The Concise Valve Handbook Actuation, Maintenance,... - (Appendix D Water Hammer)

APPENDIX D
Water Hammer
Because liquid is essentially incompressible, any energy applied to it

is transmitted instantly. If a moving column of liquid is slowed down
suddenly by, for example, a quick-closing valve, the sudden change in
liquid velocity in the delivery line creates a pressure wave (Figures D.1(a)
and (b)).
Despite the frequent assumption that liquids are incompressible, in
reality, most substances diminish in volume when exposed to a uniform
externally applied pressure. The Bulk Modulus describes the compress-
ibility of a fluid as the ratio of the very small decrease in volume resulting
from an applied external pressure. A large bulk modulus indicates a rela-
tive incompressible fluid.
Assuming that the walls of the pipe are sufficiently thick for it to be
approximated as rigid, the velocity of the pressure wave in a rigid pipe is
given by:
Copyright © 2018. Momentum Press. All rights reserved.
K
C= (D.1)
ρ
where:
C = velocity of pressure wave (m/s)
K = bulk modulus (GPa)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
Thus, for example, given that water has a density (ρ) of 1,000 kg/m³
and a bulk modulus of 2.2 GPa, the velocity is:
2.2 ⋅109
C= = 1483m/s (D.2)
1000
Some typical sonic velocities in various liquids are shown in
Table D.1.
Crabtree, IA 2018, The Concise Valve Handbook : Actuation, Maintenance, and Safety Relief, Momentum Press, New York.
Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [6 August 2020].
Created from pretoria-ebooks on 2020-08-06 07:06:51.
246 • Water Hammer
Large diameter riser

Open valve
(a)
Branch
Flow
Normal flow
Valve closed
(b)
Shock
Quick closure
Figure D.1. If a moving column of liquid (a) is slowed down suddenly by,
for example, a quick-closing valve, the sudden change in liquid velocity in
the delivery line creates a pressure wave (b).
Table D.1. Some typical velocities in various liquids

Sound velocity at 25°C
Liquid (m/s) (ft/s)
Kerosene (paraffin) 1,324 4,344
Gasoline (petrol) 1,250 4,101
Water 1,483 4,862
Crude oil: Light 1,347 4,420
Crude oil: Medium 1,401 4,598
Crude oil: Heavy 1,441 4,729
Crude oil: Extra heavy 1,480 4,856
In practice, the pressure rise may be sufficient to deform the pipe,

increasing its cross-section. And, since the pipe thus absorbs strain energy,
the velocity of the pressure wave is reduced:
Ke
C= (D.3)
ρ
where:
Ke = the effective bulk modulus, given by:
1 1 D
= + (D.4)
Ke K E T
Water Hammer • 247
where:
K = bulk modulus of the liquid (GPa)
D = internal diameter of the pipe (mm)
E = bulk modulus of the pipe (GPa)
T = thickness of the pipe (mm)
Again, assuming water (density (ρ) 1,000 kg/m³ and a bulk modulus
of 2.2 GPa) flowing in a pipe having a bulk modulus (E) of 210 GPa, an
internal diameter of 200 mm, a wall thickness of 5 mm:
From equation (D.4):
1 1 200 1
= + = (D.5)
K e 2.2 ⋅109 210 ⋅109 ⋅ 5 6.45 ⋅1010
Therefore, the effective bulk modulus (Ke) is 1.55*109, and

substituting:
1.55 ⋅109
C= = 1244m/s (D.6)
1000
This corresponds to a substantial 16% reduction in the sonic velocity.

In practice, the pressure wave travels back up the line at between
1,000 and 1,300 m/s, to the end of the pipe where it will reverse direction
and travel back toward the valve (Figures D.2 (a) and (b)).
(a)
Pressure wave enlarges pipe
(b)
Reflected pressure wave
Figure D.2. The pressure wave travels back up the line (a) at between
1,000 and 1,300 m/s, to the end of the pipe where it will reverse direction
and travel back toward the valve (b).
Pressure wave reaches valve
Figure D.3. Depending on the valve size and system conditions, a valve clos-
ing in 1.5 s or less can produce a pressure spike five times the system working
pressure.
Depending on the valve size and system conditions, a valve closing

in 1.5 s or less can produce a pressure spike five times the system working
pressure (Figure D.3), leading to blown diaphragms, seals, and gaskets
and also catastrophic system component failure in transmitters, meters,
and gauges.
As intimated, the magnitude of the pressure spike in a given system is
very much determined on the speed at which the valve is closed. Although
there are many calculations available, a general rule of thumb is shown
as follows:
0.052 v L
P= + PI (D.7)
t
where:
P = increase in pressure (bar)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
t = valve closing time (s)
L = upstream pipe length (m)

PI = inlet pressure (bar)
In FPS terms, the equation becomes:
0.07 v L
P= + PI (D.8)
t
where:
P = increase in pressure (psi)
v = flow velocity (ft/s)
t = valve closing time (s)
L = upstream pipe length (ft)
PI = inlet pressure (psi)
To give you some idea of the magnitude of the spike, assume a sole-
noid valve having a closure time of approximately 40 to 50 ms, connected
to a 15-m-long upstream pipe. The water flow is 3 m/s and the inlet deliv-
ery pressure is 4 bar. What is the amplitude of the pressure spike?
From equation (D.7):
0.052 3 15
P= + 4 = 62.5 bar (D.9)
0.04
Water Hammer as a Result of Steam

Condensate
Water hammer also occurs as a result of condensate in steam pipes. Figures

D.4 (a) to (d) show accumulated condensate in a portion of horizontal
steam piping. As the steam flows over the condensate, it causes the surface
of the water to ripple and trap some of the condensates in the pipe.
At the same time, as a result of the Bernoulli effect (Figure D.4 (a)),
a wave is drawn up that effectively seals the pipe, producing an isolated
pocket of steam (Figure D.4 (b)).
The collapsing steam void (Figure D.4 (c)) creates an implosion
(Figure D.4 (d)) that produces a slug of condensate that is carried along
by the steam flow and that can travel at the speed of the steam (up to
160 km/hr).
The effect of this force, striking the first elbow in its path, is compara-
ble to a hammer blow and the damage sustained can be quite substantial.
Condensing steam Heat loss

Steam
(a)
Sub-cooled condensate Bernoulli effect

draws up wave
Isolated steam pocket Heat loss
(b) Steam
Sub-cooled condensate Wave seals pipe
Collapsing steam void
(c) 5 bar steam
Implosion
Rebounding wave
(d)
Figure D.4. Hydraulic shock wave produced as a result of accumulated

condensate in steam piping.
A second type of water hammer that occurs in steam piping is actually

cavitation. This is caused by a steam bubble forming or being pushed into
a pipe completely filled with water. As the trapped steam bubble loses its
latent heat, the bubble implodes, the wall of water comes back together,
and the force created can be severe. This condition can crush float balls
and destroy thermostatic elements in steam traps. This type of cavitation
usually occurs in wet return lines or pump discharge piping.
Pulsations
Of course, such shocks are not just produced by the closure of a valve. Other
causes include: starting or stopping a pump, closure of an ESD device, and
shut-off of a check valve. Pulsations are also often introduced through
the use of ‘Oval’ gear positive displacement flow meters or reciprocating
or peristaltic positive displacement pumps. The resultant acceleration and
deceleration of the pumped fluid produces pressure spikes of greater than
10 times the steady state flow pressure.
Prevention and Mitigation
The most obvious solution is, of course, prevention. Do not ever close a
valve, do not ever trip or start a pump, do not have an emergency discon-
nect of a hose, etc. Clearly, wishful thinking! However, it is possible, in
many cases, to close the valve under controlled conditions—increasing
the valve closure time.
In the example given previously, what would be the result of increas-

ing the closure time to 1.5 seconds?
0.052 3 15
P= + 4 = 5.56 bar (D.10)
1.5
There are of course many ‘rule of thumb.’ One frequently used approx-
imation is that the valve should not close faster than the acoustic round trip,
which gives a ballpark figure that closure should be no faster than 30 s.
Indeed, in U.S. waterways under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Coast
Guard, a discharge valve is not allowed to close faster than 30 s when load-
ing a tanker (Code of Federal Regulations 33CFR154—a USCG regulation).
If we look at a typical example of a discharge from an SPM (single-
point mooring) to the crude oil terminal through a 16 inch 5 km pipeline
and assuming a sonic velocity of 3,300 ft/s, the acoustic round trip is just
under 10 s—well below the accepted norm of 30 s.
However, what sort of overpressure surge are we still likely to expect?

Assume a flow velocity of 2 m/s (fairly slow) and a pipeline pressure
of 6 bar, then:
0.052 2 5000
P= + 6 = 23.3 bar (D.11)
30
With typical maximum allowable operating pressures (MAOPs) of
the order of only 18 to 20 bar, this is certainly exceeding operational lim-
its, even allowing for the fact that many codes allow for a 10% exceedance
of the MAOP in the event of hydraulic surge.
In very large pipelines, the use of motorised operated gate valves may
have closure times of up to 4 or 5 min. Even so, on a 300-km-long pipe-
line, the overpressure surge is likely to exceed the MAOP.
Since total prevention might well prove impossible to achieve, the
answer must lie with mitigation through surge relief systems.
In essence, there are three forms of relief devices available: pulsation
dampeners, rupture discs, and surge relief valves.
Pulsation Dampeners
A pulsation dampener or surge suppressor is a hydro-pneumatic dampener

comprising a pressure vessel containing a compressed gas, generally air
or nitrogen, separated from the process liquid by a bladder or diaphragm.
These devices are mainly used to minimize the pulsations resulting from
a pump’s stroking action. During the discharge stroke, fluid pressure dis-
places the bladder and compresses the trapped gas (Figure D.5). During
Air/gas
Bladder
Liquid
Figure D.5. A pulsation dampener or surge suppressor.

During a surge, the fluid pressure displaces the bladder
and compresses the trapped gas.
the following cycle, the momentary interruption of fluid flow causes the
compressed gas to expand, forcing the bladder or bellows to push the
accumulated fluid back into the discharge line.
An advantage of this type of system is that, it is ready for immediate
reuse after a pressure surge has occurred. On the negative side, a single
device can only relieve a small amount of fluid, and thus, on larger pipe-
line systems, a large bank of accumulators may be required.
Nitrogen-Loaded Surge Relief Valves
A typical gas-loaded axial flow style valve, from Daniel, is shown in

Figure D.6, in which nitrogen gas is used to pressurize the valve piston
to keep it in the closed position. The gas pressure less the 4 psi force
of the valve spring is the effective set-point of the valve. The oil acts as
a movable barrier between the gas and valve piston that eliminates the
possibility of gas bypassing the piston.
As the pipeline pressure increases, the combined force of the spring
and nitrogen gas pressure is overcome and the valve opens (Figure D.7),
with a response time typically under 100 ms.
Gas
pressure
Light oil
Check
valve
Spring
Piston
Flow
Figure D.6. A Daniel gas-loaded axial flow

style valve in which nitrogen gas is used to
pressurize the valve piston to keep it in the
closed position (courtesy Emerson).
Gas pressure
expelled
Sight
gauges
Light oil
Check
valve
Spring
Piston
Flow
Figure D.7. As the pipeline pressure increases,

the combined force of the spring and nitrogen
gas pressure is overcome and the valve opens
(courtesy Emerson).

The Concise Valve Handbook Actuation, Maintenance,... - (Appendix D Water Hammer)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

The Concise Valve Handbook Actuation, Maintenance,... - (Appendix D Water Hammer)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Concise Valve Handbook Actuation, Maintenance,... - (Appendix D Water Hammer)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

APPENDIX D

Because liquid is essentially incompressible, any energy applied to it

Large diameter riser

Table D.1. Some typical velocities in various liquids

Crude oil: Extra heavy 1,480 4,856

In practice, the pressure rise may be sufficient to deform the pipe,

Therefore, the effective bulk modulus (Ke) is 1.55*109, and

This corresponds to a substantial 16% reduction in the sonic velocity.

Pressure wave enlarges pipe

Reflected pressure wave

Pressure wave reaches valve

Depending on the valve size and system conditions, a valve closing

L = upstream pipe length (m)

Water Hammer as a Result of Steam

Water hammer also occurs as a result of condensate in steam pipes. Figures

Condensing steam Heat loss

Sub-cooled condensate Bernoulli effect

Isolated steam pocket Heat loss

Sub-cooled condensate Wave seals pipe

Collapsing steam void

(c) 5 bar steam

Figure D.4. Hydraulic shock wave produced as a result of accumulated

A second type of water hammer that occurs in steam piping is actually

Prevention and Mitigation

In the example given previously, what would be the result of increas-

However, what sort of overpressure surge are we still likely to expect?

A pulsation dampener or surge suppressor is a hydro-pneumatic dampener

Figure D.5. A pulsation dampener or surge suppressor.

Nitrogen-Loaded Surge Relief Valves

A typical gas-loaded axial flow style valve, from Daniel, is shown in

Figure D.6. A Daniel gas-loaded axial flow

Figure D.7. As the pipeline pressure increases,

You might also like