to the Union once 10 percent of its voters had pledged loyalty to the United States
and promised to honor emancipation.
100 Percent Americanism or Hundred Percenters Movement started during World War I that celebrated
all things American while it attacked ideas and people that were foreign. A response to the growing influx
of foreign immigrants throughout the 1920s.
9/11 (2001) Common shorthand for the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, in which 19
militant Islamist men hijacked and crashed four commercial aircraft. Two planes hit the Twin Towers of
the World Trade Center in New York City, causing them to collapse. One plane crashed into the Pentagon
in Washington, DC, and the fourth, overtaken by passengers, crashed into a field in rural Pennsylvania.
Nearly 3000 people were killed in the worst case of domestic terrorism in American history.
ABC-1 agreement (1941) An agreement between Britain and the United States developed at a conference
in Washington, DC, between January 29- March 27, 1941, that should the United States enter World War
II, the two nations and their allies would coordinate their military planning, making a priority of protecting
the British Commonwealth. That would mean “getting Germany first” in the Atlantic and the European
theater and fighting more defensively on other military fronts.
Abraham Lincoln Brigade Idealistic American volunteers who served in the Spanish Civil War,
defending Spanish republican forces from the fascist General Francisco Franco’s nationalist coup. Some
3,000 Americans served alongside volunteers from other countries.
Abu Ghraib prison A detention facility near Baghdad, Iraq. Under Saddam Hussein, the prison was the
site of infamous torturing and execution of political dissidents. In 2004, during the U.S. occupation of Iraq,
the prison became the focal point of a prisoner-abuse and torture scandal after photographs surfaced of
American soldiers mistreating, torturing, and degrading Iraqi war prisoners and suspected terrorists. The
scandal was one of several dark spots on the public image of the Iraq War and led to increased criticism of
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld.
Acadians French residents of Nova Scotia, many of whom were uprooted by the British in 1755 and
scattered as far south as Louisiana, where their descendants became known as “Cajuns”.
Acres of Diamonds (1890) The lecture by Russell Conwell that advocated Social Darwinism and justified
the rich being rich and the poor being poor saying that anyone should be able to make their own fortunes.
Act of Toleration (1649) Passed in Maryland, it guaranteed toleration to all Christians but decreed the
death penalty for those, like Jews and atheists, who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. Ensured that
Maryland would continue to attract a high proportion of Catholic migrants throughout the colonial period.
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty or the Purchase of Florida, was a
treaty between the United States and Spain that gave Florida to the U.S. and set out a boundary between the
U.S. and New Spain (now Mexico). The US gave up its claim to Texas. It settled a standing border dispute
between the two countries and was considered a triumph of American diplomacy.
Adamson Act (1916) This law established an eight-hour day for all employees on trains involved in
interstate commerce, with extra pay for overtime. It was the first federal law regulating the hours of
workers in private companies, and was upheld by the Supreme Court Wilson v. New (1917).
Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923) A landmark Supreme Court decision reversing the ruling in Muller v.
Oregan, which had declared women to be deserving of special protection in the workplace.
Administration of Justice Act (1774) Part of the Intolerable Acts, in order to o assure trials more
favorable to Britain, the Act granted a change of venue to another British colony or Great Britain in trials
of officials charged with a crime growing out of their enforcement of the law or suppression of riots.
Witnesses for both sides were also required to attend the trial and were to be compensated for their
expenses.
Admiralty courts Used to try offenders for violating the various Navigation Acts passed by the crown
after the French and Indian War. Colonists argued that the courts encroached on their rights as Englishmen
since they lacked juries and placed the burden of proof on the accused.
Affirmative action Program designed to redress historic racial and gender imbalances in jobs and
education. The term grew from an executive order issued by John F. Kennedy in 1961 mandating that
projects paid for with federal funds could not discriminate based on race in their hiring practices. In the late
1960s, President Nixon’s Philadelphia Plan changed the meaning of affirmative action to require attention
to certain groups, rather than protect individuals against discrimination.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) (1933) A New Deal program designed to raise
agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm. It was based on the assumption that higher prices would
increase farmers’ purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression.
Agricultural Marketing Act (1929) This act established the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for
hard-pressed farmers. The act also aimed to help farmers help themselves through new producers’

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cooperatives. As the depression worsened in 1930, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up
surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farm produce to market.
AIM or American Indian Movement (1968) A Native American organization founded in 1968 to protest
government policies and injustices suffered by Native Americans; in 1973, organized the armed occupation
of Wounded Knee, South Dakota.
Alabama (1862-1864) British-built and manned Confederate warship that raided Union shipping during the
Civil War. One of many built by the British for the Confederacy, despite Union protests.
Alabama Claims These were a series of claims for damages by the U.S. government against the
government of the United Kingdom for the assistance given to the Confederate cause during the American
Civil War. After international arbitration endorsed the American position in 1872, Britain settled the matter
by paying the United States $15.5 million for damages done by several warships built in Britain and sold to
the Confederacy, thus ending the dispute and ensuring friendly relations.
Alamo (1836) Fortress in Texas where four hundred American volunteers were slain by Santa Anna.
“Remember the Alamo” became a battle cry in support of Texan independence.
Albany Congress (1754) Intercolonial congress summoned by the British government to foster greater
colonial unity and assure Iroquois support in the escalating war against the French.
Albany Plan of Union (1754) Aware of the strains that war would put on the colonies, English officials
suggested a "union between the Royal, Proprietary & Charter Governments." In June delegates from most
of the northern colonies and representatives from the Six Iroquois Nations met in Albany, New York. There
they adopted a "plan of union" drafted by Benjamin Franklin of Penn. Under this plan each colonial
legislature would elect delegates to an American continental assembly presided over by a royal governor.
Alexandria Conference (1785) Delegates from Virginia and Maryland met to discuss ways to improve
navigation and commerce on the Potomac River. They decided to invite other states to meet in Annapolis.
Alger Hiss (1948) He was an American government official, who was involved in the establishment of the
United Nations both as a U.S. State Department and U.N. official. Hiss was accused of being a Soviet spy
in 1948 and convicted of perjury in connection with this charge in 1950. Whittaker Chambers, a former
Communist Party member, testified under subpoena before the House Committee on Un-American
Activities (HUAC) that Hiss had secretly been a Communist while in federal service. Chambers had
previously testified under oath that Hiss had never been a Communist or a spy.
Alien Laws (1798) Acts passed by a Federalist Congress raising the residency requirement for citizenship
to fourteen years and granting the president the power to deport dangerous foreigners in times of peace.
Allende Coupe (1970) After the election of Allende as President of Chile, President Nixon stated his fear
that Chile could become "another Cuba". The US cut off most of its foreign aid to Chile and supported
Allende's opponents in Chile during his presidency. The CIA & State department worked to remove him
from power and replace him with a leader favorable to the US. Eventually military leader Pinochet staged a
military coup and removed Allende.
Alliance of Progress (1961) Was initiated by U.S. President John F. Kennedy it aimed to establish
economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America.
Allies (1914-1918) Great Britain, Russia, and France, later joined by Italy, Japan, and the United States,
formed this alliance against the Central Powers in World War I.
Allies (1939-1945) Great Britain, Russia, France, China, & United States formed this alliance against the
Axis Powers in World War II.
Al Qaeda Arabic for “The Base,” an international alliance of anti-Western Islamic fundamentalist terrorist
organizations founded in the late 1980s. Founded by veterans of the Afghan struggle against the Soviet
Union, the group is headed by Osama Bin Laden and has taken responsibility for numerous terrorist
attacks, especially after the late 1990s. Al Qaeda organized the attacks of September 11, 2001, in the
United States, from its headquarters in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Since the U.S-led invasion of
Afghanistan in 2001 and the launch of the “Global War on Terror,” the group has been weakened, but still
poses significant threats around the world.
American Anti-Slavery Society (1833-1870) Abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison,
who advocated the immediate abolition of slavery. By 1838, the organization had more than 250,000
members across 1,350 chapters.
American Board of Customs Commissioners (1765) Townshend introduced legislation to create an
American Board of Customs Commissioners whose sole job would be to enforce the Navigation Acts .
They were created because Townshend wanted to crack down on colonial smuggling. The corrupt members
of the Board practiced customs racketeering, which was a legalized form of piracy. This led to a major
movement between colonists of anger and violence toward the Board members.
American Colonization Society (1816-1919)Reflecting the focus of early abolitionists on transporting
freed blacks back to Africa, the organization established Liberia, a West-African settlement intended as a
haven for emancipated slaves.

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American Federation of Labor A national federation of trade unions that included only skilled workers,
founded in 1886. Led by Samuel Gompers for nearly four decades, the AFL sought to negotiate with
employers for a better kind of capitalism that rewarded workers fairly with better wages, hours, and
conditions. The AFL’s membership was almost entirely white and male until the middle of the twentieth
century.
America First Committee (1940-1941)Political group organized by isolationists alarmed by FDR’s pro-
British policies. Mobilized to sway public opinion towards isolationism. Charles Lindberg was a leading
member of the group.
American Liberty League It was an American political organization formed in 1934, primarily by
conservative Democrats to oppose the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. It was highly active for just two
years. It was founded by members of the Dupont family. Following the landslide re-election of Roosevelt
in 1936, it sharply reduced its activities and disbanded entirely in 1940.
American Plan A business-oriented approach to worker relations popular among firms in the 1920s to
defeat unionization. Managers sought to strengthen their communication with workers and to offer benefits
like pensions and insurance. They insisted on an “open shop” in contrast to the mandatory union
membership through the “closed shop” that many labor activists had demanded in the strike after World
War I.
The American Protective Association (1897) was an American anti-Catholic secret society established in
1887 by Protestants. Unlike the more powerful Know Nothing movement of the 1850s, the APA did not
establish its own independent political party, but rather sought to exert influence by boosting its supporters
in campaigns and at political conventions, particularly those of the Republican Party. The organization was
particularly concerned about Roman Catholic influence in the public school system as well as unfettered
Catholic immigration and what was seen as growing Catholic control of the political establishments of
major American cities.
American Protective League Was an American World War I-era private organization that worked with
federal law enforcement agencies in support of the anti -German Empire movement, as well as against
radical anarchists, anti-war activists, and left-wing labor and political organizations.
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) Landmark law signed by President George H. W. Bush that
prohibited discrimination against people with physical or mental handicaps. It represented a legislative
triumph for champions of equal protections to all.
“The American Scholar” (1837) Ralph Waldo Emerson’s address at Harvard College, in which he
declared an intellectual independence from Europe, urging American scholars to develop their own
traditions.
American Railway Union It was the largest labor union of its time, and one of the first industrial unions in
the US. It was founded on June 20, 1893, by railway workers gathered in Chicago, Illinois, and under the
leadership of Eugene V. Debs. The ARU, unlike the craft unions, incorporated a policy of unionizing all
railway workers, regardless of craft or service.[
American System (1820s) Henry Clay’s three-pronged system to promote American growth and industry.
Clay advocated a strong banking system, a protective tariff and a federally funded transportation network
of canals and roads. Started in response to the problems encountered during the War of 1812 and the need
to industrialize the United States.
American Temperance Society Founded in Boston in 1826 as part of a growing effort of nineteenth
century reformers to limit alcohol consumption.
Amistad (1839) Spanish slave ship dramatically seized off the coast of Cuba by the enslaved Africans
aboard. The ship was driven ashore in Long Island and the slaves were put on trial. Former president John
Quincy Adams argued their case before the Supreme Court, securing their eventual release.
Annapolis Convention (1786) Meeting between 8 states to improve commercial relations among the
states. James Madison and Alexander Hamilton took it upon themselves to invite other states to a
convention the next year in Philadelphia.
Ancient Order of Hibernians (mid-nineteenth century) Irish semi-secret society that served as a
benevolent organization for downtrodden Irish immigrants in the United States. At times connected to the
militant Molly Maguires.
Anglo-American Convention (1818) Signed by Britain and the United States, the pact allowed New
England fishermen access to Newfoundland fisheries, established the northern border of Louisiana territory
and provided for the joint occupation of the Oregon Country for ten years.
Antietam, Battle of (September 1862) Landmark battle in the Civil War that essentially ended in a draw
but demonstrated the prowess of the Union army, forestalling foreign intervention and giving Lincoln the
“victory” he needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.
Antifederalists Opponents of the 1787 Constitution, they cast the document as antidemocratic, objected to
the subordination of the states to the central government, and feared encroachment on individuals’ liberties
in the absence of a bill of rights.
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Anti-Imperialist League (1898-1921) A diverse group formed in order to protest American colonial
oversight in the Philippines. It included university presidents, industrialists, clergymen, and labor leaders.
Strongest in the Northeast, the Anti-imperialist League was the largest lobbying organization on a U.S.
foreign-policy issue until the end of the nineteenth century. It declined in strength after the United States
signed the Treaty of Paris (which approved the annexation of the Philippines), and especially after
hostilities broke out between Filipino nationalists and American forces.
Anti-Masonic party (established c. 1826) First founded in New York, it gained considerable influence in
New England and the mid-Atlantic during the 1832 election, campaigning against the politically influential
Masonic order, a secret society. Anti-Masons opposed Andrew Jackson, a Mason, and drew much of their
support from evangelical Protestants.
Anti-Renters Movement (1839) (also known as the Helderberg War) was a tenants' revolt in upstate New
York during the early 19th century. It was a rebellion by renters against feudal tactics used by large patron
land owners. It led to the creation of the Anti-renter Party which had a strong influence on New York State
politics from 1846- 1851.
Antinomianism Belief that the elect need not obey the law of either God or man; most notably espoused in
the colonies by Anne Hutchinson. The word "antinomianism" literally means "against or opposed to the
law;" in a theological context it means "the moral law is not binding upon Christians, who are under the law
of grace. The controversy boiled down to a struggle for control of Massachusetts; it came at a time when
the new society was forming, and it had a decisive effect upon the future of New England. Hutchinson took
a leading role as the chief antagonist of the Puritan leaders. The controversy took place from October 1636
to the time of Hutchinson's church trial in March 1638.
Antisaloon League (1893) The most successful political action group that forced the prohibition issue into
the forefront of state and local elections and pioneered the strategy of the single-issue pressure group.
Apollo (1961–1975) Program of manned space flights run by America’s National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The project’s highest achievement was the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on
July 20, 1969.
Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829) Incendiary abolitionist track advocating the violent
overthrow of slavery. Published by David Walker, a Southern-born free black.
Appeasement (1938) The policy followed by leaders of Britain and France at the 1938 conference in
Munich. Their purpose was to avoid war, but they allowed Germany to take the Sudetenland from
Czechoslovakia.
Appomattox Courthouse Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865 after
almost a year of brutal fighting throughout Virginia in the “Wilderness Campaign”.
Arabic crisis (1915) Pledge made by the German government after the sinking of the British passenger
vessel Arabic. Germany agreed to pay an indemnity and offered public assurances that German U-boats
would not sink passenger and merchant ships; the latter implied the virtual abandonment of submarine
warfare.
Arminianism Belief that salvation is offered to all humans but is conditional on acceptance of God’s grace.
Different from Calvinism, which emphasizes predestination and unconditional election.
Army-McCarthy Hearings (1954) Congressional hearings called by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s to accuse
members of the army of communist ties. In this widely televised spectacle, McCarthy finally went too far
for public approval. The hearings exposed the Senator’s extremism and led to his eventual disgrace.
Aroostook War (began 1839) Series of clashes between American and Canadian lumberjacks in the
disputed territory of northern Maine, resolved when a permanent boundary was agreed upon in 1842.
Articles of Confederation (1781) First American constitution that established the United States as a loose
confederation of states under a weak national Congress, which was not granted the power to regulate
commerce or collect taxes. The Articles were replaced by a more efficient Constitution in 1789.
"Association" (1774) The Continental Association, known simply as the "Association", was a system
created by the First Continental Congress for implementing a trade boycott with Great Britain. Congress
hoped that by imposing economic sanctions, Great Britain would be pressured to redress the grievances of
the colonies, and in particular repeal the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament. The Association
aimed to alter Britain's policies towards the colonies without severing allegiance. The boycott became
operative on December 1, 1774. The Association was fairly successful while it lasted. Trade with Great
Britain fell sharply.
Assumption (1790) Transfer of debt from one party to another. In order to strengthen the union, the federal
government assumed states’ Revolutionary War debts , thereby tying the interests of wealthy lenders with
those of the national government. This plan was proposed by Hamilton the Secretary of the Treasury.
Atlantic Charter (1941) Meeting on a warship off the coast of Newfoundland in August 1941, Franklin
Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed this covenant outlining the future path

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toward disarmament, peace, and a permanent system of general security. Its spirit would animate the
founding of the United Nations and raise awareness of the human rights of individuals after World War II.
Atlanta Compromise (1895) Classic statement on race relations, articulated by Booker T. Washington, in
a speech at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. He asserted that vocational
education, which gave blacks an opportunity for economic security, was more valuable to them than social
advantages, higher education, or political office. In return for African Americans remaining peaceful and
socially separate from whites, the white community needed to accept responsibility for improving the social
and economic conditions of all Americans regardless of skin color, Washington argued. This notion of
shared responsibilities is what came to be known as the Atlanta Compromise
Australian ballot A system that allows voters privacy in marking their ballot choices. Developed in
Australia in the 1850s, it was introduced to the United States during the progressive era to help counteract
boss rule. Also known as the secret ballot.
Axis Powers (1940) also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis,
comprised the countries that were opposed to the Allies during World War II. The three major Axis powers
—Germany, Japan, and Italy—were part of a military alliance on the signing of the Tripartite Pact in
September 1940, which officially founded the Axis powers. At their hight, the Axis powers ruled empires
that dominated large parts of Europe, Africa, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, but World
War II ended with their total defeat and dissolution. Like the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, and
other nations entered and later left the Axis during the course of the war
Ayatollah Khomeini Shi'ite cleric who led the Iranian Revolution and overthrow of the Shah of Iran in
1979 and created an Islamic republic. He was behind the kidnapping of American embassy workers and the
hostage crisis.
Aztecs Native American empire that controlled present-day Mexico until 1521, when they were conquered
by Spanish Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs maintained control over their vast empire through a system of trade
and tribute, and came to be known for their advances in mathematics and writing, and their use of human
sacrifices in religious ceremonies.
baby boom (1946-1964) Demographic explosion from births to returning soldiers and others who had put
off starting families during the war. This large generation of new Americans forced the expansion of many
institutions such as schools and universities.
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) Uprising of Virginia backcountry farmers and indentured servants led by planter
Nathaniel Bacon; initially a response to Governor William Berkeley’s refusal to protect backcountry
settlers from Indian attacks, the rebellion eventually grew into a broader conflict between impoverished
settlers and the planter elite.
Ballinger-Pinchot Affair A dispute between U.S. Forest Service Chief Gifford Pinchot and U.S. Secretary
of the Interior Richard Achilles Ballinger that contributed to the split of the Republican Party before the
1912 Presidential Election and helped to define the U.S. conservation movement in the early 20th century.
Bank of the United States (1791) Chartered by Congress as part of Alexander Hamilton's financial
program, the bank printed paper money and served as a depository for Treasury funds. It drew opposition
from Jeffersonian Republicans, who argued that the bank was unconstitutional.
Bank War or War on the Bank (1832) Battle between President Andrew Jackson and Congressional
supporters of the Bank of the United States over the bank’s renewal in 1832. Jackson vetoed the Bank Bill,
arguing that the bank favored moneyed interests at the expense of western farmers.
Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) CIA plot in 1961 to overthrow Fidel Castro by training Cuban exiles to invade
and supporting them with American air power. The mission failed and became a public relations disaster
early in John F. Kennedy’s presidency.
Berlin airlift (1948) Year-long mission of flying food and supplies to blockaded West Berliners, whom the
Soviet Union cut off from access to the West in the first major crisis of the Cold War.
Berlin Decree (1806) A response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British
government on the 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on the 21 November 1806, which
brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. It told US ships they could not trade with
Britain. It was part of a policy known as the Continental System.
Berlin Wall (1961-1989) Fortified and guarded barrier between East and West Berlin erected on orders
from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 to stop the flow of people to the West. Until its destruction
in 1989, the wall was a vivid symbol of the divide between the communist and capitalist worlds.
Bessemer Process It was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from
molten pig iron prior to the open hearth furnace. The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer,
who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The process was independently discovered in 1851 by
William Kelly. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown
through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

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Bible Belt The region of the American South, extending roughly from North Carolina west to Oklahoma
and Texas, where Protestant Fundamentalism and belief in literal interpretation of the Bible were
traditionally strongest.
Big Sister policy (1880s) A foreign policy of Secretary of State James G. Blaine aimed at rallying Latin
American nations behind American leadership and opening Latin American markets to Yankee traders. The
policy bore fruit in 1889, when Blaine presided over the First International Conference of American States.
Bill of Rights (1791) Popular term for the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The amendments
secure key rights for individuals and reserve to the states all powers not explicitly delegated or prohibited
by the Constitution.
Birth of a Nation Was a silent film by DW Griffith. It portrayed the Klan as heroes and black people as
the bad guys. It was clearly racist and supposed to be so. The black people in the movie were actually white
people painted to look black. It was the first blockbuster.
Black Codes (1865-1866) Laws passed throughout the South to restrict the rights of emancipated blacks,
particularly with respect to negotiating labor contracts. Increased Northerners’ criticisms of President
Andrew Johnson’s lenient Reconstruction policies.
Black Cabinet It was first known as the Federal Council of Negro Affairs, an informal group of African-
American public policy advisors to FDR. It was supported by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. By mid-1935,
there were 45 African Americans working in federal executive departments and New Deal agencies.
Black Hawk War (1832) Series of clashes in Illinois and Wisconsin between American forces and Indian
chief Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox tribes, who unsuccessfully tried to reclaim territory lost under the
1830 Indian Removal Act.
Black list: A list of people who had done some misdeed and were disliked by business. They were refused
jobs and harassed by unions and businesses.
Black Monday (1987) October 19, 1987. Date of the largest single-day decline in the Dow Jones Industrial
Average until September 2001. The downturn indicated instability in the booming business culture of the
1980s but did not lead to a serious economic recession.
Black Panther Party Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to
protect black rights. The Panthers represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the
civil rights movement, and signaled a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964
and 1965.
Black Power Doctrine of militancy and separatism that rose in prominence after 1965. Black Power
activists such as Stokely Carmichael rejected Martin Luther King’s pacifism and desire for integration.
Rather, they promoted pride in African heritage and an often militant position in defense of their rights.
Black Tuesday (1929) The dark, panicky day of October 29, 1929 when over 16,410,000 shares of stock
were sold on Wall Street. It was a trigger that helped bring on the Great Depression.
Bleeding Kansas (1856-1861) Civil war in Kansas over the issue of slavery in the territory, fought
intermittently until 1861, when it merged with the wider national Civil War.
Blue laws Also known as sumptuary laws, they are designed to restrict personal behavior in accord with a
strict code of morality. Blue laws were passed across the colonies, particularly in Puritan New England and
Quaker Pennsylvania.
Boll weevils Term for conservative southern Democrats who voted increasingly for Republican issues
during the Carter and Reagan administrations.
Bolshevik Revolution (1917) The second stage of the Russian Revolution in November 1917 when
Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party seized power and established a communist state. The first stage had
occurred the previous February when more moderate revolutionaries overthrew the Russian Czar.
Bonanza farms large farms that came to dominate agricultural life in much of the West in the late 1800s;
instead of plots farmed by yeoman farmers, large amounts of machinery were used, and workers were hired
laborers, often performing only specific tasks(similar to work in a factory).
Bonus Army (1932) Officially known as the Bonus Expeditionary Force (BEF), this rag-tag group of
20,000 veterans marched on Washington to demand immediate payment of bonuses earned during World
War I. General Douglas MacArthur dispersed them with tear gas and bayonets.
Border States Five slave states–Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia–that did not
secede during the Civil War. To keep the states in the Union, Abraham Lincoln insisted that the war was
not about abolishing slavery but rather protecting the Union.
Boss Tweed William Tweed, head of Tammany Hall, NYC's powerful democratic political machine in
1868. Between 1868 and 1869 he led the Tweed Reign, a group of corrupt politicians in defrauding the city.
Example: Responsible for the construction of the NY court house; actual construction cost $3million.
Project cost tax payers $13million.
Boston Port Bill (1774) Part of the Intolerable Acts, the Act was a response to the Boston Tea Party. It
outlawed the use of the Port of Boston (by setting up a barricade/blockade) for "landing and discharging,

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loading or shipping, of goods, wares, and merchandise" until such time as restitution was made to the
King's treasury (for customs duty lost) and to the East India Company for damages suffered.
Boston Massacre (1770) Clash between unruly Bostonian protestors and locally-stationed British redcoats,
who fired on the jeering crowd, killing or wounding eleven citizens.
Boston Tea Party (1773) Rowdy protest against the British East India Company’s newly-acquired
monopoly on the tea trade. Colonists, disguised as Indians, dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston harbor,
prompting harsh sanctions from the British Parliament.
Bourbons Southern Democratic politicians who sought to wrest control from Republican regimes in the
South after Reconstruction also known as Redeemers. Most were from the wealth aristocracy of the South.
Boxer Rebellion (1900) An uprising in China directed against foreign influence. It was suppressed by an
international force of some eighteen thousand soldiers, including several thousand Americans. The Boxer
Rebellion paved the way for the revolution of 1911, which led to the establishment of the Republic of
China in 1912.
Anne Bradstreet The first American female poet. She published religious poetry and poetry about nature.
Well respected among colonists and Europeans
Bracero program (1942) Program established by agreement with the Mexican government to recruit
temporary Mexican agricultural workers to the United States to make up for wartime labor shortages in the
Far West. The program persisted until 1964, by when it had sponsored 4.5 million border crossings.
Brain Trust Specialists in law, economics, and welfare, many young university professors, who advised
President Franklin D. Roosevelt and helped develop the policies of the New Deal.
Breakers Slave drivers who employed the lash to brutally “break” the souls of strong-willed slaves.
Bretton Woods Conference (1944) Meeting of Western allies to establish a postwar international
economic order to avoid crises like the one that spawned World War II. Led to the creation of the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, designed to regulate currency levels and provide
aid to underdeveloped countries.
Brinkmanship Cold War defense policy of Presidnet Eisenhower. It threatened to use all of the US
military arsenal including nuclear weapons if the Soviets took offensive measures agaainst the US or any of
our allies. This was a bold move as it established the stakes to be extremely high, as this action could cause
mass destruction for either side. This threat caused an increase and build up of tension, neither one wanting
to pull the trigger on the other for fear of what the reaction might be.
Brook Farm (1841-1846) Transcendentalist commune founded by a group of intellectuals, who
emphasized living plainly while pursuing the life of the mind. The community fell into debt and dissolved
when their communal home burned to the ground in 1846.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) Landmark Supreme Court decision that
overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and abolished racial segregation in public schools. The Court
reasoned that “separate” was inherently “unequal,” rejecting the foundation of the Jim Crow system of
racial segregation in the South. This decision was the first major step toward the legal end of racial
discrimination and a major accomplishment for the Civil Rights Movement.
Buchanan v. Warley, (1917), United States Supreme Court case in which the Court addressed civil
government instituted racial segregation in residential areas. The Court held that a Louisville, Kentucky,
city ordinance prohibiting the sale of real property to African Americans violated the Fourteenth
Amendment, which protected freedom of contract, reversing the ruling of the Kentucky Court of Appeals.
The Bucktails (1818–1826) They were the faction of the Democratic-Republican Party in New York State
opposed to the canal policy of Governor DeWitt Clinton. It was influenced by the Tammany Society. The
name derives from a Tammany insignia, a deer's tail worn in the hat. Martin Van Buren was a leader of this
movement.
Buena Vista, Battle of (1847) Key American victory against Mexican forces in the Mexican-American
War. Elevated General Zachary Taylor to national prominence and helped secure his success in the 1848
presidential election.
Buffer In politics, a territory between two antagonistic powers, intended to minimize the possibility of
conflict between them. In British North America, Georgia was established as a buffer colony between
British and Spanish territory.
Bull Run (Manassas Junction), Battle of (July 1861) First major battle of the Civil War and a victory for
the South, it dispelled Northern illusions of swift victory.
Butler v. US (1936) Was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the processing
taxes instituted under the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were unconstitutional. Justice Owen Roberts
argued that the tax was "but a means to an unconstitutional end" that violated the Tenth Amendment
Bunker Hill, Battle of (June 1775) Fought on the outskirts of Boston, on Breed’s Hill, the battle ended in
the colonial militia’s retreat, though at a heavy cost to the British.
Burned-Over District Popular name for Western New York, a region particularly swept up in the religious
fervor of the Second Great Awakening.
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Cahokia (c. 1100 A.D.) Mississippian settlement near present-day East St. Louis, home to as many as
25,000 Native Americans. Noted for the great man made mounds found there.
California Bear Flag Republic (1846) Short-lived California republic, established by local American
settlers who revolted against Mexico. Once news of the war with Mexico reached the Americans, they
abandoned the Republic in favor of joining the United States.
California gold rush (beginning in 1849) Inflow of thousands of miners to Northern California after news
reports of the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in January of 1848 had spread around the world by the end
of that year. The onslaught of migrants prompted Californians to organize a government and apply for
statehood in 1849.
Calvinism Dominant theological credo of the New England Puritans based on the teachings of John
Calvin. Calvinists believed in predestination–that only “the elect” were destined for salvation.
Camp David Accords A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt where Egypt agreed to recognize the
nation state of Israel. President Carter helped negotiate the treaty.
Canal Age (1818-1850) Erie Canal was built between 1818 and 1825 and stretched 100 miles from Albany
on the Hudson river to Buffalo on Lake Erie. It began the canal age, and transportation greatly increased.
Transportation costs in this period fall 95%.Traders flock to cities like Rochester and Lockport because
they are close to the canal. It also pushes New York into the lead importance as a city. Western states
constructed canals to connect the great lakes. The canal age was over by1850, replaced by railroads and
steamboats
Capitalism Economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and
accessible markets. European colonization of the Americas, and in particular, the discovery of vast bullion
deposits, helped bring about Europe’s transition to capitalism.
Caravel Small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails. Caravels could sail more closely
into the wind, allowing European sailors to explore the Western shores of Africa, previously made
inaccessible due to prevailing winds on the homeward journey.
Caroline Affair (1837) Diplomatic riff between the United States and Britain. Developed after British
troops set fire to an American steamer carrying supplies across the Niagara River to Canadian insurgents,
during Canada’s short-lived insurrection.
Carpetbaggers Pejorative used by Southern whites to describe Northern businessmen and politicians who
came to the South after the Civil War to work on Reconstruction projects or invest in Southern
infrastructure.
“Cattle Kingdom” The cattle industry grew tremendously in the two decades after the Civil War, moving
into western Kansas and Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas in the 1870s and 1880s
with the expansion of the railroads. Cattle ranching became big business that attracted foreign investment
and required much organization.
Cash & Carry (1939) Way used by FDR to get around the Neutrality Acts, said European nations (Allies)
could buy war materials from US only if they provide transportation and pay in cash
Central Powers Germany and Austria-Hungary, later joined by Turkey and Bulgaria, made up this alliance
against the Allies in World War I.
A Century of Dishonor (1881) Book by Helen Hunt Jackson which chronicled the government's actions
against the Indians. The book and Jackson’s other writings helped inspire sympathy towards the Indians.
Charter or Chartered Company Legal document granted by a government to some group or agency to
implement a stated purpose, and spelling out the attending rights and obligations. British colonial charters
guaranteed inhabitants all the rights of Englishmen, which helped solidify colonists’ ties to Britain during
the early years of settlement.
Charter of Liberties (1701) Penn drew up an addition to Pennsylvania’s charter that increased the power
of the colonial assembly and also created Delawre, it was also known as the Pennsylvania Charter of
Privileges. It lasted until the American Revolution when it was replaced with a state constitution.
Château Thierry, Battle of (1918) The first significant engagement of American troops in World War I—
and, indeed, in any European war. To weary French soldiers, the American doughboys were an image of
fresh and gleaming youth.
Checkers Speech (1952) Nationally televised address by vice-presidential candidate Richard Nixon. Using
the new mass medium of television shortly before the 1952 election, the vice presidential candidate saved
his place on the ticket by defending himself against accusations of corruption.
Chesapeake affair (1807) Conflict between Britain and the United States that precipitated the 1807
embargo. The conflict developed when a British ship, in search of deserters, fired on the American
Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia.
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Federal legislation that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the
United States. This was the first major legal restriction on immigration in U.S. history.
Christian Coalition (1989) Political action group created by religious broadcaster and and presidential
candidate "Pat" Robertson, and was a US Christian advocacy group, which includes Christian
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fundamentalists, neo-evangelicals and conservative charismatics. While labeling itself as the Christian
Coalition, the organization represents certain viewpoints among numbers of Christians in the United States
Citizen Genet Affair Began in 1793 when Edmond Genet was sent to the US to promote American
support for France's wars with Spain and Britain. Genêt arrived in Charleston, South Carolina on the
warship. Instead of traveling to the then-capital of Philadelphia to present himself to President Washington.
Genêt then tried to recruit American sailors and frontiersmen in an attempt to violate Washington’s
Proclamation of Neutrality.
Civic virtue Willingness on the part of citizens to sacrifice personal self-interest for the public good.
Deemed a necessary component of a successful republic.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933) A government program created by Congress to hire young
unemployed men to improve the rural, out-of-doors environment with such work as planting trees, fighting
fires, draining swamps, and maintaining National Parks. The CCC proved to be an important foundation for
the post-World War II environmental movement.
civil law Body of written law enacted through legislative statutes or constitutional provisions. In countries
where civil law prevails, judges must apply the statutes precisely as written.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 The last piece of federal civil rights legislation until the 1950s, the law promised
blacks equal access to public accommodations and banned racism in jury selection, but the Act provided no
means of enforcement and was therefore ineffective. In 1883, the Supreme Court declared most of the Act
unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 Federal law that banned racial discrimination in public facilities and strengthened
the federal government’s power to fight segregation in schools. Title VII of the act prohibited employers
from discriminating based on race in their hiring practices, and empowered the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to regulate fair employment.
Civil Rights Bill (1866) Passed over Andrew Johnson’s veto, the bill aimed to counteract the Black Codes
by conferring citizenship on African Americans and making it a crime to deprive blacks of their rights to
sue, testify in court, or hold property.
Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837) Supreme Court ruled that a charter granted by a state to a
company cannot work to the disadvantage of the public. The Charles River Bridge Company protested
when the Warren Bridge Company was authorized in 1828 to build a free bridge where it had been
chartered to operate a toll bridge in 1785. The court ruled that the Charles River Company was not granted
a monopoly right in their charter, and the Warren Company could build its bridge.
Christmas Bombings (1972) The aerial bombing campaign, conducted against targets in the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the final period of US involvement in the Vietnam War. The
operation was conducted from 18–29 December 1972. They were conducted to give the US more leverage
in negotiations with South Vietnam to end the US involvement in the war.
Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914) Law extending the anti-trust protections of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
and exempting labor unions and agricultural organizations from antimonopoly constraints. The act
conferred long-overdue benefits on labor.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) Signed by Great Britain and the United States, it provided that the two
nations would jointly protect the neutrality of Central America and that neither power would seek to fortify
or exclusively control any future isthmian waterway. Later revoked by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901,
which gave the United States control of the Panama Canal.
Clipper ships (1840s-1850s) Small, swift vessels that gave American shippers an advantage in the carrying
trade. Clipper ships were made largely obsolete by the advent of sturdier, roomier iron steamers on the eve
of the Civil War.
Closed shop A union-organizing term that refers to the practice of allowing only unionized employees to
work for a particular company. The AFL became known for negotiating closed-shop agreements with
employers, in which the employer would agree not to hire non-union members.
Coercive Acts (1774) See Intolerable Acts
Cohens v. Virginia (1821) Case that reinforced federal supremacy by establishing the right of the Supreme
Court to review decisions of state supreme courts in questions involving the powers of the federal
government.
Cold War (1946-1991) The 45 year diplomatic tension between the United States and the Soviet Union
that divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist. Most of the
international conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing world, can be traced to the
competition between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Collective bargaining the process by which wages, hours, rules, and working conditions are negotiated
and agreed upon by a union with an employer for all the employees collectively whom it represents.
Columbian Exchange The transfer or exchange of goods, ideas, crops and diseases between New
(Western Hemisphere) and Old (Eastern Hemisphere) World societies after 1492.

9
Commerce Compromise (1787) A compromise achieved during the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
Northerners wanted to restrict foreign competition for raw good and finished products by taxing both
imports and exports. Southerners opposed taxes on exports since their economy depended heavily on cheap
agricultural exports. The compromise allowed the federal government to only tax imports.
Commission on Civil Disorder or Kerner Commission (1967) It was an 11-member commission
established by President Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the causes of the 1967 race riots in the United
States and to provide recommendations for the future.
Committees of Correspondence (1772) Initiated by Samuel Adams, in Massachusetts colonist created
committees that sent letters to each other about suspicious British activities they thought were threats to the
colonists liberties. Virginia took it a step further and made the committees intercolonial, to maintain
colonial opposition to British policies through the exchange of letters and pamphlets.
Committee on the Conduct of War (1861-1865) It was a Congressional investigating committee created
to handle issues surrounding the American Civil War. Its purpose was to investigate such matters as illicit
trade with the Confederate states, medical treatment of wounded soldiers, military contracts, and the causes
of Union battle losses. The Committee was also involved in supporting the war effort through various
means, including endorsing emancipation, the use of black soldiers, and the appointment of generals who
were known to be aggressive fighters. It was chaired throughout by Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio, and
became identified with the Radical Republicans who wanted more aggressive war policies than those of
Abraham Lincoln.
Committee on Public Information (1917) A government office during World War I known popularly as
the Creel Committee for its Chairman George Creel, it was dedicated to winning everyday Americans’
support for the war effort. It regularly distributed pro-war propaganda and sent out an army of “four-minute
men” to rally crowds and deliver “patriotic pep”.
Common Sense (1776) Thomas Paine’s pamphlet urging the colonies to declare independence and
establish a republican government. The widely-read pamphlet helped convince colonists to support the
Revolution.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Organization formed (after the fall of communism in the
USSR) from the former republics of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842) Massachusetts Supreme Court decision that strengthened the labor
movement by upholding the legality of unions. Also decided that unions are not responsible for the illegal
acts of their members.
Companionate marriage A marriage based on equality and mutual respect- both republican values,
breaking from the traditional marriage where the man was the head.
Compromise of 1850 Admitted California as a free state, opened New Mexico and Utah to popular
sovereignty, ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in Washington D.C., and introduced a more
stringent fugitive slave law. Widely opposed in both the North and South, it did little to settle the escalating
dispute over slavery.
Compromise of 1877 The agreement that finally resolved the 1876 election and officially ended
Reconstruction. In exchange for the Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, winning the presidency,
Hayes agreed to withdraw the last of the federal troops from the former Confederate states. This deal
effectively completed the southern return to white-only, Democratic-dominated electoral politics.
Compromise Tariff of 1833 Passed as a measure to resolve the nullification crisis, it provided that tariffs
be lowered gradually, over a period of ten years, to 1816 levels.
Comstock Lode Deposit (1859) It was the first major discovery of silver ore in the United States. It
sparked a silver rush of prospectors to the area, scrambling to stake their claims. The discovery caused
considerable excitement in California and throughout the United States. Mining camps soon thrived in the
vicinity, which became bustling centers of fabulous wealth, including Virginia City. It is notable not just
for the immense fortunes it generated and the large role those fortunes had in the growth of Nevada.
Confederate States of America (1861-1865) Government established after seven Southern states seceded
from the Union. Later joined by four more states from the Upper South.
Congregational Church Self-governing Puritan congregations without the hierarchical establishment of
the Anglican Church
Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War (1861-1865) Established by Congress during the
Civil War to oversee military affairs. Largely under the control of Radical Republicans, the committee
agitated for a more vigorous war effort and actively pressed Lincoln on the issue of emancipation.
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) A New Deal-era labor organization that broke away from
the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in order to organize unskilled industrial workers regardless of
their particular economic sector or craft. The CIO gave a great boost to labor organizing in the midst of the
Great Depression and during World War II. In 1955, the CIO merged with the AFL.

10
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) (1942) Nonviolent civil rights organization founded in 1942 and
committed to the “Double V”—victory over fascism abroad and racism at home. After World War II,
CORE would become a major force in the civil rights movement.
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) Convention of major European powers to redraw the boundaries of
continental Europe after the defeat of Napoleonic France
Conquistadores Sixteenth-century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to
Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires.
Conciliatory Propositions/Conciliatory Resolution (1775) It declared that any colony that supported the
British would be relieved of paying taxes or duties except those necessary for the regulation of commerce.
The resolution was addressed and sent to the individual colonies, and intentionally ignored the Continental
Congress. By doing this, Lord North hoped to divide the colonists amongst themselves and thus weaken
any revolution/independence movements.
Conscience Whigs (1840s and 1850s) Northern Whigs who opposed slavery on moral grounds.
Conscience Whigs sought to prevent the annexation of Texas as a slave state, fearing that the new slave
territory would only serve to buttress the Southern “slave power”.
Constitutional Union Party (1860) Formed by moderate Whigs and Know-Nothings in an effort to elect a
compromise candidate and avert a sectional crisis.
Containment doctrine America’s strategy against the Soviet Union based on ideas of George Kennan. The
doctrine declared that the Soviet Union and communism were inherently expansionist and had to be
stopped from spreading through both military and political pressure. Containment guided American foreign
policy throughout most of the Cold War.
The Continental Association (1774) Also known as the "Association", was a system created by the First
Continental Congress for implementing a trade boycott with Great Britain. Congress hoped that by
imposing economic sanctions, Great Britain would be pressured to redress the grievances of the colonies,
and in particular repeal the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament. The Association aimed to
alter Britain's policies towards the colonies without severing allegiance. The boycott became operative on
December 1, 1774. The Association was fairly successful and trade with Great Britain fell sharply.
Contract Labor Law (1885) Passed by Congress to prohibit corporations or individuals from paying for
the transportation of foreign laborers into the United States.
Contract with America (1994) Multi-point program offered by Republican candidates and sitting
politicians in the 1994 mid-term election. The platform proposed smaller government, Congressional ethics
reform, term limits, great emphasis on personal responsibility, and a general repudiation of the Democratic
party. This articulation of dissent was a significant blow to the Clinton Administration and led to the
Republican party’s takeover of both houses of Congress for the first time in half a century. The
Republicans gained a majority of seats in the 104th Congress, the Contract was seen as a triumph by Party
leaders Newt Gingrich, Dick Armey, and the American conservative movement.
Contras Anti-Sandinista fighters in the Nicaraguan civil war. The Contras were secretly supplied with
American military aid, paid for with money the United States clandestinely made selling arms to Iran.
Convention of 1800 Agreement to formally dissolve the United States' treaty with France, originally
signed during the Revolutionary War. The difficulties posed by America’s peacetime alliance with France
contributed to Americans’ longstanding opposition to entangling alliances with foreign powers.
Convention of 1824 Also known as the Russo-American Treaty of 1824. It gave Russian claims on the
Pacific Northwest or Oregon Country to the United States.
Copperheads Northern Democrats who obstructed the war effort attacking Abraham Lincoln, the draft
and, after 1863, emancipation.
Corps of Discovery (1804-1806) Team led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Thomas
Jefferson to explore Louisiana Territory and find a water route to the Pacific. Louis and Clark brought back
detailed accounts of the West’s flora, fauna and native populations, and their voyage demonstrated the
viability of overland travel to the west.
Corrupt bargain (1824) Alleged deal between presidential candidates John Quincy Adams and Henry
Clay to throw the election, to be decided by the House of Representatives, in Adams’ favor. Though never
proven, the accusation became the rallying cry for supporters of Andrew Jackson, who had actually
garnered a plurality of the popular vote in 1824.
Cost plus system (1941-1945) Used during World War II, agreement between the, Office of War
Mobilization and American business to pay the cost of production plus a profit.
Cotton gin (1793) Eli Whitney’s invention that sped up the process of harvesting cotton. The gin made
cotton cultivation more profitable, revitalizing the Southern economy and increasing the importance of
slavery in the South.
Coureurs de bois Translated as “runners of the woods,” they were French fur-trappers, also known as
“voyageurs” (travelers), who established trading posts throughout North America. The fur trade wreaked
havoc on the health and folkways of their Native American trading partners.
11
Court-packing plan (1937) Franklin Roosevelt’s politically motivated and ill-fated scheme to add a new
justice to the Supreme Court for every member over seventy who would not retire. His objective was to
overcome the Court’s objections to New Deal reforms.
Coxey's Army (1894) A protest march by unemployed workers from the United States, led by the populist
Jacob Coxey. They marched on Washington D.C., in the second year of a four-year economic depression
that was the worst in United States history to that time. Officially named the Commonweal in Christ, its
nickname came from its leader and was more enduring. It was the first significant popular protest march on
Washington and the expression "Enough food to feed Coxey's Army" originates from this march.
Crédit Mobilier scandal (1872) A construction company was formed by owners of the Union Pacific
Railroad for the purpose of receiving government contracts to build the railroad at highly inflated prices—
and profits. In 1872 a scandal erupted when journalists discovered that the Credit Mobilier Company had
bribed congressmen and even the Vice President in order to allow the ruse to continue.
CREEP (1972) Richard Nixon's committee for re-electing the president. Found to have been engaged in a
"dirty tricks" campaign against the Democrats in 1972. They raised tens of millions of dollars in campaign
funds using unethical means. They were involved in the infamous Watergate cover-up.
Creole (1841) American ship captured by a group of rebelling Virginia slaves. The slaves successfully
sought asylum in the Bahamas, raising fears among Southern planters that the British West Indies would
become a safe haven for runaway slaves.
Criminal syndicalism laws (1919-1920) Passed by many states during the Red Scare of 1919–1920, these
nefarious laws outlawed the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change. Stump speakers for the
International Workers of the World, or IWW, were special targets.
Crittenden amendments/compromise (1860) Proposed in an attempt to appease the South, the failed
Constitutional amendments would have given federal protection for slavery in all territories south of 36°30’
where slavery was supported by popular sovereignty.
Crop-lien system After the Civil War, farmers , especially former slaves and poor Whites, in the South had
little cash. It was a way for farmers to get credit before the planting season by borrowing against the value
for anticipated harvests. Local merchants provided food and supplies all year long on credit; when the
cotton crop was harvested farmers turned it over to the merchant to pay back their loan. Frequently, cotton
prices were low, the crop did not cover the debt and the farmer became trapped in debt.
Cuban missile crisis (1962) Standoff between John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in
October 1962 over Soviet plans to install nuclear weapons in Cuba. Although the crisis was ultimately
settled in America’s favor and represented a foreign policy triumph for Kennedy, it brought the world’s
superpowers perilously close to brink of nuclear confrontation.
Cult of Domesticity & Cult of True Womenhood Pervasive nineteenth century cultural creed that
venerated the domestic role of women. It gave married women greater authority to shape home life but
limited opportunities outside the domestic sphere. A widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary
functions of the homemaker. Married women held immense power in being able to control the morals of a
household. This ideal of womanhood had essentially four parts--four characteristics any good and proper
young woman should cultivate: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness.
Cultural Pluralism Criticized the idea that an American "Melting Pot" would eliminate ethnic differences.
Instead ethnic groups strove to end discrimination and celebrate unique cultures.
Cumming v. County Board of Education (1899) It was a class action suit decided by the Supreme Court of
the United States. It is a landmark case, in that it sanctioned segregation of races in American schools. The
decision was overruled by Brown v. Board of Education
Currency Act (1751 & 1764) Acts of the Parliament of Britain that regulated paper money issued by the
American colonies . They sought to protect British merchants and creditors from being paid in colonial
currency. The policy created tension between the colonies and Great Britain, and was cited as a grievance
by colonists early in the American Revolution.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) Supreme Court case that sustained Dartmouth University’s
original charter against changes proposed by the New Hampshire state legislature, thereby protecting
corporations from domination by state governments.
Daughters of Liberty Patriotic groups that played a central role in agitating against the Stamp Act and
enforcing non-importation agreements. (See also Sons of Liberty)
Dawes Act (1887) Also known as the Dawes General Allotment Act was enacted by the U.S. Congress
regarding the distribution of land to Native Americans in Indian Territory (later Oklahoma). By dividing
reservation lands into privately owned parcels, legislators hoped to complete the assimilation process by
forcing the deterioration of the communal life-style of the Native societies and imposing Western-oriented
values of strengthening the nuclear family and values of economic dependency strictly within this small
household unit
Dawes Plan (1924) An arrangement negotiated in 1924 to reschedule German reparations payments. It
stabilized the German currency and opened the way for further American private loans to Germany.
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Dawes Severalty Act (1887) An act that broke up Indian reservations and distributed land to individual
households. Leftover land was sold for money to fund U.S. government efforts to “civilize” Native
Americans. Of 130 million acres held in Native American reservations before the Act, 90 million were sold
to non-Native buyers.
D-Day (1944) A massive military operation led by American forces in Normandy beginning on June 6,
1944. The pivotal battle led to the liberation of France and brought on the final phases of World War II in
Europe.
Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) Formal pronouncement of independence drafted by Thomas
Jefferson and approved by Congress. The declaration allowed Americans to appeal for foreign aid and
served as an inspiration for later revolutionary movements worldwide.
Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) Declaration of rights adopted during the French Revolution.
Modeled after the American Declaration of Independence.
Declaration of Rights and Grievances (1774) In response to the Intolerable Acts, the First Congress, the
delegates decided to take several actions, including a boycott of British goods. It also drafted a declaration
to the King and Parliament, outlining the position of the Congress that the Intolerable Acts were not
acceptable and that actions taken by the British & the taxes they imposed could not be passed without
colonial approval.
Declaration of Sentiments (1848) Significant document for the women’s suffrage movement. It was
signed by the majority of the people present at the Seneca Falls Convention; based upon the US Declaration
of Independence, "grand basis for attaining the civil, social, political, and religious rights of women."
Declaratory Act (1766) Passed alongside the repeal of the Stamp Act, it reaffirmed Parliament’s
unqualified sovereignty over the North American colonies.
Deep South The states of South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas
which were most dependent on plantation type agriculture during the pre-Civil War period. The Deep
South was also commonly referred to as the Lower South or the Cotton States. The seven states that
seceded from the United States before the firing on Fort Sumter and the start of the Civil War.
Deism Eighteenth century religious doctrine that emphasized reasoned moral behavior and the scientific
pursuit of knowledge. Most deists rejected biblical inerrancy and the divinity of Christ, but they did believe
that a Supreme Being created the universe.
Democratic Leadership Council Non-profit organization of centrist Democrats founded in the mid-1980s.
The group attempted to push the Democratic party toward pro-growth, strong defense, and anticrime
policies. Among its most influential early members was Bill Clinton, whom it held up as an example of
“third way” politics.
Department of Homeland Security Cabinet-level agency created in 2003 to unify and coordinate public
safety and anti-terrorism operations within the federal government.
Détente From the French for “reduced tension,” the period of Cold War thawing when the US and the
Soviet Union negotiated reduced armament treaties under Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter. As a policy
prescription, it marked a departure from the policies of proportional response, mutually assured destruction,
and containment that had defined the earlier years of the Cold War. Reagan rejected this policy.
Destroyers-for-bases deal, (1940) In an effort to aid Britain during World War II, FDR agreed that the US
would give 50 destroyers to Britain for rights to build bases in Caribbean. This help with the defense of
Britain and her colonies.
Dien Bien Phu, Battle of (1954) Military engagement in French colonial Vietnam in which French forces
were defeated by Viet Minh nationalists loyal to Ho Chi Minh. With this loss, the French ended their
colonial involvement in Indochina, paving the way for America’s entry.
The Dillingham Report (1907) Special commission created in by President Theodore Roosevelt to look
into the “immigration problem.” Named after its chairman, U.S. Senator William P. Dillingham. Over a 4-
year period listened to testimony from civic leaders, educators, social scientists, and social workers and
made on-site visits to Ellis Island and New York City’s Lower East Side. In 1911, the Commission issued a
41-volume report of its findings. The report was flawed in its interpretation of the data. The Commission
was wrong in its use of simplistic categories for diverse immigrant groups and in making an unfair
comparison of “old” and “new” immigrants, despite the changed structural conditions and longer time
interval that previous immigrants had to assimilate and to achieve some measure of economic security.
Disestablished To separate an official state church from its connection with the government. Following the
Revolution, all states disestablished the Anglican Church, though some New England states maintained
established Congregational Churches well into the nineteenth century.
Distinction of privilege The advantages and immunities enjoyed by a small usually powerful group or
class, to the disadvantage of others one of the obstacles to social harmony is privilege. Jacksonian
Democrats targeted their opponents for doing this.

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Distribution Act of 1836 Required that the government pay the surplus back to the state banks (quarterly),
as a loan, which none could pay back. States recalled loans from state banks, State banks recalled loans
from the people, People couldn't pay back. It led to the Panic of 1837.
“Division of sovereignty.” The idea held by many colonists that the British government and colonial
Assemblies shared the authority to govern and make laws for the American colonies.
Dixiecrats (1948) The States' Rights Democratic Party (usually called the Dixiecrats) was a short-lived
segregationist political party. It originated as a breakaway faction of the Democratic Party, determined to
protect what they portrayed as the southern way of life beset by an oppressive federal government, and
supporters assumed control of the state Democratic parties in part or in full in several Southern states. They
nominated Governor of South Carolina Strom Thurmond. They opposed racial integration and wanted to
retain Jim Crow laws and white supremacy in the face of possible federal intervention.
Dollar diplomacy Name applied by President Taft’s critics to the policy of supporting U.S. investments
and political interests abroad. First applied to the financing of railways in China after 1909, the policy then
spread to Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua. President Woodrow Wilson disavowed the practice, but his
administration undertook comparable acts of intervention in support of U.S. business interests, especially in
Latin America.
Dominion of Canada (established 1867) Unified Canadian government created by Britain to bolster
Canadians against potential attacks or overtures from the United States.
Dominion of New England (1686-1689) Administrative union created by royal authority, incorporating all
of New England, New York, and East and West Jersey. Placed under the rule of Sir Edmund Andros who
curbed popular assemblies, taxed residents without their consent and strictly enforced Navigation Laws. Its
collapse after the Glorious Revolution in England demonstrated colonial opposition to strict royal control.
Domino theory Idea or theory that existed between the 1950s to 1980s, promoted at times by the US
government, which speculated that if one state in a region came under the influence of communism, then
the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. Referring to communism in Indochina,
President Eisenhower was the first to use the term during an April 7, 1954 news conference. The domino
theory was used by successive United States administrations during the Cold War to justify the need for
American intervention around the world.
Dorr Rebellion (1841) Was a short-lived armed insurrection in the state of Rhode Island led by Thomas
Wilson Dorr, who was agitating for changes to the state's electoral system. Supporters led by Dorr gave up
on attempts to change the voting system from within. In October they held an extralegal People's
Convention and drafted a new constitution which granted the vote to all white men with one year's
residence.
“Double V” Slogan (1943) The African American community in the US used the Double V Campaign:
Victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor
Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit
and Harlem experienced race riots in 1943. Black newspapers created the Double V Campaign to build
black morale and head off radical action. Special posters and pamphlets were prepared for distribution in
black neighborhoods.
Dred Scott v. Stanford (1857) Supreme Court decision that extended federal protection to slavery by ruling
that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in any territory. Also declared that slaves, as
property, were not citizens of the United States.
Dr. Win-the-War In a 1943 speech FDR stated that “Dr. New Deal” should become “Dr. Win the War”
reflecting his concern over the growth of conservative in Congress push him to move away from reform
spending and more on winning the war in the fastest and most economical way.
Dust Bowl Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms also called
Black Blizzards during the 1930s. The disaster led to the migration into California of thousands of
displaced “Okies” and “Arkies”.
Dynamic Conservatism Eisenhower's philosophy of being liberal in all things human and being
conservative with all things fiscal. appealed to both Republicans and Democrats; balancing economic
conservatism with some activism.
Earth Day (1970) International day of celebration and awareness of global environmental issues launched
by conservationists on April 22, 1970.
Edict of Nantes (1598) Decree issued by the French crown granting limited toleration to French
Protestants. Ended religious wars in France and inaugurated a period of French preeminence in Europe and
across the Atlantic. Its repeal in 1685 prompted a fresh migration of Protestant Huguenots to North
America.
Eighteenth Amendment (1919) Ratified in 1919, this Constitutional amendment prohibited the
manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages. It ushered in the era known as Prohibition.

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Elkins Act (1903) Law passed by Congress to impose penalties on railroads that offered rebates and
customers who accepted them. The law strengthened the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The Hepburn
Act of 1906 added free passes to the list of railroad no-no’s.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863) Executive order that declared all slaves in rebelling states to be free
but did not affect slavery in non-rebelling Border States. The Proclamation closed the door on possible
compromise with the South and encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to Union lines.
Embargo Act (1807) Enacted in response to British and French mistreatment of American merchants, the
Act banned the export of all goods from the United States to any foreign port. The embargo placed great
strains on the American economy while only marginally affecting its European targets, and was therefore
repealed in 1809.
Emergency Quota Act A government legislation that limited the number of immigrants from Europe
which was set at 3% of the nationality currently in the U.S. It greatly limited the number of immigrants
who could move to the U.S. And it reflected the isolationist and anti-foreign feeling in America as well as
the departure from traditional American ideals.
Employment Act of 1946 Legislation declaring that the government’s economic policy should aim to
promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, as well as to keep inflation low. A
general commitment that was much shorter on specific targets and rules than its liberal creators had wished.
The Act created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide the president with data and recommendations
to make economic policy.
Enclosure Movement In the English countryside English landlords were "enclosing" croplands for sheep
grazing, forcing many small farmers into tenet farming or, off their land all together. Many then turned to
indentured servitude in the New World.
Encomienda Spanish government’s policy to “commend,” or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for
the promise to Christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies
and on the North American mainland.
English Civil War (1642-1651) Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the
victory of pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I. Colonists for the most part ruled
themselves while the conflict took place.
Enron Scandal (2001) It led to the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation, an American energy company
based in Houston, Texas, which was one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the
world. In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history at that time, Enron
was attributed as the biggest audit failure. Enron shareholders lost nearly $11 billion, the company filed for
bankruptcy, and many executives were indicted for a variety of charges and were later sentenced to
prison.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) A governmental organization signed into law by Richard
Nixon in 1970 designed to regulate pollution, emissions, and other factors that negatively influence the
natural environment. The creation of the EPA marked a newfound commitment by the federal government
to actively combat environmental risks and was a significant triumph for the environmentalist movement.
Enumerated goods Certain specified goods from the Colonies, including tobacco, cotton, sugar, and furs,
which were to be shipped only to England or other English colonies.
Equal Pay Act of 1963 Was a law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage
disparity based on sex. It was signed into law by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program. In
passing the bill, Congress denounced sex discrimination.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) Equal Rights Amendment, which declared full constitutional equality
for women. was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights
for women. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and, in 1923, who introduced it to the Congress
for the first time. In 1972, it passed both houses of Congress, but a concerted grassroots campaign by anti-
feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly persuaded enough state legislatures to vote against ratification. The
amendment failed to become part of the Constitution.
Era of Good Feeling (1816-1824) Popular name for the period of one-party, Republican, rule during James
Monroe’s presidency. The term obscures bitter conflicts over internal improvements, slavery and the
national bank.
Erie Canal (completed 1825) New York state canal that linked Lake Erie to the Hudson River. It
dramatically lowered shipping costs, fueling an economic boom in upstate New York and increasing the
profitability of farming in the Old Northwest.
Espionage Act (1917) A law prohibiting interference with the draft and other acts of national “disloyalty.”
Together with the Sedition Act of 1918, which added penalties for abusing the government in writing, it
created a climate that was unfriendly to civil liberties.
Essex Junto It was a powerful group of New England Federalists mainly lawyers, merchants, and
politicians, so named because many of the original group were from Essex County, Massachusetts. During
the War of 1812, they were called "Blue Lights" because of reports from the US Navy that they would
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shine blue lights to alert British ships to come ashore and carry out illegal trade. They supported the
Hartford Convention's disaffection with the War of 1812 and proposed secession of New England.
Essex Decision Prior to the War of 1812, a decision by the British high court concerning the American ship
Essex . It declared broken voyages (shipping goods from French colonies to America and then to France)
illegal. It was an attempt by the British to blockade Europe. It led to tensions between the US & Britain.
European Economic Community (EEC) Free trade zone in Western Europe created by Treaty of Rome in
1957. Often referred to as the “Common Market,” this collection of countries originally included France,
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The body eventually expanded to
become the European Union, which by 2005 included 27 member states.
Excise tax Tax on goods produced domestically. Excise taxes, particularly the 1791 tax on whiskey, were a
highly controversial component of Alexander Hamilton’s financial program.
Executive Order No. 9066 (1942) Order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorizing the War
Department to remove Japanese “enemy aliens” to isolated internment camps. Immigrants and citizens
alike were sent away from their homes, neighbors, schools, and businesses. The Japanese internment policy
was held to be constitutional by the United States Supreme Court in Korematsu v. U.S. (1944).
Exodusters (1870’s) Former slaves from the South who settled on the Great Plains.
Ex parte Merryman, (1861) Was a well-known U.S. federal court case which arose out of the American
Civil War. It was a test of the authority of the President to suspend "the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus" under the Constitution's Suspension Clause. Chief Justice Roger Taney, sitting as a federal circuit
court judge, ruled that the authority to suspend habeas corpus lay with Congress, not the president.
President Lincoln ignored the ruling, as did the Army under Lincoln's orders. The case was rendered moot
by Lincoln's subsequent order in February 1862 to release almost everyone held as a political prisoner.
Ex parte Milligan (1866) Civil War Era case in which the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals
could not be used to try civilians if civil courts were open.
Factory Girls Association After the good conditions of the Lowell system factories had declined into
worse conditions, women formed the Factory Girls Association. They first formed to protest a 25% pay cut.
Later, they had a strike to protest the rent increase. Both strikes were ineffective and the organization was
virtually destroyed.
Fair Deal President Truman’s extensive social program introduced in his 1949 message to Congress.
Republicans and Southern Democrats keep much of his vision from being enacted, except for raising the
minimum wage, providing for more public housing, and extended old-age insurance to many more
beneficiaries under the Social Security Act.
Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) (1941) Threatened with a massive “Negro March on
Washington” to demand equal job opportunities in war jobs and in the military, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
administration issued an executive order forbidding racial discrimination in all defense plants operating
under contract with the federal government. The FEPC was intended to monitor compliance with the
Executive Order.
Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) Important New Deal labor legislation that regulated minimum wages
and maximum hours for workers involved in interstate commerce. The law also outlawed labor by children
under sixteen. The exclusion of agricultural, service, and domestic workers meant that many blacks,
Mexican Americans, and women who were concentrated in these sectors—did not benefit from the act’s
protection.
Fallen Timbers, Battle of (1794) Decisive battle between the Miami confederacy and the U.S. Army.
British forces refused to shelter the routed Indians, forcing the latter to attain a peace settlement with the
United States.
Family Assistance Plan (FAP) One of President Nixon’s most controversial domestic proposals. It called
for the replacement of bureaucratically administered programs such as Aid to Families with Dependent
Children, Food Stamps, and Medicaid, with direct cash payments to those in need. Not only single-parent
families, but the working poor would qualify for aid. All recipients, save the mothers of preschool age
children, would be required to work or take job training. Nixon pressed for the bill's passage in various
forms, until the election season of 1972, when he let FAP expire.
Farewell Address (1796) George Washington's address at the end of his presidency, warning against
"permanent alliances" with other nations. Washington did not oppose all alliances, but believed that the
young, fledgling nation should forge alliances only on a temporary basis, in extraordinary circumstances.
Farmers Alliances Were organization that united farmers at the statewide and regional level; policy goals
of this organization included more readily available farm credits and federal regulation of the railroads.
Farmer’s Holiday Association (1932) It was formed by a group of unhappy Iowa farm owners, it
endorsed the withholding of farm products from the market- in effect a farmers' strike, which although
blockading several markets ended in failure.

16
Federal Highway Act of 1956 Federal legislation signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct thousands
of miles of modern highways in the name of national defense. Officially called the National Interstate and
Defense Highways Act, this bill dramatically increased the move to the suburbs, as white middle-class
people could more easily commute to urban jobs.
Federalists Proponents of the 1787 Constitution, they favored a strong national government, arguing that
the checks and balances in the new Constitution would safeguard the people’s liberties.
Federalist Papers or The Federalist (1787-1788) A series of 85 articles or essays promoting the
ratification of the United States Constitution. Seventy-seven of the essays were published serially in The
Independent Journal and The New York Packet between October 1787 and August 1788. A compilation of
these and eight others, called The Federalist; or, The New Constitution, was also published. The main
authors were Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay. The authors used the pseudonym
"Publius", in honor of Roman consul Publius Valerius Publicola. It was launch a measured and extensive
defense and explanation of the proposed Constitution as a response to the opponents of ratification,
addressing the people of the state of New York.
Federal Reserve Act (1913) An act establishing twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks and a Federal
Reserve Board, appointed by the president, to regulate banking and create stability on a national scale in the
volatile banking sector. The law carried the nation through the financial crises of the First World War of
1914–1918.
Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) A banner accomplishment of Woodrow Wilson’s administration,
this law empowered a standing, presidentially appointed commission to investigate illegal business
practices in interstate commerce like unlawful competition, false advertising and mislabeling of goods.
Field Orders, No. 15 (1865) Military orders issued during the Civil War, on January 16, 1865, by General
William Tecumseh Sherman. They provided for the confiscation of 400,000 acres of land along the Atlantic
coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida and the dividing of it into 40-acre parcels, on which were to
be settled approximately 18,000 freed slave families and other Blacks then living in the area. The notion
that all freed slaves would be given 40 acres and a mule from the government probably came from this
order.
The Feminine Mystique (1963) Best-selling book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan. This work challenged
women to move beyond the drudgery of suburban housewifery and helped launch what would become
second-wave feminism.
Fight for Freedom Committee Pro-British American organization that believed that Hitler would
eventually attack America. They wanted to supply the munitions necessary to preserve the last important
democracy in Europe.
Fifteenth Amendment (ratified 1870) Prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of
race. It disappointed feminists who wanted the Amendment to include guarantees for women’s suffrage.
“Fifty-four forty or fight” (1846) Slogan adopted by mid-nineteenth century expansionists who advocated
the occupation of Oregon territory, jointly held by Britain and the United States. Though President Polk
had pledged to seize all of Oregon, to 54° 40', he settled on the forty-ninth parallel as a compromise with
the British.
First Anglo-Powhatan War (1614) Series of clashes between the Powhatan Confederacy and English
settlers in Virginia. English colonists torched and pillaged Indian villages, applying tactics used in
England’s campaigns against the Irish
First Continental Congress (1774) Convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies that
convened in Philadelphia to craft a response to the Intolerable Acts. Delegates established Association,
which called for a complete boycott of British goods.
Five Civilized Tribes They were the five Native American nations—the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw,
Creek, and Seminole that were considered civilized by American settlers during the colonial and early
federal period because they adopted many of the colonists' customs and had generally good relations with
their neighbors.
Flappers This term referred to a "new breed" of young women who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair,
listened to jazz, and flaunted their disdain for what was then considered acceptable behavior. Flappers were
seen as brash for wearing excessive makeup, drinking, treating sex in a casual manner, smoking, driving
automobiles and otherwise flouting social and sexual norms.
Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Established firmer protection for private property and asserted the right of the
Supreme Court to invalidate state laws in conflict with the federal Constitution.
Flexible Response (1961) Was a defense strategy implemented by JFK to address the Kennedy
administration's skepticism of Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of Massive Retaliation. Flexible
response calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the US the
capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of warfare, not limited only to nuclear arms.

17
Food Administration (1917) During World War I it was the responsible agency for the administration of
the allies' food reserves. One of its important tasks was the stabilization of the price of wheat on the US
market.
Florida Purchase Treaty (Adams-Onís Treaty) (1819) Under the agreement, Spain ceded Florida to the
United States, which, in exchange, abandoned its claims to Texas.
Foraker Act (1900) Sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker, a Republican from Ohio, this accorded
Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government. It was the first comprehensive congressional effort
to provide for governance of territories acquired after the Spanish American War, and served as a model for
a similar act adopted for the Philippines in 1902.
Force Acts (1870-1871) Passed by Congress following a wave of Ku Klux Klan violence, the acts banned
clan membership, prohibited the use of intimidation to prevent blacks from voting, and gave the U.S.
military the authority to enforce the acts.
Force Bill (1833) Passed by Congress alongside the Compromise Tariff, it authorized the president to use
the military to collect federal tariff duties.
Fordism A system of assembly-line manufacturing and mass production named after Henry Ford, founder
of the Ford Motor Company and developer of the Model T car.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law (1922) A comprehensive bill passed to protect domestic production
from foreign competitors. As a direct result, many European nations were spurred to increase their own
trade barriers.
Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, Battle of (February 1862) Key victory for Union General Ulysses S.
Grant, it secured the North’s hold on Kentucky and paved the way for Grant’s attacks deeper into
Tennessee.
Fort Stanwix, Treaty of (1784) Treaty signed by the United States and the pro-British Iroquois granting
Ohio country to the Americans.
Fort Sumter South Carolina location where Confederate forces fired the first shots of the Civil War in
April of 1861, after Union forces attempted to provision the fort.
Forty Acres and a Mule This slogan was created in 1864 and 1865 when the federal government settled
nearly 10000 black families on abandoned plantation land often times receiving a single mule for their
property. It was an attempt to give the black families a new start.
Four Freedoms Speech In the 1941 State of the Union address known as the Four Freedoms speech
(technically), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to
enjoy: 1.Freedom of speech, 2.Freedom of worship, 3.Freedom from want, 4.Freedom from fear. It was a
challenge to the Axis aggressors in Europe and Asia. It said the US would back nations that supported those
4 freedoms.
Fourteen Points (1918) Woodrow Wilson’s proposal to ensure peace after World War I, calling for an end
to secret treaties, widespread arms reduction, national self-determination, and a new league of nations.
Fourteenth Amendment (ratified 1868) Constitutional amendment that extended civil rights to freedmen
and prohibited States from taking away such rights without due process.
fourth party system (1896-1932) A term scholars have used to describe national politics from 1896–1932,
when Republicans had a tight grip on the White House and issues like industrial regulation and labor
concerns became paramount, replacing older concerns like civil service reform and monetary policy.
Franklin Crisis (1795) America settlers in Southeastern Tennessee & Georgia took land without paying
the Federal government. After fighting with the US over the Yazoo Strip, Spanish Florida officials
encouraged eastern Tennessee to leave the United States and to join Spain.
Fredericksburg, Battle of (December 1862) Decisive victory in Virginia for Confederate Robert E. Lee,
who successfully repelled a Union attack on his lines.
Frederick Jackson Turner’s "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893) Historian
Frederick Jackson Turner presented this paper to meeting at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago,
Illinois. Turner claimed that prolonged frontier experience had affected the thinking of the American
people, their culture, and their institutions, and that the isolation and hardship of the frontier had fostered
self-reliance, individualism, and movement away from the influence of Europe. In each successive advance
westward, the need to create civilization anew accounted for the vigor, ambition, and democracy of
America. With loss of the frontier, Americans lost a critical foundation for their culture, and an era had
ended with unforeseen abruptness and startling finality. Many advocates of Imperialism used this as
justification for expansion in support of New Manifest Destiny.
Freedmen’s Bureau (1865-1872) Created to aid newly emancipated slaves by providing food, clothing,
medical care, education and legal support. Its achievements were uneven and depended largely on the
quality of local administrators.
Freedmen Former African American slaves who gained their freedom with the passing of the 13 th
Amendment. Those who stayed in the South tried to gain political & economic freedom.

18
Freedom Riders (1961) Organized mixed-race groups who rode interstate buses deep into the South to
draw attention to and protest racial segregation, beginning in 1961. This effort by northern young people to
challenge racism proved a political and public relations success for the Civil Rights Movement.
Freedom Summer (1964) A voter registration drive in Mississippi spearheaded by a collaboration of civil
rights groups. The campaign drew the activism of thousands of black and white civil rights workers, many
of whom were students from the north, and was marred by the abduction and murder of three such workers
at the hands of white racists in Mississippi.
Freeport Doctrine (1858) Declared that since slavery could not exist without laws to protect it, territorial
legislatures, not the Supreme Court, would have the final say on the slavery question. First argued by
Stephen Douglass in 1858 in response to Abraham Lincoln’s “Freeport Question”.
Freeport Question (1858) Raised during one of the Lincoln-Douglas debates by Abraham Lincoln, who
asked whether the Court or the people should decide the future of slavery in the territories.
Free Soil Party (1848-1854) Antislavery party in the 1848 and 1852 elections that opposed the extension
of slavery into the territories, arguing that the presence of slavery would limit opportunities for free
laborers.
Free-soilers Opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories, by arguing that free men on free
soil comprised a morally and economically superior system to slavery. They opposed slavery in the new
territories.
French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War) (1754-1763) Nine-year war between the British and the
French in North America. It resulted in the expulsion of the French from the North American mainland and
helped spark the Seven Years’ War in Europe.
Fugitive Slave Law (1850) Passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, it set high penalties for anyone who
aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways.
Strengthened the antislavery cause in the North
Fundamentalism A Protestant Christian movement emphasizing the literal truth of the Bible and opposing
religious modernism, which sought to reconcile religion and science. It was especially strong in the Baptist
Church and the Church of Christ, first organized in 1906.
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) Drafted by settlers in the Connecticut River Valley,
document was the first “modern constitution” establishing a democratically-controlled government. Key
features of the document were borrowed for Connecticut’s colonial charter and later, its state constitution.
Funding at par Payment of debts, such as government bonds, at face value. In 1790, Alexander Hamilton
proposed that the federal government pay its Revolutionary war debts in full in order to bolster the nation’s
credit.
Gadsden Purchase (1853) Acquired additional land from Mexico for $10 million to facilitate the
construction of a southern transcontinental railroad.
Gag Resolution or Gag Rule (1836) Prohibited debate or action on antislavery appeals. Driven through
the House by pro-slavery Southerners, the gag resolution passed every year for eight years, eventually
overturned with the help of John Quincy Adams.
Galloway's Plan of Union (1774) Pennsylvania delegate to the Continental Congress, Joseph Galloway
sought reconciliation with Britain. He put forth a "Plan of Union", which suggested an American legislative
body be formed, with some authority, and whose consent would be required for imperial measures. John
Jay, Edward Rutledge, and other conservatives supported Galloway's plan. Galloway would later join the
Loyalists.
Gaspee Incident (1772) A British custom ship that had been successful in catching smugglers ran a shore
off the shore of Rhode Island. Colonists disguised themselves as Indians and burned the ship. The British
were angered and ordered a commission to investigate and bring the guilty individuals back to Britain.
Geneva Summit (1955) It was a Cold War-era meeting in Geneva, Switzerland. and was a meeting of
"The Big Four": President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States, Prime Minister of Britain, Premier
Nikolai A. Bulganin of the Soviet Union, and Prime Minister of France. Also in attendance were Nikita
Khrushchev& Molotov of the Soviet Union, and John Foster Dulles. The purpose was to bring together
world leaders to begin discussions on peace. Although those discussions led down many different roads
(arms negotiations, trade barriers, diplomacy, nuclear warfare, etc.), the talks were influenced by the
common goal for increased global security
Gerrymandering Manipulate the boundaries of an electoral district so as to favor one party or group.
Gettysburg Address (1863) Abraham Lincoln’s oft-quoted speech, delivered at the dedication of the
cemetery at Gettysburg battlefield. In the address, Lincoln framed the war as a means to uphold the values
of liberty.
Gettysburg, Battle of (July 1863) Civil War battle in Pennsylvania that ended in Union victory, spelling
doom for the Confederacy, which never again managed to invade the North. Site of General George
Pickett’s daring but doomed charge on the Northern lines.

19
Ghent, Treaty of (1815) Ended the War of 1812 in a virtual draw, restoring prewar borders but failing to
address any of the grievances that first brought America into the war.
Ghost Dance (1890) It was a religious movement started by Wovoka, which was incorporated into
numerous Native American belief systems. The practice swept throughout much of the American West. He
prophesied a peaceful end to white American expansion while preaching goals of clean living, an honest
life, and cross-cultural cooperation by Native Americans. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was
believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Suit over whether New York State could grant a monopoly to a ferry operating
on interstate waters. The ruling reasserted that Congress had the sole power to regulate interstate
commerce.
GI Bill (1944) Known officially as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act and more informally as the GI Bill
of Rights, this law dixi. The Act was also intended to cushion the blow of 15 million returning servicemen
on the employment market and to nurture the postwar economy.
Gilded Age (1877-1896) A term given to the period 1865–1896 by Mark Twain, indicating both the
fabulous wealth and the widespread corruption of the era. (
Glasnost Meaning “openness,” a cornerstone along with Perestroika of Soviet president Mikhail
Gorbachev’s reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s. These policies resulted in greater market
liberalization, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule.
Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act (1933) A law creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation,
which insured individual bank deposits and ended a century-long tradition of unstable banking that had
reached a crisis in the Great Depression.
Glorious (or Bloodless) Revolution (1688) Relatively peaceful overthrow of the unpopular Catholic
monarch, James II, replacing him with Dutch-born William III and Mary, daughter of James II. William
and Mary accepted increased Parliamentary oversight and new limits on monarchical authority.
Gold Standard Act (1900) An act that guaranteed that paper currency would be redeemed freely in gold,
putting an end to the already dying “free silver” campaign.
Goliad (1836) Texas outpost where American volunteers, having laid down their arms and surrendered,
were massacred by Mexican forces. The incident, along with the slaughter at the Alamo, fueled American
support for Texan independence.
Good Neighbor policy A departure from the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the Good
Neighbor Policy stressed nonintervention in Latin America. It was begun by Herbert Hoover but associated
with Franklin D. Roosevelt.
The Gospel of Wealth (1889) Was an article written by Andrew Carnegie that describes the responsibility
of philanthropy by the new upper class of self-made rich. The main idea was the peril of allowing large
sums of money to be passed into the hands of persons or organizations ill-equipped mentally or emotionally
to cope with them. In The Gospel of Wealth, Carnegie stressed on the importance of recirculation of money
in the society and that giving away money to charitable organization is not enough because its correct use
cannot be guaranteed. He suggested that the rich should be trusted to make sure that their money reaches
the community in a way that could really improve the living conditions of the needy and that the money
could be regenerated in the society. He was of the opinion that accumulation of wealth was not
unconstructive and the government should not try to hamper it. As a result, the wealthy entrepreneur must
assume the responsibility of distributing his fortune in a way that it will be put to good use, and not wasted
on frivolous expenditure. In this he represented a captain of industry who had risen to power by his own
hand.
Gradualism A policy relating to ending slavery which involves taking slow, measured actions to end
slavery and wanted to give compensation to slave owners.
Gramm-Rudman Hollings Balance Budget Act (1985) Budget Bill which called for automatic cuts in
discretionary spending when certain deficit-reduction targets were not met. The act soon became a
convenient target for opponents , who blamed it for government failing to meet perceived needs, for not
abolishing the deficit. When it began to affect popular programs, and was partially overturned in the courts.
The Grange Founded by Oliver Kelly in 1867, a social organization that promoted agricultural interests
and worked to protect farmers. The Grange worked to elect political candidates that supported the interests
of farmers, fight against the unfair shipping prices charged by the railroads, force banks to provide farmers
with lower interest rates, and to provide the public with the opportunity to directly elect their U.S. Senators.
Grandfather clause A regulation established in many southern states in the 1890s that exempted from
voting requirements (such as literacy tests and poll taxes) anyone who could prove that their ancestors
(“grandfathers”) had been able to vote in 1860. Since slaves could not vote before the Civil War, these
clauses guaranteed the right to vote to many whites while denying it to blacks.
Great Awakening (1730s and 1740s) Religious revival that swept the colonies. Participating ministers,
most notably Jonathan Edwards and George Whitfield, placed an emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality.

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People's faith and piety was waning until this rousing religious revival occurred in the 1730s and 1740s. In
his fire and brimstone sermons, Edwards proclaimed with a burning righteousness the folly of believing in
salvation through good works and affirmed the need for complete dependence on God's grace. One of his
famous sermons was called "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." Later, George Whitefield, a great
orator, continued to revolutionize the spiritual lives of the colonists. They heaped abuse on sinners and
shook enormous audiences with emotional appeals. Many people became converts. Orthodox clergymen,
"Old lights," were skeptical of all of this. "New light" ministers defended it. Lasting effects of this event:
emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality; more denominations formed; fresh wave of missionary work; new
centers of learning were formed. It united the American people. A Second Great Awakening arose in the
nineteenth century.
Great Compromise (1787) Popular term for the measure which reconciled the New Jersey and Virginia
plans at the constitutional convention, giving states proportional representation in the House and equal
representation in the Senate. The compromise broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for
subsequent compromises over slavery and the Electoral College.
Great Migration (1630-1642) Migration of seventy thousand refugees from England to the North
American colonies, primarily New England and the Caribbean. The twenty thousand migrants who came to
Massachusetts largely shared a common sense of purpose–to establish a model Christian settlement in the
new world.
Great Migration (World War I) Movement of Blacks from the South to Northern cities. Occurred during
World War I as industry encouraged Blacks to move to industrial centers to help with war time production.
Great Society (1964–1968) President Lyndon Johnson’s term for his domestic policy agenda. Billed as a
successor to the New Deal, the Great Society aimed to extend the postwar prosperity to all people in
American society by promoting civil rights and fighting poverty. Great Society programs included the War
on Poverty, which expanded the Social Security system by creating Medicare and Medicaid to provide
health care for the aged and the poor. Johnson also signed laws protecting consumers and empowering
community organizations to combat poverty at grassroots levels.
Greenbacks Paper currency issued by the Union Treasury during the Civil War. Inadequately supported by
gold, Greenbacks fluctuated in value throughout the war, reaching a low of 39 cents on the dollar.
Greenback Party Was an American political party with an anti-monopoly ideology which was active
between 1874 and 1889. The name referred to the non-gold backed paper money, known as "greenbacks",
issued during the Civil War and shortly afterward. The party opposed the deflationary lowering of prices
paid to producers entailed by a return to a bullion-based monetary system, the policy favored by the
dominant Republican Party. Continued use of unbacked currency, it was believed, would better foster
business and assist farmers by raising prices and making debts easier to pay.
Greenville, Treaty of (1795) Under the terms of the treaty, the Miami Confederacy agreed to cede territory
in the Old Northwest to the United States in exchange for cash payment, hunting rights and formal
recognition of their sovereign status.
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of (1848) Ended the war with Mexico. Mexico agreed to cede territory
reaching northwest from Texas to Oregon in exchange for $18.25 million in cash and assumed debts.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident The name given to two separate confrontations, one actual and one false,
involving North Vietnam and the United States in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. It led to increased
involvement by the US in the Vietnam War.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions (1964) Was a joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on
August 7, 1964, in response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. It is of historical significance because it gave
U.S. President LBJ authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of
"conventional'' military force in Southeast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do
whatever necessary in order to assist "any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective
Defense Treaty". This included involving armed forces. Was known as the “blank check.”
Guantánamo Detention Camp Controversial prison facility constructed after the U.S.-led invasion of
Afghanistan in 2001. Located on territory occupied by the U.S. military, but not technically part of the
United States, the facility serves as an extra-legal holding area for suspected terrorists.
Guinn v. United States(1915) US Supreme Court decision that dealt with provisions of state constitutions
that set qualifications for voters. It found grandfather clause exemptions to literacy tests to be
unconstitutional. The Oklahoma Constitution, allowed an exemption to the literacy requirement for those
voters whose grandfathers had either been eligible to vote prior to January 1, 1866 or were then a resident
of "some foreign nation", or were soldiers. It was an exemption that favored white voters while it
disfranchised black voters, most of whose grandfathers had been slaves and therefore unable to vote before
1866.
“Guns & Butter” The relationship between a nation's investment in defense and civilian goods. It can buy
either guns (invest in defense/military) or butter (invest in production of goods), or a combination of both.
This can be seen as an analogy for choices between defense and civilian spending in more complex
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economies. Was a major criticism of LBJ’s failing to support social programs he initiated in the US
because of spending on the Vietnam War.
Half-Breeds The moderate faction in the Republican Party during the late 1800’s. Favored Hays reform of
patronage, opposed Grant’s nomination for a third term. The Half-Breeds worked to get civil service
reform, and finally created the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. They were opposed by the Stalwarts.
Half-Way Covenant (1662) Agreement allowing unconverted offspring of church members to baptize
their children. It signified a waning of religious zeal among second and third generation Puritans. It allowed
them to participate in some church activities even if they were not full members.
Handsome Lake Indian leader and prophet, starting in 1799 he played a major role in reviving traditional
religion among the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. He preached a message that combined
traditional Indian religious beliefs and Christian values. He wrote a code meant to revive traditional native
values. It outlawed drunkenness, witchcraft, sexual promiscuity, wife beating, quarreling.
Harpers Ferry (1859) Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown. Though Brown was
later captured and executed, his raid alarmed Southerners who believed that Northerners shared in Brown’s
extremism.
Harlem Renaissance (1920’s) Artistic movement of African Americans in New York City in the 1920s,
when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially
about the injustices of Jim Crow; leading figures of the movement included Marcus Garvey, Claude
McKay, Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes. Harlem became an intellectual and
cultural capital for African Americans; instilled interest in African American culture and pride in being an
African American.
Hartford Convention (1814-1815) Convention of Federalists from five New England states who opposed
the War of 1812 and resented the strength of Southern and Western interests in Congress and in the White
House. It led to the end of the Federalist Party.
Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930) The highest protective tariff in the peacetime history of the United States,
passed as a result of good old-fashioned horse trading. To the outside world, it smacked of ugly economic
warfare.
“Hawks” and “doves” The Vietnam War divided the country into two different sections. The sections
were the people who wanted war and the ones who didn't. The ones who wanted war were known as the
"Hawks." The ones who didn't want war were known as the "Doves." The hawks believed that due to the
aggression of North Vietnamese it forced us into the war. Hawks thought that the US should do whatever
was necessary to win. Doves think that the problem in Vietnam is a civil war. Doves thought that the US
had no right to be in their conflicts. They also believed that the money that was spent there that it would be
much better invested in America for certain programs.
Haymarket Square (1886) A May Day rally in Chicago that turned violent when someone threw a bomb
into the middle of the meeting, killing several dozen people. Eight anarchists were arrested for conspiracy
contributing to the disorder, although evidence linking them to the bombing was thin. Four were executed,
one committed suicide, and three were pardoned in 1893.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) A treated signed between the United States and Great Britain, giving
Americans a free hand a free hand to build a canal in Central America. The treaty nullified the Clayton–
Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which prohibited the British or U.S. from acquiring territory in Central America.
headright system Employed in the Tobacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants,
the system allowed an individual to acquire fifty acres of land if he paid for a laborer’s passage to the
colony.
Head Start (1965) a program for poor preschoolers, set up by the Elementary and Secondary Edu Act of
1965, which was designed to prepare them for elementary school and it gave nutritious meals and medical
exams.
Helsinki Accords (1975) Political and human rights agreement signed by 34 nations including the Soviet
Union and US, Canada, Western European countries. It was an attempt to improve relations between the
Communists and the West. Kindled small dissident movements in Eastern Europe and in the USSR. Praised
as a milestone of détente.

Hessians German troops hired from their princes by George III to aid in putting down the colonial
insurrection. This hardened the resolve of American colonists, who resented the use of paid foreign
fighters.
History of Standard Oil (1904) Was a book written by journalist Ida Tarbell. It was an exposé of the
Standard Oil Company, run at that time by oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, the richest figure in America's
history. Originally serialized in 19 parts in McClure's magazine, the book was a seminal example of
muckraking, and inspired many other journalists to write about trusts, large businesses that attempted to
gain monopolies in various industries.

22
Hitler-Stalin pact or Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) Treaty signed on August 23, 1939 in which Germany and
the Soviet Union agreed not to fight each other. The fateful agreement paved the way for German
aggression against Poland and the Western democracies.
Holding companies A company that owns part or all of the other companies’ stock in order to extend
monopoly control. Often, a holding company does not produce goods or services of its own but only exists
to control other companies. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914 sought to clamp down on these companies
when they obstructed competition.
Homespun Prior to the Revolution, it was a movement taken up by American women to make all clothing
from scratch (homespun) so that the boycott of English fabric would hurt the English trade with the
American colonies.
Homestead Act (1862) A federal law that gave settlers 160 acres of land for about $30 if they lived on it
for five years and improved it by, for instance, building a house on it. The act helped make land accessible
to hundreds of thousands of westward-moving settlers, but many people also found disappointment when
their land was infertile or they saw speculators grabbing up the best land.
Homestead Strike (1892) A strike at a Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, P.A., that ended in an armed
battle between the strikers, three hundred armed “Pinkerton” detectives hired by Carnegie, and federal
troops, which killed ten people and wounded more than sixty. The strike was part of a nationwide wave of
labor unrest in the summer of 1892 that helped the Populists gain some support from industrial workers.
Hollywood blacklist Was the list of screenwriters, actors, directors, musicians, and other U.S.
entertainment professionals who were denied employment because of their political beliefs or associations.
Artists were barred from work on their alleged membership in the American Communist Party,
involvement in liberal or political causes that enforcers of the blacklist associated with communism, and/or
refusal to assist investigations into Communist Party activities. It occurred during the Second Red Scare
from, the late 1940s through the late 1950s. It caused direct damage to the careers of scores of American
artists, and promoted censorship across the entire industry.
Hollywood Ten Ten writers and directors were cited for contempt of Congress for refusing to give
testimony to the House Committee on Un-American Activities. A group of studio executives, acting under
the aegis of the Motion Picture Association of America, announced the firing of the artists—the so-called
Hollywood Ten.
Hoovervilles Grim shantytowns where impoverished victims of the Great Depression slept under
newspapers and in makeshift tents. Their visibility (and sarcastic name) tarnished the reputation of the
Hoover administration.
Horatio Alger Popular novelist during the Industrial Revolution who wrote "rags to riches" books praising
the values of hard work.
horizontal integration The practice perfected by John D. Rockefeller of dominating a particular phase of
the production process in order to monopolize a market, often by forming trusts and alliances with
competitors.
House of Burgesses (1619) The first elected legislative assembly in the New World established in the
Colony of Virginia, representative colony set up by England to make laws and levy taxes but England
could veto its legislative acts; it set a precedent for future parliaments to be established.
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) Investigatory body established in 1948 to root out
“subversion.” Sought to expose communist influence in American government and society, in particular
through the trial of Alger Hiss.
Housing Act of 1961 It provided $5 billion in loans and grants to cities, towns and rural areas for urban
renewal, public housing, elderly housing, farm housing, college housing, community facilities,
development of "open space" in cities, mass transportation, home improvement, housing for moderate-
income families, and liberalized FHA home mortgage insurance program.
How the Other Half Lives It was an early publication of photojournalism by Jacob Riis, documenting
squalid living conditions in New York City slums in the 1880s. It served as a basis for future "muckraking"
journalism by exposing the slums to New York City’s upper and middle classes.
Hudson River school (mid-nineteenth century) American artistic movement that produced romantic
renditions of local landscapes.
Huguenots French Protestant dissenters granted limited toleration under the Edict of Nantes. After King
Louis XIV outlawed Protestantism in 1685, many fled elsewhere, including to British North America.
Hundred Days (1933) The first hundred days of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration, stretching from
March 9 to June 16, 1933, when an unprecedented number of reform bills were passed by a Democratic
Congress to launch the New Deal.
Hungarian uprising (1956) Series of demonstrations in Hungary against the Soviet Union. Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev violently suppressed this pro-Western uprising. Eisenhower refused to give US military
support to the Hungarians. It showed the limitations of America’s power in Eastern Europe.

23
Hurricane Katrina (2005) The costliest and one of the deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United
States, killing nearly 2000 Americans. The storm ravaged the Gulf Coast, particularly the city of New
Orleans, in late August of 2005. In New Orleans, high winds and rain caused the city’s levees to break,
leading to catastrophic flooding, particularly centered on the city’s most impoverished wards. A tardy and
feeble response by local and federal authorities exacerbated the damage and led to widespread criticism of
the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Anne Hutchinson Woman who was a sharp challenge to Puritan orthodoxy. Intelligent, strong-willed, and
talkative who believed in antinomianism, which said the truly saved need not bother to obey the law of
either God or man. This idea, which she had derived from the ideas of John Cotton, was a heresy. Claimed
that a direct revelation from God gave her this belief. She also claimed that only a few of the ministers in
the area were actually saved, but that she was saved. This undermined all of the authority of the Church.
Held meetings for her followers in her house. She was banished, went to Rhode Island, and then New
Netherlands, but was eventually killed by Indians.
Immigration Act of 1924 Also known as the “National Origins Act,” this law established quotas for
immigration to the United States. Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were sharply curtailed,
while immigrants from Asia were shut out altogether.
Immigration Restriction League (1894) It was founded by people who opposed the influx of "undesirable
immigrants" that were coming from southern and eastern Europe. They felt that these immigrants were
threatening what they saw as the American way of life and the high wage scale. They worried about
immigrants bringing in poverty and organized crime at a time of high unemployment. They used books,
pamphlets, meetings, and numerous newspaper and journal articles to disseminate information and sound
the alarm about the dangers of the immigrant flood tide.
The Impending Crisis of the South (1857) Antislavery tract, written by white Southerner Hinton R.
Helper, arguing that non-slave holding whites actually suffered most in a slave economy.
Impressment Act of forcibly drafting an individual into military service, employed by the British navy
against American seamen in times of war against France, 1793–1815. Impressment was a continual source
of conflict between Britain and the United States in the early national period.
Incas Highly advanced South American civilization that occupied present-day Peru until they were
conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532. The Incas developed sophisticated
agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the
unforgiving Andes Mountains.
Indentured servants Migrants who, in exchange for transatlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial
employer for a term of service, typically between four and seven years. Their migration addressed the
chronic labor shortage in the colonies and facilitated settlement.
Indian Removal Act (1830) Ordered the removal of Indian Tribes still residing east of the Mississippi to
newly established Indian Territory west of Arkansas and Missouri. Tribes resisting eviction were forcibly
removed by American forces, often after prolonged legal or military battles.
Industrial Capitalism Is characterized by the increasing use of machinery to maintain an economic
balance through its production processes.
Industrial Workers of the World (1905) The IWW., also known as the “Wobblies,” was a radical
organization that sought to build “one big union” and advocated industrial sabotage in defense of that goal.
At its peak in 1923, it could claim 100,000 members and could gain the support of 300,000. The IWW
particularly appealed to migratory workers in agriculture and lumbering and to miners, all of whom
suffered from horrific working conditions. Their most well known leader was William “Big Bill”
Haywood, who fled the US to the USSR.
INF Agreement (1987) Agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. Signed in
Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. The treaty
eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges.
The Influence of Sea Power upon History, (1890) Book by Alfred Thayer Mahan which argued that
control of the sea was the key to world dominance. Was read by English, Japanese, Germans, and
Americans, and helped stimulate the naval race among the great powers.
Initiative A progressive reform measure allowing voters to petition to have a law placed on the general
ballot. Like the referendum and recall, it brought democracy directly “to the people,” and helped foster a
shift toward interest-group politics and away from old political “machines”.
Injunction The most popular method used by corporations to handle strikes; a court order against strikers
to get them to stop striking.
Insular Cases (1901-1904) Beginning in 1901, a badly divided Supreme Court decreed in these cases that
the Constitution did not follow the flag. In other words, Puerto Ricans and Filipinos would not necessarily
enjoy all American rights. “The Constitution does not follow the flag”

24
Insurrectos Cuban insurgents who sought freedom from colonial Spanish rule. Their destructive tactics
threatened American economic interests in Cuban plantations and railroads. Their resistance led to
American intervention in Cuba prior to the Spanish-American War.
Interchangeable Parts A manufacturing system which uses standardized parts which are all identical and
thus, Interchangeable. Before this, each part of a given device had been designed only for that one device;
if a single piece of the device broke, it was difficult or impossible to replace. With Interchangeable Parts it
was easy to get a replacement part from the manufacturer. Whitney first put used Interchangeable Parts to
make muskets for the U.S. government.
Interlocking directorates The practice of having executives or directors from one company serve on the
Board of Directors of another company. J. P. Morgan introduced this practice to eliminate banking
competition in the 1890s.
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987) Arms limitation agreement settled by Ronald
Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev after several attempts. The treaty banned all intermediate-range nuclear
missiles from Europe and marked a significant thaw in the Cold War.
Interstate Commerce Act (1887) Congressional legislation that established the Interstate Commerce
Commission, compelled railroads to publish standard rates, and prohibited rebates and pools. Railroads
quickly became adept at using the Act to achieve their own ends, but the Act gave the government an
important means to regulate big business.
“Intolerable Acts” (1774) Series of punitive measures passed in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party,
closing the Port of Boston, revoking a number of rights in the Massachusetts colonial charter (increased
power of Royal Governor, and said royal officials would be tried in Britain not the colonies), and
expanding the Quartering Act to allow for the lodging of soldiers in private homes. In response, colonists
convened the First Continental Congress and called for a complete boycott of British goods.
Iran-Contra Affair (1987) Major political scandal of Ronald Reagan’s second term. An illicit arrangement
of selling “arms for hostages” with Iran and using money to support the contras in Nicaragua, the scandal
deeply damaged Reagan’s credibility.
Iranian hostage crisis The 444 days, from November 1979 to January 1981, in which American embassy
workers were held captive by Iranian revolutionaries. The Iranian Revolution began in January 1979 when
young Muslim fundamentalists overthrew the oppressive regime of the American-backed shah, forcing him
into exile. Deeming the United States “the Great Satan,” these revolutionaries triggered an energy crisis by
cutting off Iranian oil. The hostage crisis began when revolutionaries stormed the American embassy,
demanding that the United States return the shah to Iran for trial. The episode was marked by botched
diplomacy and failed rescue attempts by the Carter Administration. After permanently damaging relations
between the two countries, the crisis ended with the hostage’s release the day Ronald Reagan became
president, January 20, 1981.
Iron law of wages David Ricardo’s "iron law of wages" argued that raising wages would only increase the
working population, thus lower the wage, creating a cycle of misery and starvation.
Iroquois Confederacy or Iroquois League (late 1500s) Bound together five tribes–the Mohawks, the
Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas–in the Mohawk Valley of what is now New York.
Work together for peace, trade, and warfare.
Irreconcilables Led by Senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, this was a hard-
core group of militant isolationists who opposed the Wilson’s dream of international cooperation in the
League of Nations after World War I. Their efforts played an important part in preventing American
participation in the international organization.
Jamestown (1607) First permanent English settlement in North America founded by the Virginia
Company.
Jay’s Treaty (1794) Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in an effort to avoid war with Britain, the treaty
included a British promise to evacuate outposts on U.S. soil and pay damages for seized American vessels,
in exchange for which, Jay bound the United States to repay pre-Revolutionary war debts and to abide by
Britain's restrictive trading policies toward France.
Jeremiad Often-fiery sermons lamenting the waning piety of parishioners first delivered in New England
in the mid-seventeenth century; named after the doom-saying Old Testament prophet Jeremiah.
Jim Crow System of racial segregation in the American South from the end of Reconstruction until the
mid-twentieth century. Based on the concept of “separate but equal” facilities for blacks and whites, the
Jim Crow system sought to prevent racial mixing in public, including restaurants, movie theaters, and
public transportation. An informal system, it was generally perpetuated by custom, violence, and
intimidation.
Jingoism extreme patriotism, especially in the form of aggressive or warlike foreign policy.
Johnson Debt Default Act (1934) Influenced by Americans lending money to the Allies during World
War I, this act prevented debt-ridden nations from borrowing further from the United States.

25
John C. Calhoun’s The Pro-Slavery Argument (1837) Calhoun, in his Disquisition on Government,
denied the existence of a state of nature in which people are born free and equal. For Calhoun, this state of
nature never did nor can exist; all men are born subject to social and political authority, and man’s natural
state is the social and political one. Calhoun also insisted in his Speech on Abolition Petitions that the
Southern states could not possibly surrender their institutions of slavery—which Calhoun claimed were
beneficial to both races. He argued Slaves were treated better by their masters than industrial workers in the
North were treated by their employers & that Southerners should quit apologizing for slavery.
Joint-stock company Short-term partnership between multiple investors to fund a commercial enterprise;
such arrangements were used to fund England’s early colonial ventures.
Jones Act (1916) Law according territorial status to the Philippines and promising independence as soon as
a “stable government” could be established. The United States did not grant the Philippines independence
until July 4, 1946.
Judiciary Act of 1789 Organized the federal legal system, establishing the Supreme Court, federal district
and circuit courts, and the office of the attorney general.
Passed by the departing Federalist Congress, it created sixteen new federal judgeships ensuring a Federalist
hold on the judiciary.
Judicial Review is the doctrine under which legislative and executive actions are subject to review by the
judiciary to determine if they are constitutional.
Kanagawa, Treaty of (1854) Ended Japan’s two-hundred year period of economic isolation, establishing
an American consulate in Japan and securing American coaling rights in Japanese ports.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) Proposed that the issue of slavery be decided by popular sovereignty in the
Kansas and Nebraska territories, thus revoking the 1820 Missouri Compromise. Introduced by Stephen
Douglass in an effort to bring Nebraska into the Union and pave the way for a northern transcontinental
railroad.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) A sentimental triumph of the 1920s peace movement, this 1928 pact linked
sixty-two nations in the supposed “outlawry of war”.
Kent State University/ Kent State Massacre (shooting 1970) Massacre of four college students by
National Guardsmen on May 4, 1970, in Ohio. In response to Nixon’s announcement that he had expanded
the Vietnam War into Cambodia, college campuses across the country exploded in violence. On May 14
and 15, students at historically black Jackson State College in Mississippi were protesting the war as well
as the Kent State shooting when highway patrolmen fired into a student dormitory, killing two students.
Keynesianism An economic theory based on the thoughts of British economist John Maynard Keynes,
holding that central banks should adjust interest rates and governments should use deficit spending and tax
policies to increase purchasing power and hence prosperity.
King Caucus Beginning in 1796, caucuses of the parties' congressional delegations met informally to
nominate their presidential and vice presidential candidates, leaving the general public with no direct input.
This early nomination system evoked widespread resentment. By 1824 it had fallen into such disrepute that
only one-fourth of the Democratic-Republican congressional delegation took part in the caucus that
nominated Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford instead of more popular figures such as John
Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.
“King Cotton” A phrase used in the Antebellum South to illustrate the importance of cotton to the South
economy. Later became a slogan used by southerners to support secession from the United States by
arguing cotton exports would make an independent Confederacy economically prosperous.
King Cotton Diplomacy Refers to the diplomatic methods employed by the South during the Civil War to
coerce Great Britain and France to support the Southern war effort by implementing a cotton trade embargo
against Great Britain and Europe. The South believed that both Great Britain and France, who depended
heavily on Southern cotton for textile manufacturing, would support the Confederate war effort if the
cotton trade were restricted.
King George’s War (1744-1748) North American theater of Europe’s War of Austrian Succession that
once again pitted British colonists against their French counterparts in the North. The peace settlement did
not involve any territorial realignment, leading to conflict between New England settlers and the British
government.
King Philip’s War (1675-1676) Series of assaults by Metacom, King Philip, on English settlements in
New England. The attacks slowed the westward migration of New England settlers for several decades.
King William’s War (1689-1697) War fought largely between French trappers, British settlers, and their
respective Indian allies from 1689–1697. The colonial theater of the larger War of the League of Augsburg
in Europe.
Kitchen debate (1959) Televised exchange in 1959 between Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and
American Vice President Richard Nixon. Meeting at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, the two
leaders sparred over the relative merits of capitalist consumer culture versus Soviet state planning. Nixon

26
won applause for his staunch defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican
nomination for president in 1960.
Knights of Labor The second national labor organization, organized in 1869 as a secret society and
opened for public membership in 1881. The Knights were known for their efforts to organize all workers,
regardless of skill level, gender, or race. After the mid-1880s their membership declined for a variety of
reasons, including the Knights’ participation in violent strikes and discord between skilled and unskilled
members.
Know-Nothing Party (1850s) Nativist political party, also known as the American party, which emerged
in response to an influx of immigrants, particularly Irish Catholics.
Korean War (1950-1953) First “hot war” of the Cold war. The Korean War began in 1950 when the
Soviet-backed North Koreans invaded South Korea before meeting a counter-offensive by UN Forces,
dominated by the United States. The war ended in stalemate in 1953.
Korematsu v. US (1944) Supreme Court upheld the US governments internment of Japanese Americans in
camps as part of its wartime policy.
Kristallnacht (1938) German for “night of broken glass,” it refers to the murderous pogrom that destroyed
Jewish businesses and synagogues and sent thousands to concentration camps on the night of November 9,
1938. Thousands more attempted to find refuge in the United States, but were ultimately turned away due
to restrictive immigration laws.
Ku Klux Klan (founded 1866) An extremist, paramilitary, right-wing secret society founded in the mid
nineteenth century and revived during the 1920s. It was anti-foreign, anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist,
anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, and anti-bootlegger, but pro-Anglo-Saxon and pro-
Protestant. Its members, cloaked in sheets to conceal their identities, terrorized freedmen and sympathetic
whites throughout the South after the Civil War. By the 1890s, Klan-style violence and Democratic
legislation succeeded in virtually disenfranchising all Southern blacks.
Kyoto Treaty (1997) International treaty to limit greenhouse gas emissions. It was negotiated and opened
for signatories in 1997, and took effect in 2005. Although signed by 169 (of 192) countries, the Bush
Administration rejected the plan as too costly in 2001.
Labor Contract Law Employers could openly recruit foreign workers. Employers could pay the passage
of immigrants & deduct the cost form their wages. Easy to import cheep foreign labor. It was used until the
passage of the Contract Labor Law in 1885.
Laird rams (1863) Two well-armed ironclad warships constructed for the Confederacy by a British firm.
Seeking to avoid war with the United States, the British government purchased the two ships for its Royal
Navy instead.
Laissez-faire: system in which the government does not regulate businesses (even if those companies
become monopolies); this mindset characterized the Gilded Age.
Land Act of 1820 Fueled the settlement of the Northwest and Missouri territories by lowering the price of
public land. Also prohibited the purchase of federal acreage on credit, thereby eliminating one of the causes
of the Panic of 1819.
Land-grant colleges Colleges and universities created from allocations of pubic land through the Morrell
Act of 1862 and the Hatch Act of 1887. These grants helped fuel the boom in higher education in the late
nineteenth century, and many of the today’s public universities derive from these grants.
Land Ordinance of 1785 Provided for the sale of land in the Old Northwest and earmarked the proceeds
toward repaying the national debt.
League of Nations (1919) A world organization of national governments proposed by President Woodrow
Wilson and established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It worked to facilitate peaceful international
cooperation. Despite emotional appeals by Wilson, isolationists’ objections to the League created the major
obstacle to American signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
Lecompton Constitution (1857) Proposed Kansas constitution, whose ratification was unfairly rigged so
as to guarantee slavery in the territory. Initially ratified by proslavery forces, it was later voted down when
Congress required that the entire constitution be put up for a vote.
Leisler’s Rebellion (1689-1691) Armed conflict between aspiring merchants led by Jacob Leisler and the
ruling elite of New York. One of many uprisings that erupted across the colonies when wealthy colonists
attempted to recreate European social structures in the New World.
Legal Tender Act (1862) To finance the Civil War, the federal government in passed the act, authorizing
the creation of paper money not redeemable in gold or silver. About $430 million worth of “greenbacks”
were put in circulation, and this money by law had to be accepted for all taxes, debts, and other obligations
—even those contracted prior to the passage of the act.
Lend-Lease Bill (1941) Based on the motto, “Send guns, not sons,” this law abandoned former pretenses
of neutrality by allowing Americans to sell unlimited supplies of arms to any nation defending itself against
the Axis Powers. Patriotically numbered 1776, the bill was praised as a device for keeping the nation out of
World War II.
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Leopard-Chesapeake Affair/Incident An event leading to the US declaring war on Britain in 1812, The
British warship Leopard and American frigate USS Chesapeake, when the crew of the Leopard attacked
and boarded the American frigate looking for deserters from the British Navy. The commander of the USS
Chesapeake, surrendered his vessel. Four crew members were removed from the American vessel and were
tried for desertion, one of whom was subsequently hanged.
Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer (1770’s) Written by John Dickinson in response to Britain’s
taxation policies on the colonies. He argued no taxation without representation. It said Parliament had a
right to regulate commerce but that duties were a form of taxation and that they require the consent of the
colonial assemblies.
Levittown Suburban communities with mass-produced tract houses built in the New York and Philadelphia
metropolitan areas in the 1950s by William Levitt and Sons. Typically inhabited by white middle-class
people who fled the cities in search of homes to buy for their growing families.
Lewinsky affair (1998–1999) Political sex scandal that resulted in Bill Clinton’s impeachment and trial by
Congress. In 1998, Clinton gave sworn testimony in a sexual harassment case that he had never engaged in
sexual activity with a White House intern named Monica Lewinsky. When prosecutors discovered evidence
that the President had lied under oath about the affair, to which Clinton admitted, Republicans in Congress
began impeachment proceedings. Although Clinton was ultimately not convicted by the Senate, the scandal
put a lasting blemish on his presidential legacy.
Lexington and Concord, Battles of (April 1775) First battles of the Revolutionary War, fought outside of
Boston. The colonial militia successfully defended their stores of munitions, forcing the British to retreat to
Boston.
The Liberator (1831-1865) Antislavery newspaper published by William Lloyd Garrison, who called for
the immediate emancipation of all slaves.
Liberal Protestants Members of a branch of Protestantism that flourished from 1875 to 1925 and
encouraged followers to use the Bible as a moral compass rather than to believe that the Bible represented
scientific or historical truth. Many Liberal Protestants became active in the “social gospel” and other
reform movements of the era.
Liberia West-African nation founded in 1822 as a haven for freed blacks, fifteen thousand of whom made
their way back across the Atlantic by the 1860s.
Liberty party (1840-1848) Antislavery party that ran candidates in the 1840 and 1844 elections before
merging with the Free Soil party. Supporters of the Liberty party sought the eventual abolition of slavery,
but in the short term hoped to halt the expansion of slavery into the territories and abolish the domestic
slave trade.
Limited liability Legal principle that facilitates capital investment by offering protection for individual
investors, who, in cases of legal claims or bankruptcy, cannot be held responsible for more than the value
of their individual shares.
Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858) Series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglass
during the U.S. Senate race in Illinois. Douglass won the election but Lincoln gained national prominence
and emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican nomination.
Line of Demarcation (1494) Imaginary line drawn by the pope to divide the world between the 2 major
Catholic powers involved in exploration. Spain received all of the Western Hemisphere accept for Brazil,
Portugal received most of Africa & Asia.
Little Bighorn, Battle of (1876) A particularly violent example of the warfare between whites and Native
Americans in the late nineteenth century, also know as “Custer’s Last Stand.” In two days, June 25 and 26,
1876, the combined forces of over 2,000 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians defeated and killed more
than 250 U.S. soldiers, including Colonel George Custer. The battle came as the U.S. government tried to
compel Native Americans to remain on the reservations and Native Americans tried to defend territory
from white gold-seekers. This Indian advantage did not last long, however, as the union of these Indian
fighters proved tenuous and the United States Army soon exacted retribution.
Lochner v. New York (1905) A setback from labor reformers, this 1905 Supreme Court decision
invalidated a state law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers. It held that the “right to free contract” was
implicit in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Lockout: the refusal by an employer to allow employees to work unless they agree to his or terms.
Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1912) Senate passed resolution to Monroe Doctrine. It stated
that non-European powers (such as Japan) would be excluded from owning territory in Western
Hemisphere.
Log cabin-hard cider campaign (1840) Attempt by the Whigs to portray their candidate Harrison as," a
man of the common people from the rough-and-tumble West, a strategy that had been used by Andrew
Jackson and the Democrats. They depicted Harrison's opponent, President Martin Van Buren, as a wealthy
snob who was out of touch with the people. In fact, it was Harrison who came from a wealthy, prominent

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family while Van Buren was from a poor, working family. The election was during the worst economic
depression to date, and voters blamed Van Buren, seeing him as unsympathetic to struggling citizens.
London Economic Conference (1933) A sixty-nation economic conference organized to stabilize
international currency rates. Franklin Roosevelt’s decision to revoke American participation contributed to
a deepening world economic crisis.
Long Island, Battle of (August 1776) Battle for the control of New York. British troops overwhelmed the
colonial militias and retained control of the city for most of the war. (157) (Chapter 8)
Looking Backward (1887) It was a book by Edward Bellamy about a man who fell asleep in the late 1800s
and then woke up in 2000 to find America to be a utopian, socialist country. It made socialism and
industrialism look good, while shining a bad light on the stock market and credit. It lead to a political
movement called Nationalism (which is different than nationalism, the idea.)
Loose construction Legal doctrine which holds that the federal government can use powers not
specifically granted or prohibited in the Constitution to carry out its constitutionally-mandated
responsibilities.
Lost Generation This was a term used to characterize a general motif of disillusionment of American
literary notables who lived in Europe, most notably Paris, after the First World War. Figures identified with
the "Lost Generation" included authors and artists such as Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ezra
Pound, Sherwood Anderson, Waldo Peirce, John Dos Passos, John Steinbeck, and Cole Porter.
Louisiana Purchase (1803) Acquisition of Louisiana territory from France. The purchase more than
doubled the territory of the United States, opening vast tracts for settlement.
Lowell System Was a labor and production model employed in the United States, particularly in New
England, during the early years of the American textile industry in the early 19th Century. The system used
mill girls, who came to the new textile centers from rural towns to earn more money than was possible at
home, and to live a cultured life in "the city". They lived a regimented life in company boardinghouses and
were held to strict hours and a rigid moral code.
Loyalists American colonists who opposed the Revolution and maintained their loyalty to the King;
sometimes referred to as “Tories”.
Ludlow Massacre Refers to the violent 19 deaths of innocent people. The National Guard attacked a
colony of over 1,000 striking miners and family members. The deaths happened in one day when the
strikers and the guards got into a huge fight. The strike the miners were on was considered the deadliest
strike in the United States. This strike was organized by the United Mine Workers of America against coal
companies in Colorado.
Lusitania British passenger liner torpedoed and sank by Germany on May 7, 1915. It ended the lives of
1,198 people, including 128 Americans, and pushed the United States closer to war.
Lyceum (From the Greek name for the ancient Athenian school where Aristotle taught.) Public lecture hall
that hosted speakers on topics ranging from science to moral philosophy. Part of a broader flourishing of
higher education in the mid-nineteenth century.
Lyon v. Griswold Incident (1798) Roger Griswold of Connecticut took up a wooden cane to attack Rep.
Matthew Lyon of Vermont on the floor of the House of Representatives. This incident reflected the rise of
political factions in the House and the political rift between the Federalist and the Democratic-Republicans.
Machine Tools American craftsmen facilitated the rapid spread of the Industrial Revolution by pioneering
the development of machine tools, which were machines that made parts for other machines.
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act stipulated
that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions, the United States would reinstate the embargo
against the nonrepealing nation. When Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports, the United
States was forced to declare an embargo on Britain, thereby pushing the two nations closer toward war.
Maine (1898) American battleship dispatched to keep a “friendly” watch over Cuba in early 1898. It
mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, with a loss of 260 sailors. Later evidence
confirmed that the explosion was accidental, resulting from combustion in one of the ship’s internal coal
bunkers. But many Americans, eager for war, insisted that it was the fault of a Spanish submarine mine.
Maine Law of 1851 Prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol. A dozen other states followed Maine’s
lead, though most statutes proved ineffective and were repealed within a decade.
Malaise speech (1979) National address by Jimmy Carter in July 1979. The speech was delivered in
response to the energy crisis, it was most notable for Carter's bleak assessment of the national condition and
his claim that there was a "crisis of confidence" that had struck "at the very heart and soul of our national
will". He criticized American materialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships.
The speech helped fuel charges that the president was trying to blame his own problems on the American
people. Although Carter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standings as a leader, it
had the opposite effect and was widely perceived as a political disaster for the embattled president.
The Man Without a Country (1863) Edward Everett Hale’s fictional account of a treasonous soldier’s
journeys in exile. The book was widely read in the North, inspiring greater devotion to the Union.
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Manhattan Project (1942) Code name for the American commission established in 1942 develop the
atomic bomb. The first experimental bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, in the desert of New Mexico.
Atomic bombs were then dropped on two cities in Japan in hopes of bringing the war to an end: Hiroshima
on August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.
Manifest Destiny (1840s and 1850s) Belief that the United States was destined by God to spread its
“empire of liberty” across North America. Served as a justification for mid-nineteenth century
expansionism.
“Maintenance-of-membership” agreement In order to prevent strikes during World War II this policy
compelled employers and workers to accept union representation in exchange for war production contracts
and jobs.
Marbury v. Madison (1803) Supreme Court case that established the principle of “judicial review”—the
idea that the Supreme Court had the final authority to determine constitutionality.
March on Washington (1963) Massive civil rights demonstration in August 1963 in support of Kennedy-
backed legislation to secure legal protections for American blacks. One of the most visually impressive
manifestations of the Civil Rights Movement, the march was the occasion of Martin Luther King’s famous
“I Have a Dream” speech
Market revolution Eighteenth and nineteenth century transformation from a disaggregated, subsistence
economy to a national commercial and industrial network.
Marshall Plan (1948) The plan was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall. Called for
massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and
democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power.
Mason-Dixon Line Originally drawn by surveyors to resolve the boundaries between Maryland, Delaware,
Pennsylvania and Virginia in the 1760s, it came to symbolize the North-South divide over slavery.
Massachusetts Government Act The act effectively revoked the existing colonial charter of the colony of
Massachusetts, and gave its royally-appointed governor wide-ranging powers. The Act is one of the
Intolerable Acts
Massachusetts Bay Colony (founded in 1630) Established by non-separating Puritans, it soon grew to be
the largest and most influential of the New England colonies.
Massachusetts Circular Letter (1768) Letter jointly wrote by James Otis & Samuel Adams. A copy was
sent to every colonial legislature and it urged them to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts.
Mayflower Compact (1620) Agreement to form a majoritarian government in Plymouth, signed aboard
the Mayflower. Created a foundation for self-government in the colony.
Maysville Road (1830) This was a bill that proposed building a road in Kentucky with federal funding.
Jackson vetoed this because he considered it unconstitutional, as it was only in Kentucky and not a part of
interstate commerce. He also was against the bill because it was considered extravagant expenditures.
McCain-Feingold Act (2001) Bipartisan campaign finance control legislation that sought to limit the
amounts and types of money spent by and for candidates for elected office. In particular, the ad placed
limits on “soft money,” or funds raised by groups that are unaffiliated with a candidate but advertise,
indirectly, on that candidate’s behalf, or against the opponent. McCain-Feingold represented an effort to
improve the public’s impression of Washington politics by increasing transparency, but was widely
criticized by some as an unconstitutional limit on free speech and expression.
McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) Also known as the Subversive Activities Control Act, it required
Communist organizations to register with the United States Attorney General and established the
Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate persons suspected of engaging in subversive activities or
otherwise promoting the establishment of a "totalitarian dictatorship," either fascist or communist.
Members of these groups could not become citizens and in some cases were prevented from entering or
leaving the country. Citizens found in violation could lose their citizenship in five years.
McCarthyism A brand of vitriolic, fear-mongering anti-communism associated with the career of Senator
Joseph McCarthy. In the early 1950s, Senator McCarthy used his position in Congress to baselessly accuse
high-ranking government officials and other Americans of conspiracy with communism. The term named
after him refers to the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear wrought by anticommunist paranoia.
McCormick reaper (1831) Mechanized the harvest of grains, such as wheat, allowing farmers to cultivate
larger plots. The introduction of the reaper in the 1830s fueled the establishment of large-scale commercial
agriculture in the Midwest.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Supreme Court case that strengthened federal authority and upheld the
constitutionality of the Bank of the United States by establishing that the State of Maryland did not have
power to tax the bank.
McKinley Tariff (1890) Shepherded through Congress by President William McKinley, this tariff raised
duties on Hawaiian sugar and set off renewed efforts to secure the annexation of Hawaii to the US.

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McNary-Haugen Bill (1924-1928) A farm-relief bill that was championed throughout the 1920s and aimed
to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad.
Congress twice passed the bill, but President Calvin Coolidge vetoed it in 1927 and 1928.
Meat Inspection Act (1906) A law passed by Congress to subject meat shipped over state lines to federal
inspection. The publication of Upton Sinclair’s novel, The Jungle, earlier that year so disgusted American
consumers with its description of conditions in slaughterhouses and meatpacking plants that it mobilized
public support for government action.
Mechanization of agriculture The development of engine-driven machines, like the combine, which
helped to dramatically increase the productivity of land in the 1870s and 1880s. This process contributed to
the consolidation of agricultural business that drove many family farms out of existence.
Menlo Park Thomas Edison’s research laboratory. It was the first industrial research lab, that applied the
principles of mass production and large-scale teamwork to the process of invention.
Mercantilism Economic theory that closely linked a nation’s political and military power to its bullion
reserves. Mercantilists generally favored protectionism and colonial acquisition as means to increase
exports. This economic policy was used by Britain and most European nations that had colonies.
Merchant capitalists Form of capitalism characterized by trade in commodities and a highly organized
system of banking, credit, stock, and insurance services.
Merrimack and Monitor (1862) Confederate and Union ironclads, respectively, whose successes against
wooden ships signaled an end to wooden warships. They fought an historic, though inconsequential battle.
Mestizos People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico.
Meuse-Argonne offensive (1918) General John J. “Black Jack” Pershing led American troops in this effort
to cut the German railroad lines supplying the western front. It was one of the few major battles that
Americans participated in during the entire war, and was still underway when the war ended.
Mexican Cession Is a the region of the present day southwestern United States that Mexico ceded to the
U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. Mexican Cession consist of present day U.S. states of
California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, half of New Mexico, less than half of Colorado, less than half
of the southwest of Wyoming.
Middle passage Transatlantic voyage slaves endured between Africa and the colonies. Mortality rates were
notoriously high.
Midnight judges (1801) Federal justices appointed by John Adams during the last days of his presidency.
Their positions were revoked when the newly-elected Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act.
Midway, Battle of (1942) A pivotal naval battle fought near the island of Midway on June 3–6, 1942. The
victory halted Japanese advances in the Pacific.
Milan Decree The Milan Decree was issued on December 17, 1807 by Napoleon I of France to enforce the
Berlin Decree of 1806 which had initiated the Continental System. This system was the basis for his plan to
defeat the British by waging economic warfare. The Milan Decree stated that no European country was to
trade with the United Kingdom.
Minimum Wage Act (1961) It raised the minimum wage to $1.25 an hour and increased the number of
workers eligible for minimum wage.
Mining industry After gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Nevada, and other Western territories in the
second half of the nineteenth century, fortune seekers by the thousands rushed to the West to dig. These
metals were essential to U.S. industrial growth and were also sold into world markets. After surface metals
were removed, people sought ways to extract ore from underground, leading to the development of heavy
mining machinery. This, in turn, led to the consolidation of the mining industry, because only big
companies could afford to buy and build the necessary machines.
Minstrel shows Variety shows performed by white actors in black-face. First popularized in the mid-
nineteenth century. Most well known was the Jim Crow minstrel show for which the policy of Jim Crow in
the South received its name.
Minute men the nickname given to local militiamen who fought against the British during the
Revolutionary War. They were called minutemen because of their supposed ability to be ready for battle at
a minute's notice.
Miranda v. Arizona /Miranda warning A statement of an arrested person’s constitutional rights, which
police officers must read during an arrest. The warning came out the Supreme Court’s decision in Miranda
v. Arizona in 1966 that accused people have the right to remain silent, consult an attorney, and enjoy other
protections. The Court declared that law enforcement officers must make sure suspects understand their
constitutional rights, thus creating a safeguard against forced confessions and self-implication.
Mississippi Freedom Democratic party (1964) Political party organized by civil rights activists to
challenge Mississippi’s delegation to the Democratic National Convention, who opposed the civil rights
planks in the party’s platform. Claiming a mandate to represent the true voice of Mississippi, where almost
no black citizens could vote, the MFDP demanded to be seated at the convention but were denied by party

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bosses. The effort was both a setback to civil rights activism in the south and a motivation to continue to
struggle for black voting rights.
Missouri Compromise (1820) Allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state but preserved the balance
between North and South by carving free-soil Maine out of Massachusetts and prohibiting slavery from
territories acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, north of the line of 36°30.
Model Treaty (1776) Sample treaty drafted by the Continental Congress as a guide for American
diplomats. Reflected the Americans’ desire to foster commercial partnerships rather than political or
military entanglements
Modernists Response to fundamentalist, Protestants who accepted Darwin's beliefs as well as Christianity.
Many questioned social conventions & traditional authorities considered outmode by the accelerated
changes of twentieth century life.
Molasses Act (1737) Tax on imported Molasses passed by Parliament in an effort to squelch the North
American trade with the French West Indies. It proved largely ineffective due to widespread smuggling.
Molly Maguires (1860s-1870s) Secret organization of Irish miners that campaigned, at times violently,
against poor working conditions in the Penn. mines. Associated with the Ancient Order of the Hibernian.
Monitor
See Merrimack
Monroe Doctrine (1823) Statement delivered by President James Monroe, warning European powers to
refrain from seeking any new territories in the Americas. The United States largely lacked the power to
back up the pronouncement, which was actually enforced by the British, who sought unfettered access to
Latin American markets.
Montgomery bus boycott (1955) Protest, sparked by Rosa Parks’s defiant refusal to move to the back of
the bus, by black Alabamians against segregated seating on city buses. The bus boycott lasted from
December 1, 1955, until December 26, 1956, and became one of the foundational moments of the Civil
Rights Movements. It led to the rise of Martin Luther King, Jr., and ultimately to a Supreme Court decision
opposing segregated busing.
Moral Majority Political action committee founded by evangelical Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979 to
promote traditional Christian values and oppose feminism, abortion, and gay rights. The group was a major
linchpin in the resurgent religious right of the 1980s. Moral Majority Coalition of very conservative,
evangelical Christians known as the religious right. It registered 2-3 million voters.
Moratorium of 1969 It was a massive demonstration and teach-in against the United States involvement in
the Vietnam War that took place across the United States on October 15, 1969, followed a month later by a
large Moratorium March on Washington.
Mormons Religious followers of Joseph Smith, who founded a communal, oligarchic religious order in the
1830s, officially known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Mormons, facing deep hostility
from their non-Mormon neighbors, eventually migrated west and established a flourishing settlement in the
Utah desert.
Morrill Tariff Act (1861) Increased duties back up to 1846 levels to raise revenue for the Civil War.
Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) Under the act, each eligible state received a total of 30,000 acres of
federal land, either within or contiguous to its boundaries, for each member of congress the state had as of
the census of 1860. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be used toward establishing and funding
land grant colleges or universities that focused on engineering and agricultural studies..
Muckrakers Reporters at the turn of the twentieth century who won this unfavorable moniker from
Theodore Roosevelt, but boosted the circulations of their magazines by writing exposés of widespread
corruption in American society. Their subjects included business manipulation of government, white
slavers, child labor, and the illegal deeds of the trusts, and helped spur the passage of reform legislation.
Mugwumps (1884) Were Republican political activists who bolted from the United States Republican
Party by supporting Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland in the United States presidential election of
1884. They switched parties because they rejected the financial corruption associated with Republican
candidate James G. Blaine. In a close election, the Mugwumps supposedly made the difference in New
York state and swung the election to Cleveland. Their leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, George Curtis,
and Henry Cabot Lodge; all returned to Republican ranks after the defeat of Blaine.
Muller v. Oregon (1908) A landmark Supreme Court case in which crusading attorney (and future
Supreme Court Justice) Louis D. Brandeis persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of
limiting the hours of women workers. Coming on the heels of Lochner v. New York, it established a
different standard for male and female workers.
Multipolarity Henry Kissinger approach towards foreign policy to take advantage of the rift between
Communist China and the USSR. It became part of the Nixon Doctrine, which sought to exploit diplomatic
divisions to reduce America's military commitments around the world.
Munn vs. Illinois (1876) This 1876 Supreme Court case seemed like a victory for the Grangers movement
and represented a step toward greater governmental regulation of the economy. The court decided that
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states had the right to regulate commerce within their states (particularly railroad and grain elevator
companies), but this decision was largely overturned 10 years later by the Wabash case.
My Lai Massacre (1968) Military assault in a small Vietnamese village on March 16, 1968, in which
American soldiers under the command of 2nd Lieutenant William Calley murdered hundreds of unarmed
Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children. The atrocity produced outrage and reduced support for
the war in America and around the world when details of the massacre and an attempted cover-up were
revealed in 1971.
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) Vivid autobiography of the escaped slave and
renowned abolitionist Frederick Douglass.
NASA (1958) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States
government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace
research. Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA, partially in
response to the launch of Sputnik by the Soviets.
NSC-68/ National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (1950) National Security Council
recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peace-time armed forces to address
Cold War tensions. It reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy but the huge costs of
rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed like the limitless possibilities of postwar
prosperity.
Nation of Islam Was a religious movement founded in Detroit, Michigan by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad
in July 1930 and became more popular in the 1960’s under the leadership of Malcolm X. The Nation of
Islam's stated goals are to improve the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of African
Americans in the US. Its critics accuse it of being black supremacist and Anti-Semitic.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) (1890) An organization founded in to
demand the vote for women. NAWSA argued that women should be allowed to vote because their
responsibilities in the home and family made them indispensable in the public decision-making process.
During World War I, NAWSA supported the war effort and lauded women’s role in the Allied victory,
which helped to finally achieve nationwide woman suffrage in the Nineteenth Amendment (1920).
National Banking System (1863) Network of member banks that could issue currency against purchased
government bonds. Created during the Civil War to establish a stable national currency and stimulate the
sale of war bonds.
National Defense Research Committee (1940)& Office of Scientific Research and Development (1941)
Were organizations created "to coordinate, supervise, and conduct scientific research on the problems
underlying the development, production, and use of mechanisms and devices of warfare". Most work was
done with the strictest secrecy, and it began research of what would become some of the most important
technology during World War II, including radar and the atomic bomb. The OSRD replaced the NDRC.
The research included projects devoted to new and more accurate bombs, reliable detonators, work on the
proximity fuze, guided missiles, radar and early-warning systems, lighter and more accurate hand weapons,
more effective medical treatments, more versatile vehicles, and, most secret of all, the Manhattan Project
that developed the first atomic weapons. It was given almost unlimited access to funding and resources, and
reported only to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
“National Malaise” Speech (1979) President Jimmy Carter went on national televised speech. He told the
American people and said: “Too many of us now tend to worship self-indulgence and consumption.
Human identity is no longer defined by what one does, but by what one owns.” He decried a “growing
disrespect for government” and “fragmentation and self-interest” that prevented Americans from tackling
the energy crisis they confronted the result of their over-reliance upon fossil fuels. Americans, he warned,
now faced a “crisis of confidence.”
National Municipal League (1894) It was a convention of politicians, policy-makers, journalists, and
educators (including Theodore Roosevelt, Louis Brandeis, Marshall Field, and Frederick Law Olmsted) to
discuss the future of American cities. It also promotes professional management of local government
through publication of "model charters" for both city and county governments.
National War Labor Board (1917) The board was a composition of representatives from business and
labor designed to arbitrate disputes between workers and employers. It settled any possible labor
difficulties that might hamper the war efforts.
National Labor Union (1866-1872) This first national labor organization in U.S. history was founded in
1866 and gained 600,000 members from many parts of the workforce, although it limited the participation
of Chinese, women, and blacks. The organization devoted much of its energy to fighting for an eight-hour
workday before it dissolved in 1872.
National Origins Act (1924) This was a law passed by Congress establishing quotas for immigrants to the
United states—it limited immigration from southern and eastern Europe, permitted larger members of
immigrants from northern and western Europe, and prohibited immigration from Asia.

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National Organization for Women (1966) Organization founded by Betty Friedan; organization formed
to work for economic and legal rights of women; demanded equality in educational and job opportunities,
wages, and political representation; creation of childcare facilities; wanted Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) enforce its legal mandate to end
National Recovery Administration (NRA) (1933) Known by its critics as the “National Run Around,” the
NRA was an early New Deal program designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed through
centralized planning mechanisms that monitored workers’ earnings and working hours to distribute work
and established codes for “fair competition” to ensure that similar procedures were followed by all firms in
any particular industrial sector.
National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68) (1950) National Security Council
recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peace-time armed forces to address
Cold War tensions. It reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy but the huge costs of
rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed like the limitless possibilities of postwar
prosperity.
National War Labor Board (1918) This wartime agency was chaired by former President Taft and aimed
to prevent labor disputes by encouraging high wages and an eight-hour day. While granting some
concessions to labor, it stopped short of supporting labor’s most important demand: a government
guarantee of the right to organize into unions.
National War Labor Board (NWLB) Established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to act as an
arbitration tribunal and mediate disputes between labor and management that might have led to war
stoppages and thereby undermined the war effort. The NWLB was also charged with adjusting wages with
an eye to controlling inflation.
Nat Turner’s rebellion (1831) Virginia slave revolt that resulted in the deaths of sixty whites and raised
fears among white Southerners of further uprisings.
Navajo code talkers Native American men who served in the military by transmitting radio messages in
their native languages, which were undecipherable by German and Japanese spies
Navigation Laws Series of laws passed, beginning in 1651, to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided
that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports, and that all goods destined
for the colonies would first pass through England.
Negro Act of 1740 passed in South Carolina made it illegal for slaves to move abroad, assemble in groups,
raise food, earn money, and learn to write English (though reading was not proscribed). Additionally,
owners were permitted to kill rebellious slaves if necessary.
Neo-conservatives Group made up of conservative people reacting to the counter culture of the 1960's.
Moral Majority and Christian groups who were focused on social issues such as abortion, feminism, gay
rights, etc.
Neutrality Act of 1939 This act stipulated that European democracies might buy American munitions, but
only if they could pay in cash and transport them in their own ships. The terms were known as “Cash-and-
Carry.” It represented an effort to avoid war debts and protect American arms-carriers from torpedo attacks.
Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 Short-sighted acts passed in 1935, 1936, and 1937 in order to
prevent American participation in a European War. Among other restrictions, they prevented Americans
from selling munitions to foreign belligerents.
Neutrality Proclamation (1793) Issued by George Washington, it proclaiming America's formal neutrality
in the escalating conflict between England and France, a statement that enraged pro-French Jeffersonians.
New Deal The economic and political policies of Franklin Roosevelt’s administration in the 1930s, which
aimed to solve the problems of the Great Depression by providing relief for the unemployed and launching
efforts to stimulate economic recovery. The New Deal built on reforms of the progressive era to expand
greatly an American-style welfare state.
New England Emigrant Aid Company (founded 1854) Organization created to facilitate the migration of
free laborers to Kansas in order to prevent the establishment of slavery in the territory.
New Federalism President Nixon’s is a political push to transfer of certain powers from the federal
government back to the states. The primary objective of New Federalism, was the restoration to the states
of some of the autonomy and power which they lost to the federal government during the New Deal.
New Freedom (1912) Platform of reforms advocated by Woodrow Wilson in his first presidential
campaign, including stronger antitrust legislation to protect small business enterprises from monopolies,
banking reform, and tariff reductions. Wilson’s strategy involved taking action to increase opportunities for
capitalist competition rather than increasing government regulation of large trusts.
New Frontier (1961–1963) President Kennedy’s nickname for his domestic policy agenda. Buoyed by
youthful optimism, the program included proposals for the Peace Corps and efforts to improve education
and health care.

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New Harmony (1825-1827) Communal society of around one thousand members, established in New
Harmony, Indiana by Robert Owen. The community attracted a hodgepodge of individuals, from scholars
to crooks, and fell apart due to infighting and confusion after just two years.
New Immigrants or Newcomers Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who formed a
recognizable wave of immigration from the 1880s until 1924, in contrast to the immigrants from western
Europe who had come before them. These new immigrants congregated in ethnic urban neighborhoods,
where they worried many native-born Americans, some of whom responded with nativist anti-immigrant
campaigns and others of whom introduced urban reforms to help the immigrants assimilate.
New Jersey Plan (1787) “Small-state plan” put forth at the Philadelphia convention, proposing equal
representation by state, regardless of population, in a unicameral legislature. Small states feared that the
more populous states would dominate the agenda under a proportional system.
The New Left Refers to activists, educators, agitators and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to
implement a broad range of reforms, in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements. It was associated
with the Hippie movement and college campus protest movements.
New Lights Ministers who took part in the revivalist, emotive religious tradition pioneered by George
Whitefield during the Great Awakening.
New Nationalism (1912) State-interventionist reform program devised by journalist Herbert Croly and
advocated by Theodore Roosevelt during his Bull Moose presidential campaign. Roosevelt did not object to
continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions. Rather, he sought to create stronger regulatory agencies
to insure that they operated to serve the public interest, not just private gain.
New Orleans, Battle of (January 1815) Resounding victory of American forces led by Andrew Jackson
against the British, restoring American confidence and fueling an outpouring of nationalism. Final battle of
the War of 1812.
The New Right (1964 to the present) Conservative movement formed in the wake of the Goldwater
campaign and had a more populist tone than the first New Right. It social issues and national sovereignty
(such as the Panama Canal Treaty) and was often linked with the religious right. It helped elect Republican
Ronald Reagan. It promote strongly conservative policies.
New South Was a phrase used after the Civil War by journalist Henry W. Grady to describe a South that
focused on urbanization and industrialization. The term "New South" is used in contrast to the Old South
and the slavery-based plantation system of the antebellum period.
New York draft riots (1863) Uprising, mostly of working-class Irish-Americans, in protest of the draft.
Rioters were particularly incensed by the ability of the rich to hire substitutes or purchase exemptions.
New York slave revolt (1712) Uprising of approximately two dozen slaves that resulted in the deaths of
nine whites and the brutal execution of twenty-one participating blacks.
Niagara Movement (1905–10) Organization of black intellectuals led by W.E.B. Du Bois and calling for
full political, civil, and social rights for blacks. This stance stood in notable contrast to the accommodation
philosophy proposed by Booker T. Washington in the Atlanta Compromise of 1895. The Niagara
Movement was the forerunner of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP). In the summer of 1905, 29 prominent blacks, including Du Bois, met secretly at Niagara Falls,
Ont., and drew up a manifesto calling for full civil liberties, abolition of racial discrimination, and
recognition of human brotherhood
Nisei soldiers American soldiers of Japanese descent, who served in the US military during World War II.
Nine-Power Treaty (1922) Agreement coming out of the Washington “Disarmament” Conference of
1921–1922 that pledged Britain, France, Italy, Japan, the United States, China, the Netherlands, Portugal,
and Belgium to abide by the Open Door Policy in China. The Five-Power Naval Treaty on ship ratios and
the Four-Power Treaty to preserve the status quo in the Pacific also came out of the conference.
Nineteenth Amendment (1920) This Constitutional amendment, finally passed by Congress in 1919 and
ratified in 1920, gave women the right to vote over seventy years after the first organized calls for woman’s
suffrage in Seneca Falls, New York.
Nixon Doctrine President Nixon’s plan for “peace with honor” in Vietnam. The doctrine stated that the
United States would honor its existing defense commitments but, in the future, countries would have to
fight their own wars.
No Child Left Behind Act (2001) An unfunded education bill created and signed by the George W. Bush
administration. Designed to increase accountability standards for primary and secondary schools, the law
authorized several federal programs to monitor those standards and increased choices for parents in
selecting schools for their children. The program was highly controversial, in large part because it linked
results on standardized to federal funding for schools and school districts.
Nonimportation Agreements (1765 and after) Boycotts against British goods adopted in response to the
Stamp Act and, later, the Townshend and Intolerable Acts. The agreements were the most effective form of
protest against British policies in the colonies.

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Non-Intercourse Act (1809) Passed alongside the repeal of the Embargo Act, it reopened trade with all but
the two belligerent nations, Britain and France. The Act continued Jefferson’s policy of economic coercion,
still with little effect.
Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act (1932) This law that banned “yellow-dog,” or anti-union, work
contracts and forbade federal courts from issuing injunctions to quash strikes and boycotts. It was an early
piece of labor-friendly federal legislation.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (1993) Free trade zone encompassing Mexico,
Canada, and the United States. A symbol of the increased reality of a globalized market place, the treaty
passed despite opposition from protectionists and labor leaders.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Military alliance of Western European powers and the
United States and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat from the Soviet Union,
marking a giant stride forward for European unity and American internationalism.
Northwest Ordinance (1787) Created a policy for administering the Northwest Territories. It included a
path to statehood and forbade the expansion of slavery into the territories.
(NSC-68) (1950) National Security Council recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly
expand peace-time armed forces to address Cold War tensions. It reflected a new militarization of
American foreign policy but the huge costs of rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed
like the limitless possibilities of postwar prosperity.
NOW or National Organization for Women (1966) founded by Betty Friedan; organization formed to
work for economic and legal rights of women; demanded equality in educational and job opportunities,
wages, and political representation; creation of childcare facilities; wanted Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) enforce its legal mandate to end sex discrimination
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) The US & the Soviet Union had increased concern about a possible
nuclear threat from China. The USSR, Great Britain, and the United States signed the Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty, which prohibited nuclear testing in the atmosphere or underwater. France and China, who had
recently become nuclear powers, refused to sign the agreement.
Nullification Crisis (1832-1833) Showdown between President Andrew Jackson and the South Carolina
legislature, which declared the 1832 tariff null and void in the state and threatened secession if the federal
government tried to collect duties. It was resolved by a compromise negotiated by Henry Clay in 1833.
Nuremberg war crimes trial (1946) Highly publicized proceedings against former Nazi leaders for war
crimes and crimes against humanity as part of the Allies denazification program in postwar Germany. The
trials led to several executions and long prison sentences.
Nye Committee (1934) Senate committee formed to investigate whether or not munitions manufacturers
and bankers were pro-war Allies in World War I and motivated to make profit; it increased anti-war
atmosphere and push to pass Neutrality Acts to keep the US from being involved in aiding the Allies prior
to entry into the war.
Office of Price Administration (OPA) (1941-1947) A critically important wartime agency charged with
regulating the consumer economy through rationing scarce supplies, such as automobiles, tires, fuel, nylon,
and sugar, and by curbing inflation by setting ceilings on the price of goods. Rents were controlled as well
in parts of the country overwhelmed by war workers. The OPA was extended after World War II ended to
continue the fight against inflation, but was abolished in 1947.
Office of War Information (1942-1945) It was a U.S. government agency created during World War II to
consolidate government information services. It coordinated the release of war news for domestic use, and,
using posters and radio broadcasts, worked to promote patriotism, warn about foreign spies and recruit
women into war work. The office also established an overseas branch, which launched a large scale
information and propaganda campaign abroad.
Okies Displaced tenant farmers from Oklahoma. Many left Oklahoma during the Dust Bowl & Great
Depression and traveled to California looking for migrant work. The novel The Grapes of Wrath by John
Steinback drew attention to their plight.
Oklahoma City bombing (1995) Truck-bomb explosion that killed 168 people in a federal office building
on April 19, 1995. The attack was perpetrated by right-wing and anti-government militant Timothy
McVeigh, later executed for the crime.
Oldcomers (1840-1860’s) First wave of immigrants who came before 1870, mainly German and Irish from
Northern and Western Europe. Most assimilated easier then later immigrants.
Old lights Orthodox clergymen who rejected the emotionalism of the Great Awakening in favor of a more
rational spirituality.
Old Northwest Territories acquired by the federal government from the states, encompassing land
northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes. The well-organized
management and sale of the land in the territories under the land ordinances of 1785 and 1787 established a
precedent for handling future land acquisitions.

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Old South Southern States represented in the original thirteen American colonies, as opposed the Deep
South (Lower South or the Cotton States).
Olive Branch Petition (July 1775) Conciliatory measure adopted by the Continental Congress, professing
American loyalty and seeking an end to the hostilities. King George rejected the petition and proclaimed
the colonies in rebellion.
Oneida Community One of the more radical utopian communities established in the nineteenth century, it
advocated “free love”, birth control and eugenics. Utopian communities reflected the reformist spirit of the
age.
Open Door Notes (1899-1900) A set of diplomatic letters in which Secretary of State John Hay urged the
great powers to respect Chinese rights and free and open competition within their spheres of influence. The
notes established the “Open Door Policy,” which sought to ensure access to the Chinese market for the
United States, despite the fact that the U.S. did not have a formal sphere of influence in China.
Open shop Associated with the 'American Plan' which was a crucial element of discouraging union
membership. Open shop declared that no worker could be required to join a union.
Operation Desert Storm (1991) U.S.-led multi-country military engagement in January and February of
1991 that drove Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi army out of neighboring Kuwait. In addition to presaging the
longer and more protracted Iraq War of the 2000s, the 1991 war helped undo what some called the
“Vietnam Syndrome,” a feeling of military uncertainty that plagued many Americans.
Operation Dixie (1948) Failed effort by the CIO after World War II to unionize southern workers,
especially in textile factories.
Orders in/of Council (1806-1807) Edicts issued by the British Crown closing French-owned European
ports to foreign shipping. The French responded by ordering the seizure of all vessels entering British ports,
thereby cutting off American merchants from trade with both parties.
Ordinances of Discovery or Ordinances Concerning Discoveries (1573) In response to abuses of the
native peoples pointed out by Bartolome de las Casas, it forbade slavery of the native populations and
gave strict regulations on the treatment of the local population, such as the implementation of the "protector
de indios", an ecclesiastical representative who acted as the protector of the Indians, and represented them
in formal litigation. It also, guided the establishment of presidios (military towns), missions, and pueblos
(civilian towns), King Phillip II developed the first version of the Laws of the Indies, a comprehensive
guide composed of 148 ordinances to aid colonists in locating, building, and populating settlements.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Cartel comprising Middle Eastern states and
Venezuela first organized in 1960. OPEC aimed to control access to and prices of oil, wresting power from
Western oil companies and investors. In the process, it gradually strengthened the hand of non-Western
powers on the world stage.
Ostend Manifesto (1854) Secret Franklin Pierce administration proposal to purchase or, that failing, to
wrest militarily Cuba from Spain. Once leaked, it was quickly abandoned due to vehement opposition from
the North.
Our Country: Its Possible Future & Current Crisis (1858) A book by Josiah Strong a reverend trumpeted
the superiority of Anglo-Saxon Civilization. He said that Americans should spread their religion and
values to the "backward" peoples.
Pacific Railroad Act (1862) Helped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad
with the use of land grants and government bonds.
Palmer Raids (1920) An operation coordinated by Attorney General Mitchel Palmer in which federal
marshals raided the homes of suspected radicals (mainly anarchists & communists) and the headquarters of
radical organization in 32 cities.
Pan-American Conference (1889) A meeting of delegates from North and South American countries held
in Washington, D.C. James G. Blaine presided over it. It was a small step in terms of economic
cooperation; all that was agreed upon was reciprocal tariff reduction, but it started a series of increasingly
important inter-American assemblages.
Panay Incident (1937) Was a Japanese attack on the American gunboat while it was anchored in China.
Japan and the United States were not at war at the time. The Japanese claimed that they did not know it was
an American gunboat, apologized, and paid an indemnity. FDR condemned the attack and considered an
embargo. However, Congress and press concluded that no vital American interests were involved.
Nevertheless, the attack caused US opinion to turn against the Japanese.
Panic of 1819 Severe financial crisis brought on primarily by the efforts of the Bank of the United States to
curb overspeculation on western lands. It disproportionately affected the poorer classes, especially in the
West, sowing the seeds of Jacksonian Democracy.
Panic of 1837 Economic crisis triggered by bank failures, elevated grain prices, and Andrew Jackson’s
efforts to curb overspeculation on western lands and transportation improvements. In response, President
Martin Van Buren proposed the “Divorce Bill”, which pulled treasury funds out of the banking system
altogether, contracting the credit supply.
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Panic of 1857 Financial crash brought on by gold-fueled inflation, overspeculation and excess grain
production. Raised calls in the North for higher tariffs and for free homesteads on western public lands.
Panic of 1873 A world-wide depression that began in the United States when one of the nation’s largest
banks abruptly declared bankruptcy, leading to the collapse of thousands of banks and businesses. The
crisis intensified debtors’ calls for inflationary measures such as the printing of more paper money and the
unlimited coinage of silver. Conflicts over monetary policy greatly influenced politics in the last quarter of
the nineteenth century.
Paris, Treaty of (1783) Peace treaty signed by Britain and the United States ending the Revolutionary
War. The British formally recognized American independence and ceded territory east of the Mississippi
while the Americans, in turn, promised to restore Loyalist property and repay debts to British creditors.
Party Boss The head of an urban or state political machine who controls elections and the disbursement of
patronage. Most are corrupt. Boss Tweed is an example.
The Passing of the Great Race (1916) Also known as The racial basis of European history was an
influential book of scientific racism written by the American eugenicist, lawyer, and amateur
anthropologist Madison Grant. The book put forward Grant's theory of "Nordic superiority" and argued for
a strong eugenics program in order to "save the waning 'Nordics' from inundation of other race types".
Grant's propositions to create a strong eugenics program for the "Nordic" population to survive.
Patent Office Federal government bureau that reviews patent applications. A patent is a legal recognition
of a new invention, granting exclusive rights to the inventor for a period of years.
Patriots Colonists who supported the American Revolution; they were also known as “Whigs”.
Patriot Act (2001) Legislation passed shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, that granted
broad surveillance and detention authority to the government.
Patronage Practice of rewarding political support with special favors, often in the form of public office.
Upon assuming office, Thomas Jefferson dismissed few Federalist employees, leaving scant openings to fill
with political appointees.
Patroonships Vast tracts of land along the Hudson River in New Netherlands granted to wealthy promoters
in exchange for bringing fifty settlers to the property.
Paxton Boys (1764) Armed march on Philadelphia by Scotts-Irish frontiersmen in protest against the
Quaker establishment’s lenient policies toward Native Americans.
Payne-Aldrich Bill/Tariff (1909) While intended to lower tariff rates, this bill was eventually revised
beyond all recognition, retaining high rates on most imports. President Taft angered the progressive wing of
his party when he declared it “the best bill that the Republican party ever passed”.
Peace Corps A federal agency created by President Kennedy in 1961 to promote voluntary service by
Americans in foreign countries. The Peace Corps provides labor power to help developing countries
improve their infrastructure, health care, educational systems, and other aspects of their societies. Part of
Kennedy’s New Frontier vision, the organization represented an effort by postwar liberals to promote
American values and influence through productive exchanges across the world.
Pearl Harbor (1941) An American naval base in Hawaii where Japanese warplanes destroyed numerous
ships and caused 3,000 casualties on December 7, 1941—a day that, in President Roosevelt’s words, was to
“live in infamy.” The attack brought the United States into World War II.
Peculiar institution Widely used term for the institution of American slavery in the South. Its use in the
first half of the 19th century reflected a growing division between the North, where slavery was gradually
abolished, and the South, where slavery became increasingly entrenched.
Peggy Eaton Affair Rumors were that Peggy O'Neale was having an affair with John Eaton. Her husband
died, and she married Eaton. Eaton was appointed by Jackson as Sec. of War, making Peggy a cabinet wife.
The other cabinet wives, led by Mrs. Calhoun refused to receive her. Jackson was furious, and demanded
members of the cabinet to accept her into their social world. Calhoun, under pressure from his wife,
refused. Falling out with Jackson. Van Buren befriended them. It led to Jackson’s fallout with his cabinet
and his reliance on the “kitchen cabinet”.
Pendleton Act (1883) Congressional legislation that established the Civil Service Commission, which
granted federal government jobs on the basis of examinations instead of political patronage, thus reigning
in the spoils system.
Peninsula Campaign (1862) Union General George McClellan’s failed effort to seize Richmond, the
Confederate Capital. Had McClellan taken Richmond and toppled the Confederacy, slavery would have
most likely survived in the South for some time.
Pentagon Papers (1971) Secret U.S. government report detailing early planning and policy decisions
regarding the Vietnam War under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. Leaked to the New York Times in
1971, it revealed instances of governmental secrecy, lies, and incompetence in the prosecution of the war.
Pequot War (1636-1638) Series of clashes between English settlers and Pequot Indians in the Connecticut
River valley. Ended in the slaughter of the Pequots by the Puritans and their Narragansett Indian allies.

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Personal Liberty Laws These laws were a direct response to the Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 and of 1850.
The Personal Liberty Laws were designed to make the legal system fair for all people and to ensure the
safety of freedmen and escaped slaves without employing the controversial tactic of nullification.
Perestroika Meaning “restructuring,” a cornerstone along with Glasnost of Soviet president Mikhail
Gorbachev’s reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s. These policies resulted in greater market
liberalization, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule.
Persian Gulf War (1990) Conflict that was triggered by a dispute over oil-drilling rights, leading to the
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. This war ended when the U.S. intervened, crushing Iraqi resistance and
liberating Kuwait.
Pet banks Popular term for pro-Jackson state banks that received the bulk of federal deposits when
Andrew Jackson moved to dismantle the Bank of the United States in 1833.
Philadelphia Plan (1969) Program established by Richard Nixon to require construction trade unions to
work toward hiring more black apprentices. The plan altered Lyndon Johnson’s concept of “affirmative
action” to focus on groups rather than individuals.
Pink Collar Jobs Working class jobs traditionally held by women (clerical, secretary, maid, waitress,
cook, beautician) that became more available during the 1920’s.
Pinkerton Agents During the labor unrest of the late 19th century and early 20th century, businessmen
hired the Pinkerton Agency to provide agents that would infiltrate unions, to supply guards to keep strikers
and suspected unionists out of factories. The best known such confrontation was the Homestead Strike of
1892, in which Pinkerton agents were called in to enforce the strikebreaking measures; the ensuing
conflicts between Pinkerton agents and striking workers led to several deaths on both sides. The Pinkertons
were also used as guards in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.
Pinckney's Treaty (1795) Signed with Spain which, fearing an Anglo-American alliance, granted
Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and the disputed territory of Florida.
Plantation Large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or
slave labor. European settlers established plantations in Africa, South America, the Caribbean and the
American South.
Platt Amendment (1901) Following its military occupation, the United States successfully pressured the
Cuban government to write this amendment into its constitution. It limited Cuba’s treaty-making abilities,
controlled its debt, and stipulated that the United States could intervene militarily to restore order when it
saw fit.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) An 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of segregation
laws, saying that as long as blacks were provided with “separate but equal” facilities, these laws did not
violate the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision provided legal justification for the Jim Crow system until
the 1950’s.
Policy of boldness (1954) Foreign policy objective of Dwight Eisenhower’s Secretary of State John Foster
Dulles, who believed in changing the containment strategy to one that more directly engaged the Soviet
Union and attempted to roll back communist influence around the world. This policy led to a build-up of
America’s nuclear arsenal to threaten “massive retaliation” against communist enemies, launching the Cold
War’s arms race.
Political machine Well organized political organization that controls election results by awarding jobs and
other favors in exchange for votes. Tammany Hall in New York is an example.
Pontiac’s uprising or Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763) Bloody campaign waged by Ottawa chief Pontiac to
drive the British out of Ohio Country. It was brutally crushed by British troops, who resorted to distributing
blankets infected with smallpox as a means to put down the rebellion. (122) (Chapter 6)
Pony Express (1860-1861) Short-lived, speedy mail service between Missouri and California that relied on
lightweight riders galloping between closely-placed outposts.
Pools Also known as corporate pools, a business tactic in which corporations in a specific industry or
business agreements to set prices.
Poor Richard’s Almanac (1732-1758) Widely read annual pamphlet edited by Benjamin Franklin. Best
known for its proverbs and aphorisms emphasizing thrift, industry, morality and common sense.
Popé’s Rebellion or Pueblo Revolt (1680) Pueblo Indian rebellion which drove Spanish settlers from New
Mexico.
Popular sovereignty (in the context of the slavery debate) Notion that the sovereign people of a given
territory should decide whether to allow slavery. Seemingly a compromise, it was largely opposed by
Northern abolitionists who feared it would promote the spread of slavery to the territories.
Popular Front A broad coalition of working-class and middle-class artists, writers, musicians, and
socialists who united for the defense of democratic forms of government against the Fascists of the 1930’s
& 1940’s.
Populists Officially known as the People’s party, the Populists represented Westerners and Southerners
who believed that U.S. economic policy inappropriately favored Eastern businessmen instead of the
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nation’s farmers. Their proposals included nationalizing the railroads, creating a graduated income tax, and
most significantly the unlimited coinage of silver.
Positive Planning (1883) Lester Frank Ward sociologist who wrote Dynamic Sociology and other books ,
in which he argued that civilization was not governed by natural selection but by human intelligence, which
was capable of shaping society as it wished, and he believed that an active government engaged in positive
planning, which was societies best hope. He was a Sociologist who attacked Social Darwinism in his book,
Dynamic Sociology.
Potsdam conference (1945) From July 17 to August 2, 1945, President Harry S Truman met with Soviet
leader Joseph Stalin and British leaders Winston Churchill and later Clement Attlee (when the Labour party
defeated Churchill’s Conservative party) near Berlin to deliver an ultimatum to Japan: surrender or be
destroyed.
Pragmatism A distinctive American philosophy that emerged in the late nineteenth century around the
theory that the true value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems. The pragmatists thus embraced the
provisional, uncertain nature of experimental knowledge. Among the most well-known purveyors of
pragmatism were John Dewey, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and William James.
Predestination Calvinist doctrine that God has foreordained some people to be saved and some to be
damned. Though their fate was irreversible, Calvinists, particularly those who believed they were destined
for salvation, sought to lead sanctified lives in order to demonstrate to others that they were in fact
members of the “elect”.
Privateers Privately-owned armed ships authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping during the
Revolutionary War. Privateers, more numerous than the tiny American Navy, inflicted heavy damages on
British shippers.
Proclamation of 1763 Decree issued by Parliament in the wake of Pontiac’s uprising, prohibiting
settlement beyond the Appalachians. Contributed to rising resentment of British rule in the American
colonies.
Prohibitory Act (1775) Was passed as a measure of retaliation by Great Britain against the general
rebellion then going on in her American colonies. It declared and provided for a naval blockade against
American ports.
Proclamation of Amnesty & Reconstruction (Dec. 1863) Was issued by Lincoln: offered full pardon to
Southerners who would take oath of allegiance to the Union and acknowledge emancipation. Lincoln set up
a process for political Reconstruction, as in reconstructing the state governments in the South so that
Unionists were in charge rather than secessionists; full presidential pardons for most southerners who either
took an oath of allegiance to the Union and the Constitution, a state government could be reestablished and
accepted as legitimate by the US president as soon as at least 10 percent of the voters in the state took the
loyalty oath, each southern state needed to rewrite Constitution to eliminate existence of slavery
Proposition 13 (1978) A successful California state ballot initiative that capped the state’s real estate tax at
1 percent of assessed value. The proposition radically reduced average property tax levels, decreasing
revenue for the state government and signally the political power of the “tax revolt,” increasingly aligned
with conservative politics.
Proprietary colonies Colonies–Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware–under the control of local
proprietors, who appointed colonial governors.
Protestant Reformation (16th Century) Movement to reform the Catholic Church launched in Germany
by Martin Luther. Reformers questioned the authority of the Pope, sought to eliminate the selling of
indulgences, and encouraged the translation of the bible from Latin, which few at the time could read. The
reformation was launched in England in the 1530s when King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic
Church.
“Publius” Pseudonym used by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, the authors of The
Federalist Papers. It was used in honor of Roman consul Publius Valerius Publicola who overthrew the
monarch and established the Roman Republic.
Pueblo Revolt (1680) or Popé's Rebellion Was an uprising of many pueblos of the Pueblo people against
Spanish colonization of the Americas in the New Spain province of New Mexico. Primarily due to their
prohibition of their traditional religion, many Pueblo people harbored a latent hostility toward the Spanish.
The Spanish also disrupted the traditional economy of the pueblos, the people being forced to labor on the
colonists' encomiendas.
Pullman strike (1894) A strike by railroad workers upset by drastic wage cuts. The strike was led by
socialist Eugene Debs but not supported by the American Federation of Labor. Eventually President Grover
Cleveland intervened and federal troops forced an end to the strike. The strike highlighted both divisions
within labor and the government’s new willingness to use armed force to combat work stoppages.
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) A law passed by Congress to inspect and regulate the labeling of all
foods and pharmaceuticals intended for human consumption. This legislation, and additional provisions

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passed in 1911 to strengthen it, aimed particularly at the patent medicine industry. The more
comprehensive Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 largely replaced this legislation
Puritans English Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic rituals and
creeds. Some of the most devout Puritans believed that only “visible saints” should be admitted to church
membership.
Quarantine Speech (1937) An important speech delivered by Franklin Roosevelt in response to Japanese
invasion of China, in which he called for “positive endeavors” to “quarantine” land-hungry dictators,
presumably through economic embargos. The speech flew in the face of isolationist politicians. Public
opinion was against the speech
Quartering Act (1765) Required colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. Many colonists
resented the act, which they perceived as an encroachment on their rights.
Quartering Act (1774) Law passed as part of the Intolerable Acts, expanded the old Quartering Act to
allow soldiers to be housed in private homes.
Quasi War Occurred during John Adam’s presidency. After the XYZ Affair , this undeclared war was
fought mostly at sea between the United States and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800.
Quebec Act (1774) Allowed the French residents of Québec to retain their traditional political and
religious institutions, and extended the boundaries of the province southward to the Ohio River. Seen as
showing favoritism to Roman Catholics and taking territory away from the colonies and giving it to French
speaking Quebec. Mistakenly perceived by the colonists to be part of Parliament’s response to the Boston
Tea Party.
Québec, Battle of (1759) Historic British victory over French forces on the outskirts of Québec. The
surrender of Québec marked the beginning of the end of French rule in North America.
Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713) Second in a series of conflicts between the European powers for control
of North America, fought between the English and French colonists in the North, and the English and
Spanish in Florida. Under the peace treaty, the French ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and
Hudson Bay to Britain.
Racketeers People who obtain money illegally by fraud, bootlegging, gambling, or threats of violence.
Racketeers invaded the ranks of labor during the 1920s, a decade when gambling and gangsterism were
prevalent in American life.
Radical Whigs Eighteenth-century British political commentators who agitated against political corruption
and emphasized the threat to liberty posed by arbitrary power. Their writings shaped American political
thought and made colonists especially alert to encroachments on their rights
Range Wars Taken from the term "open range" were conflict that occurs in agrarian or stockrearing
societies. Typically fought over water rights or grazing rights to unfenced/unowned land, it could pit
competing farmers, sheep herders, and ranchers against each other. Range wars were known to occur in the
West. Famous range wars included the Lincoln County War, the Pleasant Valley War, the Mason County
War and the Johnson County Range War, sometimes fought between local residents and gunmen hired by
absentee landowners.
Ration book During World War II, war ration books, rations stamps, and tokens were issued to each
American family, dictating how much gasoline, tires, sugar, meat, silk, shoes, nylon and other items any
one person could buy.
Reagan Doctrine Foreign policy approach the Reagan Administration to oppose the global influence of the
Soviet Union during the final years of the Cold War. The US provided overt and covert aid to anti-
communist guerrillas and resistance movements in an effort to "roll back" Soviet-backed communist
governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The doctrine was designed to diminish Soviet influence in
these regions as part of the administration's overall Cold War strategy.
Reaganomics Informal term for Ronald Reagan’s economic policies also known as supply-side economics,
which focused on reducing taxes, social spending, and government regulation, while increasing outlays for
defense.
Recall A progressive ballot procedure allowing voters to remove elected officials from office.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934) This act reversed traditional high-protective-tariff policies by
allowing the president to negotiate lower tariffs with trade partners, without Senate approval. Its chief
architect was Secretary of State Cordell Hull, who believed that tariff barriers choked off foreign trade.
Reconstruction Act (1867) Passed by the newly-elected Republican Congress, it divided the South into
five military districts, disenfranchised former confederates, and required that Southern states both ratify the
Fourteenth Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining
readmission to the Union.
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (1932) A government lending agency established under the
Hoover administration in order to assist insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads,
and local governments. It was a precursor to later agencies that grew out of the New Deal and symbolized a
recognition by the Republicans that some federal action was required to address the Great Depression.
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Redeemers Southern Democratic politicians who sought to wrest control from Republican regimes in the
South after Reconstruction also known as Bourbons. Most were from the wealth aristocracy of the South.
Red Scare (1919-1920) A period of intense anti-communism lasting from 1919 to 1920. The “Palmer
raids” of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer resulted in about six thousand deportations of people
suspected of “subversive” activities.
Referendum A progressive reform procedure allowing voters to place a bill or on the ballot for final
approval, even after being passed by the legislature.
Regulars Trained professional soldiers, as distinct from militia or conscripts. During the French and Indian
War, British generals, used to commanding experienced regulars, often showed contempt for ill-trained
colonial militiamen.
"Reagan Revolution" Ronald Reagan pursued policies that reflected his optimism in individual freedom,
expanded the American economy, and contributed to the end of the Cold War. The "Reagan Revolution",
as it came to be known, aimed to reinvigorate American morale, and reduce the people's reliance upon
government.
Reaganomics Economic policy also known as supply-side economics, based on the theory that allowing
companies the opportunity to make profits, and encouraging investment, will stimulate the economy and
lead to higher standards of living for everyone. Argued that tax cuts can be used stimulate economic
growth. Move money into the hands of the people and they will invest, thus creating prosperity.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) It was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court
on affirmative action. It ruled unconstitutional the admission process of the Medical School at the
University of California at Davis, which set aside 16 of the 100 seats for "Blacks," "Chicanos," "Asians,"
and "American Indians".
Regulator movement (1768-1771) Eventually violent uprising of backcountry settlers , many who were
Scotch-Irish, in North Carolina against unfair taxation and the control of colonial affairs by the seaboard
elite. Many later joined the Patriot movement during the revolution.
Reign of Terror (1793-1794) Ten-month period of brutal repression when some 40,000 individuals were
executed as enemies of the French Revolution. While many Jeffersonians maintained their faith in the
French Republic, Federalists withdrew their already lukewarm support once the Reign of Terror
commenced
Religious Toleration Act (1642) Lord Baltimore drafted in after religious disputes over the capital in Saint
Mary's. It protected the religious freedom of all Christian groups in the colony of Maryland. Past in part
because, the Catholics feared they were becoming the minority and would be discriminated against by the
Protestants. Did not protect non-Christians or separation of church and state ideas. Empowered government
to punish religious offenses (blasphemy)
Rendezvous The principal marketplace of the Northwest fur trade, which peaked in the 1820s and 1830s.
Each summer, traders set up camps in the Rocky Mountains to exchange manufactured goods for beaver
pelts.
Report on Public Credit It was a report on fiscal and economic policy submitted by United States
Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton on the request of Congress. The report analyzed the financial
standing of the United States of America and made recommendations to reorganize the national debt and to
establish the public credit. It called for full federal payment at face value to holders of government
securities (“Redemption”) and the national government to assume funding of all state debt
(“Assumption”). The political stalemate in Congress that it created led to the Compromise of 1790,
locating the permanent US capitol in the District of Columbia ("Residency”).
Report on Manufactures It was a report to the Congress given by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander
Hamilton, recommending economic policies that the US should take. It said the United States needed to
have a sound policy of encouraging the growth of manufacturing and secure its future as a permanent
feature of the economic system of the nation. He argued these could be achieved through bounties or
subsidies to industry, regulation of trade with moderate tariffs (not intended to discourage imports but to
raise revenue to support American manufacturing through subsidy), and other government encouragement.
These policies would not only promote the growth of manufacturing but provide diversified employment
opportunities and promote immigration into the young United States. They would also expand the
applications of technology and science for all quarters of the economy, including agriculture.
Republicanism Political theory of representative government, based on the principle of popular
sovereignty, with a strong emphasis on liberty and civic virtue. Influential in eighteenth century American
political thought, it stood as an alternative to monarchical rule.
Reservation system The system that allotted land with designated boundaries to Native American tribes in
the west, beginning in the 1850s and ending with the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. Within these
reservations, most land was used communally, rather than owned individually. The U.S. government
encouraged and sometimes violently coerced Native Americans to stay on the reservations at all times.

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Resumption Act (1875) It restored the nation to the gold standard through the redemption of previously
unbacked United States Notes and reversed inflationary government policies promoted directly after the
Civil War. The decision further contracted the nation's money supply and was seen by critics as an
exacerbating factor of the so-called "Long Depression" which struck in 1873.
Revolution of 1800 Electoral victory of Democratic Republicans over the Federalists, who lost their
Congressional majority and the presidency. The peaceful transfer of power between rival parties solidified
faith in America’s political system.
Revolution of 1828 Refers to the election of Andrew Jackson as President. There was an increased turnout
of voters at this election. The large turnout proved that the common people now had the vote and the will to
use it for their ends. The results of the election show that the political center of gravity was shifting away
from the conservative seaboard East toward the emerging states across the mountains. The revolution was
peaceful, achieved by ballots. America had been ruled by the elite brains and wealthy class. Jackson's
victory accelerated the transfer of national power from the counting house to the farmhouse, from the East
to the West, and from the snobs to the mobs.
Roanoke Island (1585) Known as the lost colony, it was Sir Walter Raleigh’s failed colonial settlement off
the coast of North Carolina.
Rock ’n’ roll “Crossover” musical style that rose to dominance in the 1950s, merging black rhythm and
blues with white bluegrass and country. Featuring a heavy beat and driving rhythm, rock ‘n’ roll music
became a defining feature of the 1950s youth culture. It was made popular by Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry,
and Buddy Holly
Roe v. Wade (1973) Landmark Supreme Court decision that forbade states from barring abortion by citing
a woman’s constitutional right to privacy. Seen as a victory for feminism and civil liberties by some, the
decision provoked a strong counter-reaction by opponents to abortion, galvanizing the Pro-Life movement
Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, and Fascist Italy, led by Benito Mussolini,
allied themselves together under this nefarious treaty. The pact was signed after both countries had
intervened on behalf of the fascist leader Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War
Roosevelt Corollary (1904) A brazen policy of “preventive intervention” advocated by Theodore
Roosevelt in his Annual Message to Congress in 1904. Adding ballast to the Monroe Doctrine, his
corollary stipulated that the United States would retain a right to intervene in the domestic affairs of Latin
American nations in order to restore military and financial order.
Root-Takahira agreement (1908) Signed on November 30, 1908, the United States and Japan agreed to
respect each other’s territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door in China. The
Agreement was credited with easing tensions between the two nations, but it also resulted in a weakened
American influence over further Japanese hegemony in China.
Rosenberg Case Involved Julius and Ethel Rosenberg who were American communists and who were
members of the NYC Communist Party. Ethel Rosenberg's brother had supposedly turned over detailed
diagrams of America's first atomic bomb to the Rosenbergs, who then gave them to the Soviet consul in
NYC. They were executed for passing nuclear weapons secrets to the USSR.
Ross Perot Texas billionaire was a third-party candidate in the 1992 presidential election won 19% of the
popular vote. His strong showing demonstrated voter disaffection with the two major parties. He cost Bush
the election,
Rough Riders (1898) Organized by Theodore Roosevelt, this was a colorful, motley regimen of Cuban war
volunteers consisting of western cowboys, ex-convicts, and effete Ivy leaguers.
Royal colonies Colonies where governors were appointed directly by the King. Though often competent
administrators, the governors frequently ran into trouble with colonial legislatures, which resented the
imposition of control from across the Atlantic.
Rush-Bagot agreement (1817) Signed by Britain and the United States, it established strict limits on naval
armaments in the Great Lakes, a first step in the full demilitarization of the U.S.-Canadian border,
completed in the 1870s.
Russo-American Treaty (1824) Fixed the line of 54°40’ as the southernmost boundary of Russian
holdings in North America.
Sacco and Vanzetti (1920) They were two Italian-born laborers and anarchists who were tried, convicted
and executed via electrocution on August 23, 1927 in Massachusetts for the 1920 armed robbery and
murder of a pay-clerk and a security guard in South Braintree, Massachusetts. The case incited controversy
based on questions regarding culpability, the question of the innocence or guilt of Sacco and Vanzetti, and
conformance, the question of whether the trials were fair to Sacco and Vanzetti. Illustrated the anti-
immigrant feelings in the US in the Post-World War I Era.
Sagebrush Rebellion The protest movement started in the 1970’s , supported by Reagan Interior Secretary
Watt, that attempted to reduce federal environmental controls on industrial activities in the West. Fiercely

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anti-Washington movement that had sprung up to protest federal control over the rich mineral and timber
resources in the western states. It portrayed the West as a victim of government control.
Salem witch trials (1692-1693) Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in
Salem, Massachusetts claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. Twenty
individuals were put to death before the trials were put to an end by the Governor of Massachusetts.
Salk vaccine Polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk and first tested in 1952. Announced to the world by
Salk on April 12, 1955. It resulted in eliminated polio from most countries in the world.
SALT II Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty agreement between Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and
American president Jimmy Carter. Despite an accord to limit weapons between the two leaders, the
agreement was ultimately scuttled in the U.S. Senate following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
Salutary neglect (1688-1763) Unofficial policy of relaxed royal control over colonial trade and only weak
enforcement of Navigation Laws. Lasted from the Glorious Revolution to the end of the French and Indian
War in 1763.
Salvation Army Was part of the Social Gospel movement that started in England and spread to the US. Its
objects are "the advancement of the Christian religion… of education, the relief of poverty, and other
charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of mankind as a whole."
Sandinistas Leftwing anti-American revolutionaries in Nicaragua who launched a civil war in 1979.
San Jacinto, Battle of (1836) Resulted in the capture of Mexican dictator Santa Anna, who was forced to
withdraw his troops from Texas and recognize the Rio Grande as Texas’s Southwestern border. Gave
Texas its independence
Saratoga, Battle of (October 1777) Decisive colonial victory in upstate New York, which helped secure
French support for the Revolutionary cause.
Scalawags Derogatory term for pro-Union Southerners whom Southern Democrats accused of plundering
the resources of the South in collusion with Republican governments after the Civil War.
Schenck v. United States(1919) A Supreme Court decision that upheld the Espionage and Sedition Acts,
reasoning that freedom of speech could be curtailed when it posed a “clear and present danger” to the
nation. You can not yell fire in a crowded theater.
Schechter Poultry v. Corporations v. US (1935) It was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United
States that invalidated regulations of the poultry industry according to the nondelegation doctrine and as an
invalid use of Congress's power under the commerce clause. This was a unanimous decision that rendered
the National Industrial Recovery Act, a main component of President Roosevelt's New Deal,
unconstitutional.
Scientific Management A system of industrial management created and promoted in the early twentieth
century by Frederick W. Taylor, emphasizing stopwatch efficiency to improve factory performance. The
system gained immense popularity across the United States and Europe.
Scotch-Irish (1700’s) The biggest and most influential group of immigrants during the colonial period
made up about 7% of the population. They who fled their home in Scotland in the 1600s to escape poverty
and religious oppression. They first relocated to Ireland and then to America in the 1700s. They lived in the
backcountry areas of Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. These areas are home to many
Presbyterian churches established by these people. They were very independent and distrusted the
establishment. The Paxton Boys are an example of their distrust and their challenge to the establishment.
Scottsboro Case (1931) Nine black young men who were accused of raping two white women in a railway
boxcar in Scottsboro, AL. Quick trials, suppressed evidence, and inadequate legal counsel made them
symbols of the discrimination that faced blacks on a daily basis during this era. Organized labor worked
with the NAACP to aid in the defense of the young men.
Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1644-1646) Last-ditch effort by the Indians to dislodge Virginia
settlements. The resulting peace treaty formally separated white and Indian areas of settlement.
Second Battle of Bull Run (August 1862) Civil War battle that ended in a decisive victory for
Confederate General Robert E. Lee, who was emboldened to push further into the North.
Second Continental Congress (1775-1781) Representative body of delegates from all thirteen colonies.
Drafted the Declaration of Independence and managed the colonial war effort.
Second Great Awakening (early nineteenth century) Religious revival of the early 1800’s characterized
by emotional mass “camp meetings” and widespread conversion. Brought about a democratization of
religion as a multiplicity of denominations such as Methodists and Baptists vied for members. It taught
that every person could be saved through revivals. One of the key features was the feminization of religion.
It was the spark for the fire of the abolitionist and temperance crusades.
Second Great Migration It was the migration of more than five million African Americans from the South
to the North, Midwest and West. It took place from 1941, through World War II. More than five million
African Americans moved to cities in states in the North, Midwest and West, including many to California,
where Los Angeles, Oakland, and Long Beach offered many skilled jobs in the defense industry. Most of

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these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South. In addition, African
Americans sought to escape Jim Crow in the South.
Sedition Act (1798) Enacted by the Federalist Congress in an effort to clamp down on Jeffersonian
opposition, the law made anyone convicted of defaming government officials or interfering with
government policies liable to imprisonment and a heavy fine. The act drew heavy criticism from
Republicans, who let the act expire in 1801.
Sedition Act of 1918 Extended the penalties of the Espionage act to those who did or said anything to
obstruct the sale of Liberty Bonds or to advocate cutbacks in production, or who said, wrote, or printed
anything "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive" about the American form of government, the
Constitution, or the army and navy, effectively outlawing criticism of government leaders and war policies.
“Self-Reliance” (1841) Ralph Waldo Emerson’s popular lecture-essay that reflected the spirit of
individualism pervasive in American popular culture during the 1830s and 1840s
Seneca Falls Convention (1848) Site of the first modern women's right convention. At the gathering,
Elizabeth Cady Stanton read a Declaration of Sentiment listing the many discriminations against women,
and adopted eleven resolutions, one of which called for women's suffrage.
Separatists Small group of Puritans who sought to break away entirely from the Church of England; after
initially settling in Holland, a number of English Separatists made their way to Plymouth Bay,
Massachusetts in 1620.
Separate Spheres Middle-class ideal where home life was strictly separated from the workplace and
women’s roles were separate from men’s, with women running the household and men earning money
outside it.
Settlement houses Mostly run by middle-class native-born women, settlement houses in immigrant
neighborhoods provided housing, food, education, child care, cultural activities, and social connections for
new arrivals to the United States. Many women, both native-born and immigrant, developed life-long
passions for social activism in the settlement houses. Jane Addams’s Hull House in Chicago and Lillian
Wald’s Henry Street Settlement in New York City were two of the most prominent.
Seventh of March speech (1850) Daniel Webster's impassioned address urging the North to support of the
Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that topography and climate would keep slavery from becoming
entrenched in Mexican Cession territory and urged Northerners to make all reasonable concessions to
prevent disunion.
Seward’s Folly (1867) Popular term for Secretary of State William Seward’s purchase of Alaska from
Russia. The derisive term reflected the anti-expansionist sentiments of most Americans immediately after
the Civil War.
Shakers (1770s) Called “Shakers” for their lively dance worship, they emphasized simple, communal
living and were all expected to practice celibacy. First transplanted to America from England by Mother
Ann Lee, the Shakers counted six thousand members by 1840.
Share Our Wealth Society It was a movement begun in February 1934, during the Great Depression, by
Huey Long, a governor and later United States Senator from Louisiana. Key components included: No
person would be allowed to accumulate a personal net worth of more than 300 times the average family
fortune, which would limit personal assets to between $5 million and $8 million, a graduated capital levy
tax would be assessed on all persons with a net worth exceeding $1 million, incomes would be limited to
$1 million and inheritances would be capped at $5 million, every family was to be furnished with a
homestead allowance of not less than one-third the average family wealth of the country. Every family was
to be guaranteed an annual family income of at least $2,000 to $2,500, or not less than one-third of the
average annual family income, Yearly income, however, cannot exceed more than 300 times the size of the
average family income, and old-age pensions would be made available for all persons over 60.
Sharecropping An agricultural system that emerged after the Civil War in which black and white farmers
rented land and residences from a plantation owner in exchange for giving him a certain “share” of each
year’s crop. Sharecropping was the dominant form of southern agriculture after the Civil War, and
landowners manipulated this system to keep tenants in perpetual debt and unable to leave their plantations.
Shays Rebellion (1786) Armed uprising of western Massachusetts debtors seeking lower taxes and an end
to property foreclosures. Though quickly put down, the insurrection inspired fears of “mob rule” among
leading Revolutionaries.
Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act (1921) Designed to appeal to new women voters, this act provided
federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care and expanded the role of government in
family welfare.
Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) A law that forbade trusts or combinations in business, this was landmark
legislation because it was one of the first Congressional attempts to regulate big business for the public
good. At first the law was mostly used to restrain trade unions as the courts tended to side with companies
in legal cases. In 1914 the Act was revised so it could more effectively be used against monopolistic
corporations.
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Sherman’s march (1864-1865) Union General William Tecumseh Sherman’s destructive march through
Georgia. An early instance of “total war,” purposely targeting infrastructure and civilian property to
diminish morale and undercut the Confederate war effort.
Shiloh, Battle of (April 1862) Bloody Civil War battle on the Tennessee-Mississippi border that resulted
in the deaths of more than 23,000 soldiers and ended in a marginal Union victory.
Shoot-on-sight (July 1941) FDR extended US support of Britain by protecting its ships from submarine
attack. He ordered US Navy to escort British ships carrying lend lease materials from the US as far as
Iceland. It was in response to the destroyer Greer being attacked by a German u-boat.
Silent majority Nixon Administration’s term to describe generally content, law-abiding middle-class
Americans who supported both the Vietnam War and America’s institutions. As a political tool, the concept
attempted to make a subtle distinction between believers in “traditional” values and the vocal minority of
civil rights agitators, student protesters, counter-culturalists, and other seeming disruptors of the social
fabric.
Silent Spring(1962) Book by Rachel Carson, an American marine biologist about her suspicion that the
pesticide DDT, by entering the food chain and eventually concentrating in higher animals, caused
reproductive dysfunctions. In 1973, DDT was banned in the U.S. except for use in extreme health
emergencies. It was an important book for the environmentalist movement.
“Single tax” Henry George was curious why poverty still existed when such great technological gains had
been made. He came upon the idea that prices go up when services are better, and therefore, more
technological gains leads to higher prices on things such as rent and goods. His idea, to combat this, was to
make one "single tax". This tax would be an annual land value tax and high enough to match the rest of the
economy, but would encompass everything, so it would be the only tax in the economy. He thought a land
tax would encourage people to use their land more effectively, leading to people hiring others to help them,
boosting the economy and giving better wages. Then nobody would have to suffer from poverty.
Slave code Early 18th century laws limited the rights of Blacks, gave almost absolute authority to white
masters, color was the only factor in determining if someone subject to slave codes.
Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943) Passed amidst worries about the effects that labor strikes would
have on war production, this law allowed the federal government to seize and operate plants threatened by
labor disputes. It also criminalized strike action against government-run companies.
Smith v. Allwright (1944) It was a landmark decision of Supreme Court with regard to voting rights and,
by extension, racial desegregation. It overturned the Democratic Party's use of all-white primaries in Texas,
and other states where the party used the rule. It was a major victory against Jim Crow in the South.
“Smoking gun” tape Recording made in the Oval Office in June 1972 that proved conclusively that Nixon
knew about the Watergate break-in and endeavored to cover it up. When the tape’s existence became public
knowledge, Nixon’s Congressional support evaporated and the Supreme Court ordered he hand the tape to
investigators.
Social Darwinists Believers in the idea, popular in the late nineteenth century, that people gained wealth
by “survival of the fittest.” Therefore, the wealthy had simply won a natural competition and owed nothing
to the poor, and indeed service to the poor would interfere with this organic process. Some social
Darwinists also applied this theory to whole nations and races, explaining that powerful peoples were
naturally endowed with gifts that allowed them to gain superiority over others. This theory provided one of
the popular justifications for U.S. imperial ventures like the Spanish-American war.
Social gospel A reform movement led by Protestant ministers who used religious doctrine to demand better
housing and living conditions for the urban poor. Popular at the turn of the twentieth century, it was closely
linked to the settlement house movement, which brought middle-class, Anglo-American service volunteers
into contact with immigrants and working people.
Social Security Act (1935) A flagship accomplishment of the New Deal, this law provided for
unemployment and old-age insurance financed by a payroll tax on employers and employees. It has long
remained a pillar of the “New Deal Order”.
Society of the Cincinnati (established 1783) Exclusive, hereditary organization of former officers in the
Continental Army. Founded to preserve the ideals and fellowship of the American Revolutionary War.
Many criticized it and resented the pretentiousness of the order, viewing it as a symbol of pre-
Revolutionary traditions and as an attempt to create a hereditary elite in the US. Some of its members had
suggested that exclusive informed groups such as themselves be the ones allowed to select the executive
because the average citizen or “mob” was not capable of choosing a good leader.
Sons of Liberty Patriotic groups that played a central role in agitating against the Stamp Act and enforcing
non-importation agreements. (See also Daughters of Liberty)
Soft-money faction vs. hard money faction Soft money/paper money - easily produced this currency
increased the amount of money in circulation, made credit easier, and made prices higher. Generally
favored by speculators, agricultural interests and by debtors hard money/ specie, coin with a fixed value
which couldn't be cheaply manufactured to flood the market. Its use made money scarce and credit
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expensive and difficult and it discouraged speculation. It also kept wages low and reduced commercial
activity. People in favor of it (its advocates) were known as "sound money" men.
Souls of the Black Folk (1903) W.E.B. Du Bois in The Souls of Black Folk criticized Booker T.
Washington. "His program practically accepts the alleged inferiority of the Negro races." Advocating full
civil rights as an alternative to Washington's policy of accommodation, Du Bois organized a faction of
black leaders into the Niagara Movement, which led to the founding of the NAACP. In it he agrues that
Reconstruction was a very positive thing that helped Blacks.
South Carolina slave revolt (Stono River) (1739) Uprising, also known as the Stono Rebellion, of more
than fifty South Carolina blacks along the Stono River. The slaves attempted to reach Spanish Florida but
were stopped by the South Carolina militia.
Southern strategy (1972) Nixon re-election campaign strategy designed to appeal to conservative whites
in the historically Democratic south. The President stressed law and order issues and remained
noncommittal on civil rights. This strategy typified the regional split between the two parties as white
Southerners became increasingly attracted to the Republican party in the aftermath of the Civil Rights
Movement.
Spanish Armada Spanish fleet defeated in the English Channel in 1588. The defeat of the Armada marked
the beginning of the decline of the Spanish Empire& opened the New World to British colonization.
SPARs (U.S. Coast Guard Women’s Reserve
See WAACs (Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps).
Specie Circular (1836) Issued by President Jackson July 11, 1836, U.S. Treasury decree requiring that all
public lands be purchased with “hard”, or metallic, currency. It was meant to stop land speculation caused
by states printing paper money without proper specie (gold or silver) backing it. It required that the
purchase of public lands be paid for in specie. It stopped the land speculation and the sale of public lands
went down sharply. The panic of 1837 followed.
Spoils system Policy of rewarding political supporters with public office, first widely employed at the
federal level by Andrew Jackson. The practice was widely abused by unscrupulous office seekers, but it
also helped cement party loyalty in the emerging two-party system.
Spot resolutions (1846) Measures introduced by Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln, questioning
President James K. Polk’s justification for war with Mexico. Lincoln requested that Polk clarify precisely
where Mexican forces had attacked American troops.
Spring Mobilization (1967) Mobilization to end the War in Vietnam. During the next four months, they
prepared for mass demonstrations, one scheduled for New York City, and the other for San Francisco, and
on April 15, 1967, the demonstrations occurred. More than 125,000 people marched in New York City
against the war and it included another 60,000 marched in San Francisco. Up to its time, the Spring
Mobilization was the largest antiwar demonstration in U.S. history.
Sputnik (1957) Soviet satellite first launched into Earth orbit on October 4, 1957. This scientific
achievement marked the first time human beings had put a man-made object into orbit and pushed the
USSR noticeably ahead of the United States in the Space Race. A month later, the Soviet Union sent a
larger satellite, Sputnik II, into space, prompting the United States to redouble its space exploration efforts
and raising American fears Soviet superiority.
Square Deal (1910) President Theodore Roosevelt's domestic program. He explained in 1910: ... Roosevelt
reflected three basic goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer
protection. These three demands are often referred to as the "three C's" of Roosevelt's Square Deal.
Squatters Frontier farmers who illegally occupied land owned by others or not yet officially opened for
settlement. Many of North Carolina’s early settlers were squatters, who contributed to the colony’s
reputation as being more independent-minded and “democratic” than its neighbors.
Stagflation An economic condition of both continuing inflation tied to increase in fuel prices, and stagnant
business activity, together with an increasing unemployment rate described the new economic dilemma.
People began to expect continuous increases in the price of goods, so they bought more. This increased
demand pushed up prices, leading to demands for higher wages, which pushed prices higher still in a
continuing upward spiral. It began during Nixon’s Presidency and continued through Carter’s. Carter tried
to combat economic weakness and unemployment by increasing government spending, and he established
voluntary wage and price guidelines to control inflation. Both were largely unsuccessful.
Stalwarts The faction in the Republican Party in the late 19th century. Favored Grant running for a third
term, opposed Hays nomination and Stalwarts also favored traditional machine politics. Oppossed by the
Half-breeds
Stamp Act Congress (1765) Assembly of delegates from nine colonies who met in New York City to draft
a petition for the repeal of the Stamp Act. Helped ease sectional suspicions and promote intercolonial unity.
Stamp Act & Stamp Tax (1765) Widely-unpopular tax on an array of paper goods, repealed in 1766 after
mass protests erupted across the colonies. Colonists developed the principle of “no taxation without

47
representation” which questioned Parliament’s authority over the colonies and laid the foundation for future
revolutionary claims.
St. Louis Incident Prior to the US entry into World War II the US refused to allow the entry of Jews on the
ship St. Louis, who were trying to escape Nazi controlled Europe.
Standard Oil Company (1870-1911) John D. Rockefeller’s company, formed in 1870, which came to
symbolize the trusts and monopolies of the Gilded Age. By 1877 Standard Oil controlled 95% of the oil
refineries in the U.S. It was also one of the first multinational corporations, and at times distributed more
than half of the company’s kerosene production outside the U.S. By the turn of the century it had become a
target for trust-busting reformers, and in 1911 the Supreme Court ordered it to break up into several dozen
smaller companies.
Stimson Doctrine US response to the Japanese invasion of China and violation of the Open Door policy.
The US refused to recognize the legitimacy of Japanese claims to Manchuria and parts of mainland China.
Stonewall Riot or Rebellion (1969) Uprising in support of equal rights for gay people sparked by an
assault by off-duty police officers at a gay bar in New York. The rebellion led to rise in activism and
militancy within the gay community and furthered the sexual revolution of the late 1960s.
Stono Rebellion or Cato's Rebellion (1739) It took place in South Carolina, it was the largest slave
uprising in the British mainland colonies prior to the American Revolution. It was led by native Africans
who were Catholic and likely from the kingdom of Kongo. Jemmy or "Cato" was a literate slave who led
20 other slaves in an armed march south from the Stono River. They recruited nearly 60 other slaves and
killed 22–25 whites before being stoped by the militia near the Edisto River. Most of the slaves were
executed or sold to plantations in the West Indies. South Carolina passed the Negro Act of 1740 in
response. It made it illegal for slaves to move abroad, assemble in groups, raise food, earn money, and learn
to write English (though reading was not proscribed). Additionally, owners were permitted to kill rebellious
slaves if necessary.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) Reagan administration plan announced in 1983 to create a missile-
defense system over American territory to block a nuclear attack. Derided as “Star Wars” by critics, the
plan typified Reagan’s commitment to vigorous defense spending even as he sought to limit the size of
government in domestic matters.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Youth organization founded by southern black
students in 1960 to promote civil rights. Drawing on its members youthful energies, SNCC in its early
years coordinated demonstrations, sit-ins, and voter registration drives.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) A campus-based political organization founded in 1961 by Tom
Hayden that became an iconic representation of the New Left. Originally geared toward the intellectual
promise of “participatory democracy,” SDS emerged at the forefront of the civil rights, antipoverty, and
antiwar movements during the 1960s.
Suez Crisis (1956) International crisis launched when Egyptian President Gamal Nasser nationalized the
Suez Canal, which had been owned mostly by French and British stockholders. The crisis led to a British
and French attack on Egypt, which failed without aid from the United States. The Suez Crisis marked an
important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East and highlighted the rising importance of oil in
world affairs.
Sugar Act (1764) Duty on imported sugar from the West Indies. It was the first tax levied on the colonists
by the crown and was lowered substantially in response to widespread protests.
Sunbelt The fifteen-state crescent through the American South and Southwest that experienced terrific
population and productivity expansion during World War II and particularly in the decades after the war,
eclipsing the old industrial Northeast (the “Frostbelt”).
Supply-side economics Economic theory that underlay Ronald Reagan’s tax and spending cuts. Contrary
to Keynesianism, supply-side theory declared that government policy should aim to increase the supply of
goods and services, rather than the demand for them. It held that lower taxes and decreased regulation
would increase productivity by providing increased incentives to work, thus increasing productivity and the
tax base. Called Reaganomics by its critics.
Sussex Pledge (1916)A promise to change the naval warfare policy by Germany to the US. Germany had
instituted a policy of intensified sub warfare, allowing armed merchant ships, but not passenger ships, to be
torpedoed without warning. Despite this restriction, a ferry, the Sussex, was torpedoed without warning. It
prompted Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue this practice, the US would declare war.
Sweatshop A factory where employees are forced to work long hours under difficult conditions for meager
wages. Typically in the textile or garment industry.
Taft-Hartley Act (1947) Republican-promoted, anti-union legislation passed over President Truman’s
vigorous veto that weakened many of labor’s New Deal gains by banning the closed shop and other
strategies that helped unions organize. It also required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath, which
purged the union movement of many of its most committed and active organizers.

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Tallmadge amendment (1819) Failed proposal to prohibit the importation of slaves into Missouri territory
and pave the way for gradual emancipation. Southerners vehemently opposed the amendment, which they
perceived as a threat to the sectional balance between North and South.
Tammany Hall (established 1789) Powerful New York political machine that primarily drew support
from the city’s immigrants, who depended on Tammany Hall patronage, particularly social services
Tammany Society Political organization formed by Aaron Burr. Mobilized Revolutionary War veterans to
serve as the Democratic-Republican political machine in New York City. In the election of 1800 it helped
Jefferson carry the city by a large majority. This organization later became known as Tammany Hall (see
note above).
Tampico Incident (1914) An arrest of American sailors by the Mexican government that spurred
Woodrow Wilson to dispatch the American navy to seize the port of Veracruz in April 1914. Although war
was avoided, tensions grew between the United States and Mexico.
Taos Indian Rebellion was a popular insurrection in January 1847 by Mexicans and Pueblo allies against
the United States' occupation of New Mexico during the Mexican–American War. In two short campaigns,
United States troops and militia crushed the rebellion of the Mexicans and their allies. It was an attempt by
the Pueblo Indians and Mexicans to prevent Americans from taking their land.
Tariff Tax levied on imports. Traditionally, manufacturers support tariffs as protective and revenue-raising
measures, while agricultural interests, dependent on world markets, oppose high tariffs.
Tariff of 1816 First protective tariff in American history, created primarily to shield New England
manufacturers from the inflow of British goods after the War of 1812.
Tariff of 1842 Protective measure passed by Congressional Whigs, raising tariffs to pre-Compromise of
1833 rates.
Tariff of 1857 Lowered duties on imports in response to a high Treasury surplus and pressure from
Southern farmers.
Tariff of Abominations (1828) Noteworthy for its unprecedentedly high duties on imports. Southerners
vehemently opposed the Tariff, arguing that it hurt Southern farmers, who did not enjoy the protection of
tariffs, but were forced to pay higher prices for manufactures.
Taylorism Also known as scientific management, was a theory of management that analyzed and
synthesized workflows. Its main objective was improving economic efficiency, especially labor
productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to
management. Its development began with Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s within the
manufacturing industries. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s.
Teapot Dome scandal (1921) A tawdry affair involving the illegal lease of priceless naval oil reserves in
Teapot Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California. The scandal, which implicated President Harding’s
Secretary of the Interior, was one of several that gave his administration a reputation for corruption.
Teller Amendment (1898) A proviso to President William McKinley’s war plans that proclaimed to the
world that when the United States had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give Cuba its freedom. The
amendment testified to the ostensibly “anti-imperialist” designs of the initial war plans.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933) One of the most revolutionary of the New Deal public works
projects, the TVA brought cheap electric power, full employment, low-cost housing, and environmental
improvements to Americans in the Tennessee Valley.
Tenure of Office Act (1867) Required the President to seek approval from the Senate before removing
appointees. When Andrew Johnson removed his secretary of war in violation of the act, he was impeached
by the house but remained in office when the Senate fell one vote short of removing him.
Tet Offensive (1968) Was a military campaign during the Vietnam War that was launched on Tet Holiday
by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnam against South Vietnam, the US, and their allies. It was a
campaign of surprise attacks that were launched against military and civilian command and control centers
throughout South Vietnam, during a period when no attacks were supposed to take place. Though it was a
military defeat for the Viet Cong, it shifted US public opinion against US involvement in Vietnam.
The Association (1774) Non-importation agreement crafted during the First Continental Congress calling
for the complete boycott of British goods.
The Federalist (1788) Collection of essays written by John Jay, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton
and published during the ratification debate in New York to lay out the Federalists’ arguments in favor of
the new Constitution. Since their publication, these influential essays have served as an important source
for constitutional interpretation.
The Feminine Mystique (1963) Best-selling book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan. This work challenged
women to move beyond the drudgery of suburban housewifery and helped launch what would become
second-wave feminism.
The Impending Crisis of the South (1857) Antislavery tract, written by white Southerner Hinton R.
Helper, arguing that nonslaveholding whites actually suffered most in a slave economy.

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The Man Without a Country (1863) Edward Everett Hale’s fictional account of a treasonous soldier’s
journeys in exile. The book was widely read in the North, inspiring greater devotion to the Union.
Thirteenth Amendment (1865) Constitutional amendment prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary
servitude. Former Confederate States were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into
the Union.
Three Mile Island (1979) It was a partial nuclear meltdown which occurred in one of the two United
States Three Mile Island nuclear reactors in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. It was the worst accident in
U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history. The partial meltdown resulted in the release of small amounts
of radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment.
Three-fifths compromise (1787)Determined that each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a person
for the purpose of apportioning taxes and representation. The compromise granted disproportionate
political power to Southern slave states.
Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989)Student-led popular demonstrations in Beijing in the spring of 1989
that received broad support from city residents and exposed deep splits within China's political leadership
but were forcibly suppressed by hardline leaders who ordered the military to enforce martial law in the
country's capital
Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811) Resulted in the defeat of Shawnee chief Tenskwatawa, “the Prophet” at the
hands William Henry Harrison in the Indiana wilderness. After the battle, the Prophet’s brother, Tecumseh,
forged an alliance with the British against the United States.
Title IX (1972) of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 is a federal law that states: "No person in the
United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance."
Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494) Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World.
Spain received the bulk of territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa
and Asia.
Townshend Acts (1767) External, or indirect, levies on glass, white lead, paper, paint and tea, the proceeds
of which were used to pay colonial governors, who had previously been paid directly by colonial
assemblies. Sparked another round of protests in the colonies.
Trail of Tears (1838-1839) Forced march of 15,000 Cherokee Indians from their Georgia and Alabama
homes to Indian Territory. Some 4,000 Cherokee died on the arduous journey.
Transcendentalism (mid-nineteenth century) Literary and intellectual movement that emphasized
individualism and self-reliance, predicated upon a belief that each person possesses an “inner-light” that
can point the way to truth and direct contact with God.
Transportation revolution term referring to a series of nineteenth century transportation innovations–
turnpikes, steamboats, canals and railroads–that linked local and regional markets, creating a national
economy.
Treaty of Ghent (1814) Ended the War of 1812 and restored the status quo. For the most part, territory
captured in the war was returned to the original owner. It also set up a commission to determine the
disputed Canada/U.S. border.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty called for the
United States to pay $15 million to Mexico and pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up
to $3.25 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership
of California, and a large area comprising New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and
Colorado.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and
Portugal along a meridian 370 league west of the Cape Verde islands. This became known as the line of
demarcation. Everything West of the line went to Spain, everything east of the line belonged to Portugal.
Treaty of Wang Hya Because of pressure from American merchants concerned about the British
dominance in Chinese trade. It was a treaty worked out by Caleb Cushing that gave the US trading rights in
China, similar to the terms given to the British.
Trent affair (1861) Diplomatic row that threatened to bring the British into the Civil War on the side of the
Confederacy, after a Union warship stopped a British steamer and arrested two Confederate diplomats on
board.
Trenton, Battle of (December 1776) George Washington surprised and captured a garrison of sleeping
German Hessians, raising the morale of his crestfallen army and setting the stage for his victory at
Princeton a week later.
Triangular trade Exchange of rum, slaves and molasses between the North American Colonies, Africa
and the West Indies. A small but immensely profitable subset of the Atlantic trade.
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire Tragedy March 25, 1911, was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of
the city of New York, and resulted in the fourth highest loss of life from an industrial accident in U.S.
history. The fire caused the deaths of 146 garment workers, most of them women, who either died from the
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fire or jumped from the fatal height. Most of the workers could not escape the burning building because the
managers locked the doors to the stairwells and exits to keep them from leaving early. People jumped from
the eighth, ninth, and tenth floors as the ladders on the existing fire trucks could only reach the sixth floor.
The fire led to legislation requiring improved factory safety standards and helped spur the growth of the
International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, which fought for better and safer working conditions for
sweatshop workers in that industry.
Tripolitan War (1801-1805) Four-year conflict between the American Navy and the Barbary Pirates of
North-African nation of Tripoli over piracy in the Mediterranean. Jefferson, a staunch noninterventionist,
reluctantly deployed American forces, eventually securing a peace treaty with Tripoli.
Truman Doctrine (1947) President Truman’s universal pledge of support for any people fighting any
communist or communist-inspired threat. Truman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1947 in support of
his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies. (
Trust A mechanism by which one company grants control over its operations, through ownership of its
stock, to another company. The Standard Oil Company became known for this practice in the 1870s as it
eliminated its competition by taking control of smaller oil companies.
Turnpike/Turnpike Era Privately-funded, toll-based public road constructed in the early nineteenth
century to facilitate commerce.
Tuscarora War (1711-1713) Began with an Indian attack on Newbern, North Carolina. After the
Tuscaroras were defeated, remaining Indian survivors migrated northward, eventually joining the Iroquois
Confederacy as its sixth nation.
Tuskegee Institute A normal and industrial school led by Booker T. Washington in Tuskegee, Alabama. It
focused on training young black students in agriculture and the trades to help them achieve economic
independence. Washington justified segregated, vocational training as a necessary first step on the road to
racial equality, although critics accused him of being too “accomodationist”.
Tweed Ring A symbol of Gilded Age corruption, “Boss” Tweed and his deputies ran the New York City
Democratic party in the 1860s and swindled $200 million from the city through bribery, graft, and vote-
buying. Boss Tweed was eventually jailed for his crimes and died behind bars.
Two Treatises of Government (1689) Work of John Locke reasoned that while the state government is
supreme there are certain “natural laws” based on the rights that people simply have because they are
human. He argued that sovereignty resides in the people.
"Two-tiered economy" Refers to unequal distribution of wealth in America and the broadening of the gap
between the rich and the poor or the decrease of the middle class that occurred during George W. Bush’s
presidency.
U2 Spy Plane Incident (1960) During the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower and during the leadership of
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, when a United States one-man U-2 spy plane was reportedly shot down
at high altitude over the airspace of the Soviet Union. The pilot survived the incident, while the plane was
recovered. The United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was
forced to admit its role as a covert surveillance aircraft when the Soviet government produced its intact
remains and surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers, as well as photos of military bases in Russia taken by the
pilot. Coming roughly two weeks before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit in Paris, the
incident was a great embarrassment to the US marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union.
U-boats German submarines, named for the German “undersea boat,” proved deadly for Allied ships in the
war zone. U-boat attacks played an important role in drawing the United States into World War I.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) Harriet Beecher Stowe’s widely read novel that dramatized the horrors of
slavery. It heightened Northern support for abolition and escalated the sectional conflict.
Underground Railroad Informal network of volunteers that helped runaway slaves escape from the South
and reach free-soil Canada. Seeking to halt the flow of runaway slaves to the North, Southern planters and
congressmen pushed for a stronger fugitive slave law.
Underwood Tariff (1913) This tariff provided for a substantial reduction of rates and enacted an
unprecedented, graduated federal income tax. By 1917, revenue from the income tax surpassed receipts
from the tariff, a gap that has since been vastly widened.
Union League Reconstruction-Era African American organization that worked to educate Southern blacks
about civic life, built black schools and churches, and represented African American interests before
government and employers. It also campaigned on behalf of Republican candidates and recruited local
militias to protect blacks from white intimidation.
Union Party (1864) A coalition party of pro-war Democrats and Republicans formed during the 1864
election to defeat anti-war Northern Democrats.
Unitarians/Universalism Believe in a unitary deity, reject the divinity of Christ, and emphasize the
inherent goodness of mankind. Unitarianism, inspired in part by Deism, first caught on in New England at
the end of the eighteenth century.

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United Nations (U.N.) International body formed in 1945 to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of
preventing further world wars. Much like the former League of Nations in ambition, the UN was more
realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five Powers in keeping peace in the world. Thus, it
guaranteed veto power to all permanent members of its Security Council—Britain, China, France, the
Soviet Union, and the United States.
United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) A black nationalist organization founded in 1914 by the
Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey in order to promote resettlement of African Americans to their “African
homeland” and to stimulate a vigorous separate black economy within the United States.
U.S. Sanitary Commission (established 1861) Founded with the help of Elizabeth Blackwell, the
government agency trained nurses, collected medical supplies and equipped hospitals in an effort to help
the Union Army. The commission helped professionalize nursing and gave many women the confidence
and organizational skills to propel the women’s movement in the postwar years.
US v. E.C. Knight Company (1895) Also known as the "Sugar Trust Case," was a United States Supreme
Court case that limited the government's power to control monopolies. It occurred when a company
acquired 98% of the sugar manufacturing in the US. The case, which was the first heard by the Supreme
Court concerning the Sherman Antitrust Act. It said the Sherman Anti-trust act did not apply towards
manufacturing.
United States v. Wheeler (1978) Wheeler, a Navajo who had been convicted in a tribal court, maintained
that the prosecution of the same crime in another (federal or state) court violated double jeopardy. The
court reaffirmed the principle that a federal prosecution does not bar a subsequent state or tribal prosecution
of the same person for the same acts, and a state/tribal prosecution does not bar a federal one.
USO/ The United Service Organizations Inc A nonprofit organization that provides programs, services
and live entertainment to United States troops and their families. It started during World War II as a way to
provide wholesome entertainment for the troops.
Utopia (1516) Book by Sir Thomas More Describes perfect society, with no crime, jealousy, envy. Many
thought this could be achieved in the New World.
Valley Forge (1777-1778) Encampment where George Washington’s poorly-equipped army spent a
wretched, freezing winter. Hundreds of men died and more than a thousand deserted. The plight of the
starving, shivering soldiers reflected the main weakness of the American army–a lack of stable supplies and
munitions.
Versailles, Treaty of (1919) World War I concluded with this vengeful document, which secured peace
but imposed sharp terms on Germany and created a territorial mandate system to manage former colonies
of the world powers. To Woodrow Wilson’s chagrin, it incorporated very few of his original Fourteen
Points, although it did include the League of Nations that Wilson had long sought. Isolationists in the
United States, deeply opposed to the League, led the opposition to the Treaty, which was never ratified by
the Senate.
Vertical integration The practice perfected by Andrew Carnegie of
V-E (Victory in Europe) Day May 8, 1945, marked the official end of the war in Europe, following the
unconditional surrender of what remained of the German government.
Vice-admiralty courts Started by the British to stop smuggling in the American colonies. They were
juryless courts located in the colonies that were granted jurisdiction over local legal matters related to
maritime activities, such as disputes between merchants and seamen. Judges were given 5% of confiscated
cargo if they found a smuggling defendant guilty. This gave judges financial incentive to find defendants
guilty.
Vicksburg, siege of (1863) Two and half month siege of a Confederate fort on the Mississippi River in
Tennessee. Vicksburg finally fell to Ulysses S. Grant in July of 1863, giving the Union Army control of the
Mississippi River and splitting the South in two. (495) (Chapter 21)
Vietnamization Military strategy launched by Richard Nixon in 1969. The plan reduced the number of
American combat troops in Vietnam and left more of the fighting to the South Vietnamese, who were
supplied with American armor, tanks, and weaponry.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798-1799) Statements secretly drafted by Jefferson and Madison
for the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. Argued that states were the final arbiters of whether the
federal government overstepped its boundaries and could therefore nullify, or refuse to accept, national
legislation they deemed unconstitutional.
Virginia Plan “Large state” proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in
both houses of a bicameral Congress. The plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to
come back with their own plan for apportioning representation.
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) Measure enacted by the Virginia legislature prohibiting
state support for religious institutions and recognizing freedom of worship. Served as a model for the
religion clause of the first amendment to the Constitution.

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“Virtual” representation” The idea held by many members of British Parliament and some colonists, that
members of Parliament just do not represent the people who elect them but all the citizens of the British
Empire. Therefor the American colonists had representation in Parliament.
Virginia Resolves Were a series of resolutions passed by the Virginia House of Burgesses in response to
the Stamp Act of 1765. The resolves claimed that in accordance with long established British law, Virginia
was subject to taxation only by a parliamentary assembly to which Virginians themselves elected
representatives. Since no colonial representatives were elected to the Parliament the only assembly legally
allowed to raise taxes would be the Virginia General Assembly. Patrick Henry gave a famous speech in
support of the Resolves.
VISTA (1964) Volunteers in Service to America, domestic version of the Peace Corps. Helped bring jobs
to poor communities and performed community service. Part of LBJ’s War on Poverty.
V-J (Victory in Japan) Day August 15, 1945 heralded the surrender of Japan and the final end to World
War II.
Volstead Act (1919) A federal act enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the
manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages.
Voter Education Project (1962–1968) Effort by SNCC and other civil rights groups to register the South’s
historically disenfranchised black population. The project typified a common strategy of the civil rights
movement, which sought to counter racial discrimination by empowering people at grassroots levels to
exercise their civic rights through voting.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 Legislation pushed through Congress by President Johnson that prohibited
ballot-denying tactics, such as literary tests and intimidation. The Voting Rights Act was a successor to the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 and sought to make racial disenfranchisement explicitly illegal.
Voyageurs
See coureurs de bois.
WAACs (Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps), WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency
Service), and SPARs (U.S. Coast Guard Women’s Reserve) The women’s branches of the U.S. Army,
Navy, and Coast Guard, established during World War II to employ women in noncombatant jobs. Women
now participated in the armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses.
Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois (1886) A Supreme Court decision that
prohibited states from regulating the railroads because the Constitution grants Congress the power to
regulate interstate commerce. As a result, reformers turned their attention to the federal government, which
now held sole power to regulate the railroad industry.
Wade-Davis Bill Passed by Congressional Republicans in response to Abraham Lincoln’s “10 percent
plan”, it required that 50 percent of a state’s voters pledge allegiance to the Union, and set stronger
safeguards for emancipation. Reflected divisions between Congress and the President, and between radical
and moderate Republicans, over the treatment of the defeated South.
Wagner Act (1935) Also known as the National Labor Relations Act, this law protected the right of labor
to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers, and established the National Labor Relations
Board to monitor unfair labor practices on the part of employer. Its passage marked the culmination of
decades of labor protest.
Walker Tariff (1846) Revenue-enhancing measure that lowered tariffs from 1842 levels thereby fueling
trade and increasing Treasury receipts.
Wanghia, Treaty of (1844) Signed by the U.S. and China, it assured the United States the same trading
concessions granted to other powers, greatly expanding America’s trade with the Chinese.
War hawks (1811-1812) Democratic-Republican Congressmen who pressed James Madison to declare
war on Britain. Largely drawn from the South and West, the war hawks resented British constraints on
American trade and accused the British of supporting Indian attacks against American settlements on the
frontier.
War Industries Board (1917) Headed by Bernard Baruch, this federal agency coordinated industrial
production during World War I, setting production quotas, allocating raw materials, and pushing companies
to increase efficiency and eliminate waste. Under the economic mobilization of the War Industries Board,
industrial production in the United States increased 20 percent during the war.
War of 1812 (1812-1815) Fought between Britain and the United States largely over the issues of trade and
impressment. Though the war ended in a relative draw, it demonstrated America’s willingness to defend its
interests militarily, earning the young nation newfound respect from European powers.
War Powers Act (1973) Law passed by Congress in 1973 limiting the President’s ability to wage war
without Congressional approval. The act required the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of
committing troops to a foreign conflict. An important consequence of the Vietnam War, this piece of
legislation sought to reduce the President’s unilateral authority in military matters.
War Production Board (WPB) Established in 1942 by executive order to direct all war production,
including procuring and allocating raw materials, to maximize the nation’s war machine. The WPB had
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sweeping powers over the U.S. economy and was abolished in November 1945 soon after Japan’s defeat.
War Relocation Authority It was a US government agency established to handle the internment, i.e.
forced relocation and detention of mainly Japanese-Americans, and some German-Americans and Italian-
Americans during World War II.
War Refugee Board (1944) A United States agency formed to help rescue Jews from German-occupied
territories and to provide relief to inmates of Nazi concentration camps. The agency performed noble work,
but it did not begin operations until very late in the war, after millions had already been murdered.
Warren Commission (1963) It was established by President Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the
assassination of President John F. Kennedy that had taken place on November 22, 1963. It concluded that
Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Jack Ruby also acted alone when he killed
Oswald a few days later.
Watergate Series of scandals that resulted in President Richard Nixon’s resignation in August 1974 amid
calls for his impeachment. The episode sprang from a failed burglary attempt at Democratic party
headquarters in Washington’s Watergate Hotel during the 1972 election.
WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service)
See WAACs (Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps).
“Waving the bloody shirt” The use of Civil War imagery by political candidates and parties to draw votes
to their side of the ticket. The Republican party particularly benefited from reminding voters of Democratic
treachery during the secession crisis. The phrase gained popularity with a fictitious incident in which
Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts, when making a speech on the floor of the U.S. House of
Representatives, allegedly held up a shirt stained with the blood of a carpetbagger whipped by the Ku Klux
Klan.
Wealth of Nations Adam Smith, business should be regulated by the "invisible hand" of supply and
demand, if government kept hands off, people would be motivated by own self-interest, work for the best
interest of everyone.
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) Refers to weapons—nuclear, biological, and chemical—that can
kill large numbers of people and do great damage to the built and natural environment. The term was used
to refer to nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The Bush administration’s claim that Saddam Hussein
had developed WMD provided the rationale for the United States’s invasion of Iraq in 2003. These
weapons were never found after the invasion.
The Weathermen or The Weather Underground Organization (1969) Was an American radical left
organization founded on the University of Michigan. It first organized as a faction of Students for a
Democratic Society (SDS) it was composed for the most part of the national office leadership of SDS and
their supporters. Their goal was to create a clandestine revolutionary party for the overthrow of the US
government.
Webster-Hayne Debates Was a famous debate in the United States between Senator Daniel Webster of
Massachusetts and Senator Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina that took place on January 19-27, 1830 on
the topic of protectionist tariffs, and South Carolina’s attempts to nullify the tariff. It also focused on
Unionism & Federalism versus States right. Webster described the U.S. government as "made for the
people, made by the people, and answerable to the people,"
Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) Was a treaty resolving several border issues between the United States
and the British North American colonies. It resolved a dispute over the location of the Maine–New
Brunswick border, established the border between Lake Superior and the Lake of the Woods, at the 49th
parallel, in the westward frontier up to the Rocky Mountains, and agreed to shared use of the Great Lakes.
Welfare Capitalism When companies provide incentives to build better relationships with employees;
health insurance, safety standards, buy stock in the company. Encouraged by Ford during the 1920’s to
prevent unions from taking hold in his industry.
Welfare Reform Bill (1996) Legislation that made deep cuts in welfare grants and required able-bodied
welfare recipients to find employment. Part of Bill Clinton’s campaign platform in 1992, the reforms were
widely seen by liberals as an abandonment of key New Deal/Great Society provisions to care for the
impoverished.
West Africa Squadron (established 1808) British Royal Navy force formed to enforce the abolition of the
slave trade in 1807. It intercepted hundreds of slave ships and freed thousands of Africans.
West Virginia (admitted to the Union 1863) Mountainous region that broke away from Virginia in 1861
to form its own state after Virginia seceded from the Union. Most of the residents of West Virginia were
independent farmers and miners who did not own slaves and thus opposed the Confederate cause.
Whaling Industry popular in New England, that reached it’s peaked from 1846-52. Whales were hunted for
whale oil. Whale oil was widely used in oil lamps and to make soap. With the discovery of substitutes such
as kerosene and vegetable oils, the use of whale oils declined.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794) Popular uprising of Whiskey distillers in southwestern Pennsylvania in
opposition to an excise tax on Whiskey. In a show of strength and resolve by the new central government,
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Washington put down the rebellion with militia drawn from several states.
Whiskey Ring Was a scandal, exposed in 1875, involving diversion of tax revenues in a conspiracy among
government agents, politicians, whiskey distillers, and distributors. Before they were caught, a group of
mostly Republican politicians were able to siphon off millions of dollars in federal taxes on liquor; the
scheme involved an extensive network of bribes involving distillers, rectifiers, gaugers, storekeepers, and
internal revenue agents. Many associated it with the corruption of the Grant administration.
Whitewater A series of scandals during the Clinton Administration that stemmed from a failed real estate
investment for which the Clintons were alleged to have illicitly profited. The accusations prompted the
appointment of a special federal prosecutor, though no indictments.
Wilderness Campaign (1864-1865) A series of brutal clashes between Ulysses S. Grant’s and Robert E.
Lee’s armies in Virginia, leading up to Grant’s capture of Richmond in April of 1865. Having lost
Richmond, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse.
Wilmot Proviso (1846) Amendment that sought to prohibit slavery from territories acquired from Mexico.
Introduced by Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot, the failed amendment ratcheted up tensions
between North and South over the issue of slavery.
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) Founded in 1874, this organization advocated for the
prohibition of alcohol, using women’s supposedly greater purity and morality as a rallying point.
Advocates of prohibition in the United States found common cause with activists elsewhere, especially in
Britain, and in the 1880s they founded the World Women’s Christian Temperance Union, which sent
missionaries around the world to spread the gospel of temperance.
Woman’s Loyal League (1863-1865) Women’s organization formed to help bring about an end to the
Civil War and encourage Congress to pass a constitutional amendment to prohibiting slavery.
Woman’s Rights Convention at Seneca Falls (1848) Gathering of feminist activists in Seneca Falls, New
York, where Elizabeth Cady Stanton read her “Declaration of Sentiments,” stating that “all men and
women are created equal”.
Women’s Trade Union League was a U.S. organization of both working class and more well-off women
formed in 1903 to support the efforts of women to organize labor unions and to eliminate sweatshop
conditions. The WTUL played an important role in supporting the massive strikes in the first two decades
of the twentieth century that established the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America and in campaigning for women's suffrage among men and
women workers.
Workingmen’s Compensation Act Passed under Woodrow Wilson, this law granted assistance to federal
civil-service employees during periods of disability. It was a precursor to labor-friendly legislation passed
during the New Deal.
World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) Held in Chicago, Americans saw this World’s Fair as their
opportunity to claim a place among the world’s most “civilized” societies, by which they meant the
countries of western Europe. The Fair honored art, architecture, and science, and its promoters built a mini-
city in which to host the fair that reflected all the ideals of city planning popular at the time. For many, this
was the high point of the “City Beautiful” movement.
World Trade Organization (WTO) (1995) An international body to promote and supervise liberal trade
among nations. The successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, it marked a key world trade
policy achievement of the Clinton Administration.
Wounded Knee, Battle of (1890) A battle between the U.S. Army and the Dakota Sioux, in which several
hundred Native Americans and 29 U.S. soldiers died. Tensions erupted violently over two major issues: the
Sioux practice of the “Ghost Dance,” which the U.S. government had outlawed, and the dispute over
whether Sioux reservation land would be broken up because of the Dawes Act.
Writ of habeas corpus Petition requiring law enforcement officers to present detained individuals before
the court to examine the legality of the arrest. Protects individuals from arbitrary state action. Suspended by
Lincoln during the Civil War.
Writs of assistance Served as general search warrants that did not expire, allowing customs officials to
search anywhere for smuggled goods without having to obtain a specific warrant. These writs became
controversial when they were issued by British courts in American Colonies in the 1760s, especially in
Massachusetts.
XYZ Affair (1797) Diplomatic conflict between France and the United States when American envoys to
France were asked to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting with the French foreign minister. Many
in the U.S. called for war against France, while American sailors and privateers waged an undeclared war
against French merchants in the Caribbean.
Yalta conference (1945) Meeting of Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, in
February 1945 at an old Tsarist resort on the Black Sea, where the Big Three leaders laid the foundations
for the postwar division of power in Europe, including a divided Germany and territorial concessions to the
Soviet Union.
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Yamasee Indians/ Yamassee War (1715-1716) Yamassee Indians led coordinated attacks on English
trading houses & settlements. Eventually, defeated by the South Carolinian Colonists in the war. The
Yamasee defeat devastated the last of the coastal Indian tribes in the Southern colonies.
Yellow journalism A scandal-mongering practice of journalism that emerged in New York during the
Gilded Age out of the circulation battles between Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William
Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal. The expression has remained a pejorative term referring to
sensationalist journalism practiced with unethical, unprofessional standards.
Yeoman farmers A farmer who works his own land, although some had a few slaves. They were usually
self- sufficient, grew small amounts of cotton to supplement their living. Economically they were
independent yet tied the larger plantations. Other than slavery these farms were like the farms in the North.
Yorktown, Battle of (October 1781) George Washington, with the aid of the French Army, besieged
Cornwallis at Yorktown, while the French naval fleet prevented British reinforcements from coming
ashore. Cornwallis surrendered, dealing a heavy blow to the British war effort and paving the way for an
eventual peace.
Young America It became a faction in the Democratic Party in the 1850s. With the closing of the West,
the movement looked to expand American influence outside of the US territorial borders in North America.
President Franklin Peirce & Sen. Stephen A. Douglas promoted its nationalistic program in an unsuccessful
effort to compromise sectional differences. It advocated free trade, social reform, expansion southward into
the territories, and support for republican, anti-aristocratic movements abroad. It looked expand trade and
influence in Latin America, the Pacific, & Canada.
Zenger trial (1734-1735) New York libel case against John Peter Zenger. Established the principle that
truthful statements about public officials could not be prosecuted as libel
Zimmermann note (1917) German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman had secretly proposed a German-
Mexican alliance against the United States. When the note was intercepted and published in March 1917, it
caused an uproar that made some Americans more willing to enter the war.
Zoot suit riots Were a series of riots in 1943 during World War II that took place in Los Angeles,
California, between white sailors and Marines stationed throughout the city and Latino youths, who were
recognizable by the zoot suits they favored. The Mexican youths were accused of being unpatriotic because
their clothing used to much material that had been rationed because of the war.

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