1. Definition of biophysics, applied biophysics.

Characterization of medical biophysics

Biophysics: methods and theories from physics to study biological systems at every level – atoms, molecules, cells…

Applied biophysics: how to apply results of the above investigations into human activity

Medical biophysics: involves biophysical problems directly related to function and composition of the human body

2. Relationship between biophysics and medicine. Biophysical techniques and mechanisms

Relationship between biophysics and medicine: principles and laws of the physics sciences to describe and investigate
biological processes for the purpose of medical application

Techniques and mechanisms: medical imaging technologies including MRI, CT, PET scans, sonograms for diagnosing
diseases, treatment methods of kidney dialysis, radiation therapy, cardiac defibrillators, pacemakers, etc.

3. Basic properties of matter. Fundamental interactions in matter. Weak and strong interactions

Basic properties of matter:

• Corpuscular system – protons, neutrons, electrons

• Mass, weight, volume and density

4 fundamental interactions in matter:

What Range
Strong between particles in atomic nucleus Long
Weak β decay as a result of protons and neutrons Long

Electromagnetic between particles and electric charge (repulsion, attraction) Short

Gravitational force of attraction between elementary particles Short

 4. Elementary particles of matter. Classification of particles

Elementary particles of matter: those that can’t be discomposed into simpler

mass charge Rest mass Spin nº
−27
Proton 1.6 × 10 +1 Photons 0 1
Neutron 1.6 × 10−27 0 Leptons (neutrinos, electrons) ≈0 1/2
Electron 9.1 × 10−31 -1 Mesons between leptons and protons 0
Baryons (proton and neutron) high 1/2 or 3/2
Hadrons (mesons and baryons) formed by quarks

Elementary particles also have antiparticles, having a ≠ spin nº, other quantum parameters – antimatter.

5. Quantum field theory, quantum properties of particles

Quantum field theory:

• Describes events on atomic scale.

• Permits to describe macroscopic properties of matter (structure of atoms, molecules, macromolecules).
• Quantum mechanics describes rotational and vibrational properties of molecules, interactions between
molecules, chemical bonding, optical, electric and magnetic properties of solids

Quantum properties of particles:

• Macro world: continuous transitions between different values of physical quantities, such as energy.
• Microworld: discontinuous, physical quantities describing states and processes are quantized.
Particle has wave-duality.

6. Quantum processes absorption and emission

Interaction of radiation with matter

Absorption: photon hits an atom and the electron in lower energy level absorb the photon and jump up to the higher
energy level.

Emission: electron in atom falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits a photon to carry of extra
energy.
 7. Uncertainty relations of Heisenberg

The uncertainty principle says that we cannot measure the position (x) and the momentum (p) of a particle with
absolute precision. Can be predicted from initial conditions. States that the more precisely the position of some
particle is determined, the less precisely its momentum can be predicted from initial conditions, and vice versa.

8. Pauli exclusion principle. Wave-particle theory. Properties of atomic nucleus, potential barrier, atomic
states

Pauli exclusion principle: two electrons in an atom cannot have same quantum state (position, momentum, mass, spin)
or same configuration.

Wave-particle duality: in quantum mechanics, every particle or quantum entity may be described as a particle or as a
wave. Light (electromagnetic waves, particle-like in packets (photons)) and electrons.

Properties of atomic nucleus:

• Nucleons = neutrons (no charge) + protons (+charged) bonded by strong interactions containing + charge
• - charge is distributed in electron cloud
• Nuclide is characterised by A, Z, N.
• Isotopes: atoms of nuclei which have = number of protons but ≠ number of neutrons
• Isomers: = number of protons and neutrons but ≠ energy state of nucleus
• Isobars: are atoms of nuclei which have = number of nucleons (A) but ≠ number of protons (Z).

9. Hydrogen emission spectra

Piece of evidence to show the quantized electronic structure of an atom. The hydrogen atoms of the molecule
dissociate as soon as an electric discharge is passed through a gaseous hydrogen molecule.

If the light is passed through a prism or diffraction grating, it is split into its various colours. What you would see is a
small part of the hydrogen emission spectrum. Most of the spectrum is invisible to the eye because it is either in the
infra-red or the ultra-violet.
 10. General properties of atom, models of atom. Electromagnetic spectrum. Linear energy transfer

Smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged particles. The rest consists
of a positively charged nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The
nucleus is small and dense compared with the electrons, which are the lightest charged particles in nature. Electrons
are attracted to any positive charge by their electric force; in an atom, electric forces bind the electrons to the nucleus.

Electromagnetic spectrum, the entire distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to frequency or wavelength.
The entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the lowest to the highest frequency (longest to shortest wavelength),
includes all radio waves.

Linear energy transfer (LET) is the average amount of energy lost per unit track length in tissue by a particular type of
radiation. Amount of energy that an ionizing particle transfers to the material traversed per unit distance.

11. Chemical bonding in terms of quantum theory

• Ionic bonds: transfer of electrons (electrostatic forces)

• Covalent bond: sharing of valence electrons
• Metallic bond: sea of valence electrons
• Hydrogen bond: interaction of hydrogen atoms
• Van der Waals: called as dipole-dipole
 12. Quantum numbers – principal, orbital, magnetic and spin quantum number

Principal n designates principal electron shell, describes most probable distance of 1, 2, 3, 4

electrons from nucleus
Angular orbital l determines the shape of an orbital 0, 1, 2, 3, (n-1)
momentum
Magnetic m determines the number of orbitals and their orientation within a subshell -l…, -1, 0, 1… l
Spin s direction electron is spinning around its axis ½,-½

13. Energetic processes in living systems, fundamental interactions, energy of light. Sources and
conversions of energy. Energy in human organism

Energetic processes in living systems:

• Energy measure of the ability of a physical system to do work

• Mechanics
o kinetic energy (energy of motion)
o potential energy (energy of position)

Fundamental interactions – field of force:

• Gravitational in bodies w great mass

• Electromagnetic between particles and electric charge – electric field
o Electric energy: energy of an electric charge in electric field (chemical bond, surface energy, elastic energy)
o Magnetic energy: moving of electric charges

Energy of light:

Electromagnetic radiation. Consists of photons, which are produced when an object’s atoms heat up. Wavelength
accounts for light’s colour and how it will interact with matter.

Differs from energy of gamma rays, infrared radiation, radio waves only by different frequency of the oscillations
processes.

Properties of light energy: intensity, frequency, wavelength, polarization, phase.

Sources and conversions of energy:

Heat energy Mechanical energy

Mechanical energy Electrical energy

Electrical energy Mechanical energy

Electrical energy Heat, acoustic, light energies

• Phototrophic organisms – substantial part of received energy comes from the light energy
• Chemotrophic organisms – capable of using energy obtained by oxidation and reduction of substances
• Autotrophic organisms – use CO2 and H2O in presence of light energy to synthesize carbonaceous substances
• Heterotrophic organisms – acquire C and necessary energy from autotropic sources, often by oxidative processes

Energy in human organism:

Stored in form of glucose, lipids, ATP → cellular respiration to access to it

Needed for DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis, cell movement, endocytosis, exocytosis, and apoptosis.

14. Physical properties of light. Interactions of light with matter

• Wave-particle duality
• Arises from electron shell during transition from higher energy level to lower one due to a released photon
• Stream of electromagnetic energy
• Speed of light (in vacuum) c=2,9979·108 m/s
𝑐
• Absolute refractive index of a medium 𝑛 =
𝑣

Interaction of light with matter is a fundamental process. If transmission is 100% → absorption is 0%. Absorption in
range 1 to 99% rise to change in light intensity.

• Law of rectilinear propagation light rays propagating through a homogenous transparent medium do so in straight
lines

• Law of reflection on reflection from a smooth surface, the angle of the reflected ray is equal to the angle of the
incident ray

• Snell’s law the ratio of the sines of incidence and refraction angles is constant for all incidences in any given pair
of media for electromagnetic waves of a definite frequency
 15. Physical principle of absorption spectrophotometry. Lambert-Beer law

Interaction between the matter and electromagnetic radiation. Different type of radiation results in different physical
and chemical effect in the compound. Different photon energy in every type of radiation results in different effects.

Absorption spectrophotometry is based on the postulate that the decrease in intensity of light dI passing through
absorbing solution (with the concentration c and thickness dx) is proportional to the intensity I of light entering

−𝑑𝐼 = 𝑘 · 𝑐 · 𝑙 · 𝑑𝑥

ɛ – molar absorption coefficient (chemical factors of the compounds)

I – intensity of light leaving layer
𝐼 = 𝐼0 · 10−ε·x·c c – concentration of attenuating species
I0 – original light intensity entering the layer
x –total thickness of the absorbing layer in direction of light propagation

Ratio of transmitted and incident light is transmittance 𝑇 = 𝐼/𝐼0

Lambert-Beer law relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which light is traveling.

𝐴 = 𝜀·𝑐·𝑥

16. Physical principle of pulse oximetry. Vital signs

Pulse oximetry is a non-invasive method which provides a continuous measurement of haemoglobin saturation (%) in
arterial blood by oxygen molecules.

Fe2+ oxidized to → Fe3+ (enables O2 molecules bound more easily) O2-Hb saturation curve

Vital signs indicate a person’s vitality. The monitoring is the recording of the parameters of vital processes in the human
body to determine the overall physical condition of the patient, identify any disease, the subsequent progress of
recovery.
 17. Respiratory system, oxygen transport. Gas exchange, elastic forces of the lungs. Work of breathing.
Breathing resistance

O2 is transported by Hb (in red blood cells) into the blood and carbon dioxide is removed from it. Diffusion of gases
between air in lungs and blood proceeds in the direction from high to low concentration.

Gas exchange or breathing can be separated in two processes

• External respiration: gas exchange across the respiratory membrane in our lungs
• Internal respiration: gas exchange in the respiratory membrane in the metabolizing tissues

Elastic recoil means rebound of lungs after having been stretched by inhalation.

Work of breathing is the energy expended to inhale and exhale a breathing gas.

Breathing involves 3 types of resistance:

• Elastic pressure of lungs and thoracic cage caused by elastic recoil of lung tissue, due to many elastic elements and
method of their arrangement.
• Non-elastic resistance of tissues complex viscous resistance of tissues produced by friction of lung tissue, thoracic
cage, breathing muscles and organs in thoracic and abdominal cavity.
• Airflow resistance of respiratory passageways denotes multiple resistances of respiratory passages impeding flow

18. Physical principle of pulse oximetry, scheme of pulse oximeter. Arterial oxygen saturation

The level of arterial haemoglobin oxygenation is assessed by oxygen saturation in arterial blood

[𝐻𝑏𝑂2 ]
𝑆𝑎𝑂2 =
[𝐻𝑏𝑂2 ] + [𝐻𝑏]

Lambert-Beer law if measure incident light intensity I0 and the intensity of light which pass the solution I

Scheme of pulse oximeter:

Foto Foto Micro

Tissue Amplifier Display O2%
diode detector processor
OxHb 660nm, DeOxHb 940nm

19. Advantages and limitations of pulse oximetry. Formula for fractional and functional saturation.
Absorption spectra of haemoglobin

Advantages Limitations

Fast method and no calibration needed Failure to detect problems of poor O2 delivery (anaemia)
Don’t depend on the patient’s haemoglobin level Bad signal because of poor perfusion due to a low Tº
Can lead to corrections in diagnosis and treatment Nail polish, excessive ambient light, patients with right-
Assess need for supplemental O2 sided heart failure
Absorption of spectra of haemoglobin – oxyhaemoglobin and deoxyhaemoglobin have different absorption spectrum

20. Radioactivity and radioactive decay law. The half-life – physical, biological and effective. Radioactive
equilibrium

Radioactivity is done by an atomic nucleus that is unstable; it "wants" to give up some energy (radiation) in order to
shift to a more stable configuration.

Radioactive decay law describes the dynamics of decay of radionuclides

∆𝑁
∆𝑁 Decay rate
∆𝑡
− = 𝑁 · 𝜆 𝑁 Nº of nuclei that has decayed over a short time
∆𝑡
𝜆 Constant of disintegration
Loss of elementary particles from unstable nucleus → more stable element
𝑁0 Nº of particles in t0
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 · 𝑒 −𝜆·𝑡 𝑁𝑡 Total nº of particles
𝜆 Decay cte. [s-1]
-sign = nº of decayed atoms decreases w time

Half-life time it takes for 1/2 of substance to decay

ln 2
• Physical half-life time for ½ of substance to decay (radioactive and non-radioactive elements) 𝑇𝑃 =
𝜆𝑝

• Biological half-life time needed for excreting ½ any radioactive substance from organism
1 1 1
• Effective half-life physical and biological half-life = +
𝑇𝑒𝑓 𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝐵

Radioactive equilibrium exists when a radioactive nuclide is decaying at the same rate at which it is being produced

𝜆 Decay cte.
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝜆 · 𝑁
𝑁 Atoms available to decay
 21. Artificial and natural radioactivity. Classification of quarks. Particle conversion in term of quarks

Natural Artificial
Spontaneous Induced, produced by changing original ratio p + / n0
Initial material: unstable Initial material: stable
Radioactive isotopes: thorium, uranium, actinium Radioactive isotopes: neptunium, used in medicine I-127

A quark is a type of particle that constitutes matter.

Quark Spin Charge Baryon nº Mass

Up – U ½ +2/3 1/3 1.7-3.3 MeV
Down – D ½ -1/3 1/3 4.1-5.8 MeV
Charm – C ½ +2/3 1/3 1270 MeV
Strange – S ½ -1/3 1/3 101 MeV
Top – T ½ +2/3 1/3 172 GeV
Bottom – B ½ -1/3 1/3 4.19 GeV

22. Radioactive series. Alpha decay. Gamma decay. Beta decay and shell electron capture.

Alpha (α) decay unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess energy by

spontaneously ejecting an alpha particle

Beta (β) decay during electron emission proton nº +1, neutron º -1,
nº of nucleons unchanged

Beta + (β) decay during positron emission proton changes into

neutron. Nº of nucleons is preserved but nº of proton decreases

Shell electron capture beta decay. Nucleus captures electron from

K shell. Proton changes into neutron. Neutrino released.

Gamma (ȣ) decay atomic nucleus emits a quantum of

electromagnetic radiation – ȣ photon
 23. Radiotracers in nuclear medicine, critical organ, activity

Radiotracers are drugs used in nuclear medicine to highlight internal organs or veins

Isotope Half-life Max positron energy Production method

11
C 0.96 1.1 Cyclotron
13
N 1.19 1.4 Cyclotron
15
O 1.70 1.5 Cyclotron
18
F 0.64 1.0 Cyclotron
68
Ga 1.89 1.7 Generator
82
Rb 3.15 1.7 Generator

Critical organ is any organ in which radioactive isotopes may become enriched. Are considered critical if their function
is important for functioning of whole organism.

24. Radionuclide imaging and diagnostics. Scintillation detector and gamma camera

Utilizations such as: tracing, radioimmunoassay, examination of organs physiology, imaging of organs and body.

A scintillator is a material that exhibits scintillation, the property of luminescence, when excited by ionizing radiation.

The gamma camera can detect scintillations (flashes of light) produced when gamma rays, resulting from radioactive
decay of single photon emitting radioisotopes, interact with a sodium iodide crystal at the front of the camera.

25. Biophysics of ionizing radiation. Processes of ionization and radiation

26. Electron binding energy. Interaction of corpuscular nuclear radiation

Is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom, a molecule o an ion. Energy necessary to ionize an atom.
It depends on element to which electron is bound and shell within which it resides in ground state.

Interaction of corpuscular nuclear radiation: charged particles of nuclear radiation directly ionize atoms of medium

• α particles create large number of ions along their path, quick loss of energy
• β particles fast electrons and positrons ionize the medium in terms of braking and characteristic Xray radiation
• Neutrons indirect ionization through elastic and non-elastic impact into nucleus
 27. Primary and secondary radiation. Direct and indirect effect of ionizing radiation

Primary radiation (original) at anode X-Ray. Loss in the energy of it has quantity LET.

Secondary radiation in matter due to Compton scattering (which was irradiated by 1ary radiation). Produced more
when snapshot object is bulky and by higher values of anode voltage.

Main factors which determine final effect of ionizing radiation: radiation dose, method of exposure, type of radiation
and metabolic state of body during exposure

Direct based on ionization of molecules crossed over by photons or other particles. Consequently, there is a release of
chemical bonds or even disintegration of affected molecules. Direct effect prevails in cells with low water content.

Indirect molecule doesn’t absorb radiation energy, it receives indirectly from other molecules, which absorbed energy
before. It is a 2dary effect of water radiolysis products, with formation of aggressive free radicals, which are
responsible for radiation damage of biologically important molecules.

28. Application of radioactivity in medicine. Radioactive isotopes in radiotherapy

Mammography: a technique using X-rays to diagnose and locate tumours of the breasts

Densitometry: uses a very small dose of ionizing radiation to produce pictures of inside of body to measure bone loss

• Iodine-131
• Strontium-89 and Samarium-153
• Radium-223

29. Teletherapy, brachytherapy and contact therapy. Megavoltage therapy.

• Teletherapy external beams of radiation are used to target the cancer

• Brachytherapy radioactive sources are placed into or near the cancer
• Contact therapy delivers radiation directly on to the tumour with a small margin
• Megavoltage therapy emits photons with an average energy greater than 1 million electron volts (1 MeV)

30. Water radiolysis. DNA damage by nuclear radiation

Exposure of cells to ionizing radiation induces high-energy radiolysis of H20 water molecules into H+ and OH- radicals.
These radicals are themselves chemically reactive, and in turn recombine to produce a series of highly reactive
combinations such as superoxide (H02) and peroxide (H202) that produce oxidative damage to molecules within cell.

Ionizing radiation directly affects DNA structure by inducing DNA breaks, could not allow DNA to replicate correctly,
changing chemical structure of bases, breaking sugar-phosphate backbone, breaking hydrogen bonds connecting base
pairs. All these changes induce cell death and mitotic failure.
 31. Biological effect of radiation and dose equivalent. Risks and diseases caused by ionizing radiation.
Protection against ionizing radiation

• Physical stage ionization and excitation of molecules (10-13 s)

• Physical-chemical stage interaction of ions with molecules with present dissociation of molecules and formation
of free radicals (10-10 s)
• Chemical stage fibber breaks in DNA (10-6 s)
• Biological stage overall functional and morphological changes (seconds-years)

Dose of ionizing radiation

• Minimum lethal dose: death of a single individual from an exposed group

• Median lethal dose: death of 50% of exposed individuals
• Absolute lethal dose: death of all exposed individuals within time T

Dose equivalent is quantity describing the actual relative biological effect of radiation

Risks and diseases:

• Acute sickness whole body/big part

• Chronic diseases fatigue, weakness, changes in blood
• Local effect of radiation dermatitis

Protection against ionizing radiation: DISTANCE!!!

• α particles – several cm in air, clothing, or paper

• β particles – several m in air, protection by aluminium 3-5 mm sheet metal or 5 mm of lead
• neutrons – material containing lot of hydrogen

32. Interaction of ionizing radiation with matter. Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, electron-
positron pair production 𝐼 transmitted beam intensity
𝑑 thickness of absorbent
𝐼 = 𝐼0 · 𝑒 −𝜇𝑑 𝜇 mass absorption coefficient

Relationship between the thickness of the absorbing material and the absorption coefficient of the material defines
half-value layer d1/2 → thickness of matter that will stop half of the photons

Photoelectric effect an incoming photon interacts with nucleus of an atom, causing ejection of outer electron of atom
(photoelectron) = ionization of the atom

Compton scattering incoming photon ejects an outer shell electron, yielding a Compton electron. Incident photon
loses its energy and changes its direction – Compton photon.

Electron-positron, pair production formation of electron and positron, from a pulse of electromagnetic energy
traveling through matter
 33. Detectors of ionizing radiation, scintillation counter

Scintillator is appropriate choice of crystal (NaI) coupled to a photodetector for a detection of the visible light. Involves
the conversion of high-energy photons into visible light via interaction with a scintillating material

34. Physical principle of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Gyromagnetic ratio of nucleus

NMRI is a medical technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structures of human body. Based on the
absorption and emission of energy in the radiofrequency (RF) range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Gyromagnetic ratio of nucleus: Relation between the magnetic moment μ and the spin vector of the nucleus:

ȣ – gyromagnetic ratio [Hz.Tesla-1] describes the ratio of mechanic and magnetic properties of the nucleus

𝑒 𝑒 elementary charge
For proton 𝛾 =
𝑚𝑃 𝑚𝑃 proton weight

35. Protons in external magnetic field, Larmor precessing frequency

The proton magnetic moments with all possible phases describe a conus with known radius and height

𝛾 𝑣 Larmor precessing frequency [MHz]

The frequency of that precessing motion: 𝑣 = 2𝜋 𝐵 𝛾 gyromagnetic ratio [MHz / Tesla]
𝐵 strength of EMF [Tesla]

36. Transversal and longitudinal magnetisation and relaxation, resonance phenomena and its conditions
in NMR imaging

Longitudinal magnetisation Mz is the projection of sum vector of magnetization M to the axis z

Transversal magnetisation Mxy is the projection of sum vector of magnetization M to the plane xy

Resonance phenomenon in MRI it uses a strong external magnetic field provided by a superconducting magnet and
radiofrequency radiation to generate tomographic images in any plane.
 37. Relaxation times in NMR imaging

Relaxation time during which system is restored to 63% of equilibrium after the RF pulse turned off.

• Spin-spin (transversal) relaxation time (T2)

• Spin-lattice (longitudinal) relaxation time (T1)

Depends on type of nucleus, RF (field strength), Tª, micro viscosity of matter, presence of large molec, presence of
paramagnetic ions or molec. Reflects properties of surroundings of magnetic nucleus and provides info about tissue.

38. Signal and its acquisition in NMR imaging, factors that influence the signal intensity

Image contrast is difference in the strength of NMR signal from different locations Difference is caused by relative
density of nuclei (protons), differences in relaxation times, other factors (specialised NMRI).

ΔΘ
ΔΘ magnetic induction flux
NMR signal acquisition 𝑈𝑖 = − Δ𝑡 𝑈𝑖 electric voltage
Δt relaxation time
Factors that influence signal intensity

• hydrogen density
• relaxation time
• basic pulse sequence parameters
• flow
• use of contrast medium

39. Spatial information of NMR signal, position encoding of patient body

Signal in NMR measurements contains two information:

• Nº of nuclei ib small volume of human body – proportional to amplitude of signal

• properties of surroundings of nucleus – relaxation time

Position encoding of patient body: patient is placed in non-homogenous magnetic field → causing different Larmor
frequencies

Low signal is coming from: air, bones, calcified tissues

Strong signal from: free body fluids, fat tissues

Increase of proton density: bleeding, edema, some kinds of tumors

Decrease of proton density: calcification, other kinds of tumors

Gz splits the body to slices

Shortly lasting Gy diphase the precessions of nuclei in y direction →Phase Encoding

Gy changes the precession frequency in x direction → Frequency Encoding

 40. Possible hazards of NMRI

Can arise from Acute hazards Subacute hazards

static magnetic field Projectiles Changes in Ez kinetics
varying magnetic fields Implants Nerve conductivity
radiofrequency fields Pacemakers Cardiac changes
Claustrophobia Pregnancy

41. Principle of medical X-Ray imaging. Physical characterization of X-Ray. Production of X-Ray

Formation of X-ray image is subject to partial absorption of X-rays by passing matter.

Made up of electrical parts such as X-ray tube, control panel and image intensifier and mechanical parts which change
the position of the patient towards to X-ray system. The source of high voltage for feeding X-ray tube consist of:
transformer that changes the relatively low mains voltage to the voltage necessary, a rectifier which changes the
current for the flow of electrons into direct current that gives half-waves which can cause unwanted production
controlled by the circuit of smoothing.

X-ray imaging begins with a beam of high energy electrons crashing into a metal target and x-rays are produced

The electrons are accelerated by a very high electric voltage in the space between the hot cathode also called filament and the cold anode. The
electrons are suddenly decelerated in a target which is part of the anode. A small part of the liberated energy is transformed into high-energy
photons who are the X-rays.

42. Braking and characteristic X-Ray. Duan-Hunt Law. Exposure time

Braking: energetic electron passes by the nucleus and is accelerated / decelerated (and its trajectory is changed) while
producing a continuous spectrum of X-rays

Characteristic: energetic photon or particle can kick one of the inner shell electrons out of its place release of
characteristic X-ray radiation in the form of a photon

Duan Hunt Law yields that minimum wavelength (or maximum frequency) of X-rays that can be emitted by
Bremsstrahlung in an X-ray tube by accelerating electrons through an excitation voltage U into a metal target.

ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒𝑈

Exposure time: time of patient’s exposure to the beam of generated X-ray photons. Modified to account for the
equipment’s sensitivity (or quality), type of tissue to be irradiated (soft, hard), patient’s age and type of projection.

Milliseconds-seconds
 43. Linear and mass attenuation coefficient. Half value layer

LAC describes how effective the material is in absorbing the X-ray (rate at which incident photons are modified from
an X-ray beam per unit distance of material travelled). Dependent on the X-ray’s energy.

MAC measure of the probability of the interaction that occurs between incident photons and the matter of the unit
mass per unit area

water has three distinct phases (liquid, gaseous, and solid) even though they consist of the same molecule. Each of these has
different values of LAC. Their MAC’s, however, are the same.

Half value layer a penetration depth at which the intensity of the incident beam decreases to half its original value
(measure of the quality of the X-ray beam)

44. Interaction of X-Rays with matter. Intensity of attenuated X-Ray. Image formation contrast, noise

Highly dependent on energy of the X-ray beam, the atomic number of the target, and its electron density. Strength of
these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material.

• Photoelectric absorption
• Compton scattering
• Rayleigh scattering
Intensity of the beam is affected by beam quality (kVp) as well as beam quantity (mAs). Is also affected by distance
between the x-ray tube and the exposed area such that if the distance is increased, beam intensity decreases following
inverse square low.
Image formation is reliant on the differential absorption of the X-ray beam as it penetrates different types of tissue
(contrast). Resulting image is made via chemical reactions occurring near the film, originally quite like darkroom
procedures used in photography.
Contrast is the difference in density or difference in the degree of greyness between areas of the radiographic image.
Noise is a random fluctuation in image intensity about its mean value.

45. Conventional X-Ray imaging – radiography, fluoroscopy, digital subtraction angiography.

Mammography. Densitometry.

Radiography static imaging technique in which X-ray image is captured either on a film (old-school) or digitally. Most
common. Contraindications: pregnancy.

Fluoroscopy procedure for dynamic viewing of patient’s X-ray images with high temporal resolution. Continuous
imaging using X-ray beam from the tube towards detector, both of which are placed together on a solid piece of
equipment to ensure their relative stability. It’s the only technique to image dynamically. Contraindications:
pregnancy, allergic reactions to contrast agents, prior problems with kidneys.

Digital Subtraction Angiography an imaging technique used to visualize the interior of blood vessels and organs of the
body. Contraindications: pregnancy, allergic reactions to contrast agents, previous problems with kidneys.
Mammography radiographic examination that is designed for detecting breast pathology, particularly breast cancer.
Soft X-Rays used. Dose must be limited as the breast is radiosensitive. Specialized X-ray tube. Contraindications:
pregnancy, breast implants, age < 40 yrs., symptoms of breast cancer.

Densitometry is a special spectrophotometer that measures light transmitted through a solid sample such as a cleared
or transparent but stained gel. Used for measure bone loss.

46. Principles of computed tomography. Definition of voxel unit. Radiation dose. Hounsfield unit.

Principles of computed tomography

• Image is not only shadow projected on film and shade
• All planes of patient that are in parallel with the X-ray film overlap
• There is a projection of a 3D volume on a 2D surface
• Due to overlapping structures called summing, images do not show very high contrast
• Bones and cavities are easily recognizable
Voxel unit = unit of graphic information that defines a point in 3D space

Measuring radiation dose: Exposure, KERMA, absorbed and equivalent dose, effective dose

Hounsfield unit of linear attenuation. Each pixel can be assigned a precise value of HU.

𝜇(𝑥) − 𝜇𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻𝑈(𝑥) = 1000 ×
𝜇𝐻2 𝑂

47. Physical principle of positron emission tomography imaging. Positron interactions with matter. Energy
emitted positron

Nuclear medicine functional imaging technique, molecular level

• Short-lived positron-emitting radiotracer (radionuclide + compound) is introduced into the body

• Radioactive decay of tracer indirectly causes creation of gamma rays
• β+ radiation decay

Positron interactions with matter and energy emitted positron

1. Emission from the nucleus

2. Positron loses kinetic energy by interactions with the surrounding matter
3. Deflection in the positron path
4. Positron and electron are practically at rest, they collide and annihilate.
5. 2 γ-ray photons are given off at opposite directions. Each photon energy = 0.511 MeV.

e− + e+ → γ + γ
 48. Physical principle of annihilation process in PET. Radiotracers in PET imaging

Annihilation occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such
as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons.

PET radiotracer is a type of radioligand (radioligand is a radioactive biochemical substance for diagnosis) that is used
for the diagnostic purposes via positron emission tomography imaging technique. Examples of radiotracers: Mefway,
nifene, MPPF in neurology.

49. Coincidence detection in PET. Line of response. Types of coincidence events

In a PET camera, each detector generates a timed pulse when it registers an incident photon. These pulses are then
combined in coincidence circuitry, and if the pulses fall within a short time-window, they are deemed to be coincident.

Line of response: path between two detectors used to localize the tracer

Types of coincidence events:

• True 2 photons are generated by positron annihilation event

and lie on line of response LOR
• Accidental 2 positron annihilation locations are assigned to
one LOR
• Scattered wrong LOR is detect

50. Detection system in PET – scintillation detectors. Pulse creation and processing

Scintillator crystal - converts gamma photons into visible photons, which can be detected using fast photomultiplier

Photomultiplier (PMT) - converts incoming light photons to accelerated, amplified electrons – current

Pulse creation and processing: each detector generates a timed pulse when it registers and incident photon. These
pulses are then combined in coincidence circuity, and if the pulses fall within a short time-window, they are deemed
to be coincident. In the diagnostic section, radiopharmaceuticals are detected with gamma camera, which give a very
accurate picture of the area. Located around the perimeter of scintillation detectors the registration of the incident
photon generates timed pulses

51. Clinical application of PET. Limitations and advantages of PET

Oncology for cancer diagnosis and management, cardiology and cardiac surgery, neurology, and psychiatry.

Limitations: time. Consuming, PET scanning can give false results, Resolution structures may not be as clear as MRI, if
a person is obese may not fit.

Benefits: PET imaging gives answer how well organs and tissues are functioning, and nuclear medicine is less expensive
and gives more precise and useful information.
 52. Physical characteristics of ultrasound and ultrasound imaging. Propagation of ultrasound matter.
Characterization of longitudinal and shear waves

Physical characteristics of diagnostic ultrasound and ultrasound imaging are determined by ultrasonic properties of
tissue. Propagation and attenuation are the most important parameters.

REFLECTION: when passing through medium, the part of US beam reflexes on an interface

PROPAGATION SPEED OF US

REFRACTION: the US strikes the boundary of two tissues at an oblique angle.

SCATTERING: it occurs when the US beam meets the small object

ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE: US velocity vs. density of the medium in which the US is passing through, i.e., the greater
impedance, the denser material

ATTENUATION

In a longitudinal wave, particles of medium move parallel to wave’s direction of travel. In a longitudinal wave, each
particle of matter vibrates about its normal rest position and along the axis of propagation, and all particles
participating in the wave motion behave in the same manner, except that there is a progressive change in phase of
vibration—i.e., each particle completes its cycle of reaction later.

The S waves, also called shear waves, can travel only through solid materials. They produce an up-and-down or side-
to-side motion at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. They occur in an elastic medium when it is
subjected to periodic shear. Shear is the change of shape, without change of volume, of a layer of the substance,
produced by a pair of equal forces acting in opposite directions along the two faces of the layer. If the medium is
elastic, the layer will resume its original shape after shear, adjacent layers will undergo shear, and the shifting will be
propagated as a wave.

53. Characterization of the transducer beam profile. Classification and characterization of ultrasound
transducers

The beam profile from a typical transducer is often

thought of as a column of energy originating from the
active element area that travels as a straight column for
a while and then expands in diameter and eventually
dissipates, like the beam from a spotlight. The
ultrasound waves (pulses of sound) are sent from the
transducer, propagate through different tissues, and
then return to the transducer as reflected echoes. The
returned echoes are converted back into electrical impulses to form the ultrasound image presented on the screen.
 54. Description of drawing piezoelectric effect based on piezoelectric crystals. Propagation speed. Half
way thickness

Is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress. Thickness of
the crystal determines the frequency of the scan head.

Ultrasound machines assume sound waves travel at a speed of 1540 m/sec through tissue. Half-value thickness, is the
thickness of the material at which the intensity of radiation entering it is reduced by one half.

55. Ultrasound interactions with the tissue. Reflection, attenuation, refraction, scattering

Reflection occurs when the waves pass between two tissues of different acoustic speeds and a fraction of the wave
bounces back.

Attenuation energy loss through interactions between ultrasound waves and soft tissues which occurs due to
absorption and scattering events

Refraction occurs if it travels between tissues with different propagation speeds.

Scattering when a sound wave strikes a structure with a different acoustic impedance to the surrounding tissue and
which is smaller than wavelength of incident sound wave

56. Intensity based effect of ultrasound. Energy transfer. Ultrasound safety and risks, thermal index and
mechanical index

Interaction of US w biological tissues depends on its intensity, at high intensities active interactions take place. Passive
interactions take place at low intensities.

US has a remarkable record for patient safety with no significant adverse bioeffects reported in the literature.

MI: an estimate of the maximum amplitude of pressure in the body

TI: measure of an ultrasound beam's thermal bioeffects

 57. Biological effect of ultrasound. Thermal, cavity and mechanical effects

The biological effect of ultrasound refers to the potential adverse effects the imaging modality has on human tissue

Thermal: all sound energy attenuated by tissues must be converted to other forms of energy. The majority of this is
turned into heat.

Mechanical: refers to damage caused by actual oscillation of the sound wave on tissue

Cavitation caused by the oscillation of small gas bubbles within the US field. Sometimes these bubbles can grow and
collapse generating very high energies next to the tissue.

58. Ultrasonography, A, M and B imaging modes

A mode (Amplitude mode): basic pulse-echo system is used for measuring the depth of echo-producing boundaries in
one direction

M mode (Motion mode): used for examination of moving boundaries. Provides a single line of information at a higher
frame rate than can be obtained by two-dimensional echocardiography

B mode (Brightness mode): a 2D ultrasound image display composed of bright dots representing the ultrasound echoes

59. Principles of Doppler ultrasound imaging. Doppler shift frequency, Doppler shift equation. Continuous
wave Doppler and pulsed wave Doppler.

Doppler works by measuring sound waves that are reflected from moving objects.

Doppler frequency shift is the difference between transmitted and received echoes.

Doppler shift equation shows the relationship of Doppler frequency shift to target velocity

2𝑓0 𝑣 cos 𝜃
∆𝑓 = (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑟 ) =
𝑐

Continuous wave uses separate transmitting and receiving transducer. Can be only used for flow measurement of
superficial vessels.

Pulsed wave provides information about position of examined structure. Is able to measure blood-flow in deep located
vessels.

60. Artefacts in ultrasonography

Transducer produces sound waves that
bounce off body tissues and make echoes.
 61. Physical characteristics of laser – absorption, spontaneous emissions, stimulated emission

Characteristics of laser light: coherent, monochromatic, collimation, high intensity, continuous, or very short pulse.

Absorption of a photon causes an electron to be pushed to a higher energy level. The energy change depends on the
frequency of a photon. f=(E1-E2)/h

Spontaneous emission of a photon occurs when an electron falls from a higher energy level to a lower and in the
process emits a photon with a frequency by falling from E1 to E2

Stimulated emission is triggered by another photon of the same frequency as the emitted ones. The electron is
displaced from higher energy state to a lower state.

62. Characterization of laser light. Wavelength and photon energy

• Coherent photons are in the same phase

• Monochromatic all photons same wavelength
• Collimation laser light has a direction
• High intensity depends on the pumping power and the efficiency of the LASER mechanism
• Continuous or very short pulses

ℎ×𝑐
Colour of a laser determines the energy of the individual quanta of light according to 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ × 𝑣 = 𝜆

1,24
Energy in eV can be calculated from the wavelength in m using 𝐸[𝑒𝑉] = 𝜆[𝜇𝑚]

Indirect proportionality of wavelength and energy

63. Laser active medium. Population inversions, metastable state, metastable energy

AM – substance capable to produce laser radiation (keeps atoms in metastable position = population inversion).
Amplifies the light. Can be gases, glasses, semiconductors.

Population inversion is a system (atoms or molecules) exists in a state with more members in an excited state than in
lower energy states.

Metastable state is an excited state of an atom or other system with a longer lifetime than the other excited states

64. Laser parameter. Three level and four level laser systems.

Laser wavelength is determined by the AM, but the energy and the spot size can be influenced.

Assumption 1 – laser with an operating power of P: 𝐸 = 𝑃 × 𝑡 varying the operating time t allows a desired quantity
of energy E to be radiated into the system.

Assumption 2 – energy density fluence rate F: F=A where the area A usually is circular 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 keeping the fluence
constant, the energy used defines the spot size.
 65. General laser construction. Laser pumps

1. Gain medium
2. Laser pumping energy
3. High reflector
4. Output coupler
5. Laser beam

Laser pumps

Pumps Source
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic radiation
Electric Electric discharge
Chemical Chemical reaction
Thermal Heat

66. Construction and working of Ruby laser, He-Ne laser, CO2 laser

Electrons in Chromium→higher energy level after transferring part

of the energy to the crystal lattice→ a lower metastable level

After some period, the electrons from state E2 fall into E1 by

releasing energetic photons

The light beam induces further transitions from metastable levels,

takes in more photons, thereby amplifying it and finally passing out
through the semipermeable mirror

He-Ne laser CO2 laser

 67. Classes of lasers and laser products

I safe, light is contained in an enclosure and do not pose hazard (in CD players)
II safe during normal use; the blink reflex of eye will prevent damage. Up to 1 mW power (laser pointers)
III a up to 5 mW, small risk of eye damage within time of blink reflex. Beam seconds cause damage on retina
III b immediate eye damage upon exposure
IV can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light can cause eye and/or skin damage

68. Laser hazards and safety

AEL (Accessible Emission Limit) and MPE (Maximum Permissible Exposure)

• Radiation hazard: dangerous for eyes and skin

• Retinal hazard: Corneal hazard with H2O absorption, 400-1400 nm
• Skin hazards: 230-380 nm most dangerous. From range of 700-1000 nm (IR) may cause burning the skin.
• Chemical hazard: CO and CO2 lasers contain toxic gases

Safety: protection glasses, distance

69. Application of lasers in medicine

Angioplasty, cancer diagnostics and treatment, cosmetic dermatology (skin resurfacing, hair and tattoo removal),
dermatology melanoma treatment, laser mammography, medical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmology (laser
photocoagulation), optical coherence tomography, plastic surgery.

70. Laser – tissue interaction. Absorption and scattering.

Optical

• Transmission
• Reflection
• Absorption strongly depends on the type of tissue and the wavelength of the incident light.
• Scatter
o inelastic scattering (loss of energy of photon and change of wavelength) in fluorescence, phosphorescence
o elastic scattering (no loss of energy)

Thermal

• Thermal conduction
• Thermal capacity
 71. Photothermal, photoacoustic and photochemical effect.

• Photothermal: - Light energy transformed and dissipated as heat – most lasers - Photoablation- heats so quickly
and thoroughly that tissue is ablated - CO2, Er:YAG
• Photoacoustic / Photomechanical: - Occurs so fast that shock wave is created – Q switched
• Photochemical: - Light energy starts chemical reaction – Photodynamic therapy

72. Laser thermal effect on tissue – coagulation, carbonization, vaporization and ablation

Thermal interactions mainly excite vibrational and rotational states of the molecules in the tissue

Coagulation denaturation (structural change) of biomolecules (in particular proteins) that may be more or less
pronounced and can ultimately lead to detachment of the epidermis.

Carbonization

Vaporization radiation being absorbed strongly by water and therefore by tissues as well. Tissue is evaporated by the
laser light

Ablation removing atoms from a solid by irradiating it with an intense continuous wave or pulsed laser beam.

73. Selective thermolysis and photodynamic therapy

Selective thermolysis: selective parts of the skin (blood vessels, pigment) can be zapped when the right wavelength is
used. The target must be destroyed fast, before it has a chance to cool.

Photodynamic therapy: cytotoxic action of a photosensitive species bound to a cell and excited by an appropriate light
source.

74. Conversion of energy in living systems – phototrophic, chemotrophic, autotrophic, heterotrophic

organisms

• Phototrophic organisms – comes from the light energy

• Chemotrophic organisms –energy obtained by oxidation and reduction of substances
• Autotrophic organisms – use CO2 and H2O in presence of light energy to synthesize carbonaceous substances
• Heterotrophic organisms – acquire carbon and necessary energy by oxidative processes

75. Basic properties of water and its functions in organisms

Basic properties:

• High relative permittivity of water (polar character of molecules)

• Good solvent of polar substances because it’s a bipolar and has hydrogen bonds
• Easily dissociate (weak hydrogen bonds)
• Solvation envelope around polar molecules ions water molecules which group together
• Specific heat capacity (huge quantities of water on Earth ensure thermal stability)
• Latent heat of evaporation
• Good heat conductor

Function in organism:

• Efficient solvent of ionic compounds and polar substances.

• Environment in which most biochemical reactions occur
• Reactants in many biochemical reaction
• Facilitates transport process (e.g., Diffusion)
• Influences mechanical properties of cells and tissues (affects the shape of cells)
• Stabilization of functional molecular structures because of solvation envelopes
• Thermoregulation due to its high values of heat conductivity, specific heat capacity and latent heat of evaporation

76. Composition of the cell membrane and its function. Active transport. Work against the electrochemical
gradient

F(x): distinguish intracellular and extracellular components, barrier to transport of ions and molecules

• Phospholipids – polar and non-polar region

• Integral membrane proteins
• Peripheral proteins
• Transmembrane proteins
• Cytoskeletal proteins

Active transport is the movement of molecules from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration, particles move against the concentration gradient, using energy released during respiration.

To move substances against a concentration or an electrochemical gradient, the cell must use energy. This energy is
harvested from ATP that is generated through cellular metabolism. Active transport mechanisms, collectively called
pumps or carrier proteins, work against electrochemical gradients.

77. Generation and recording of membrane potential. Resting membrane potentials and equilibrium
potentials

Generation
Recording of membrane potential is made by glass microelectrodes. Electrode is filled with electrolyte solution (3M
KCl) inserted through surface membrane. Tip diameter of the recording electrode 0.5 µm prevents the cell damage.
Second reference electrode is placed into external environment of the This method is used in the determination of
electrochemical parameters such as ions concentration Na, K, Ca, H,

Resting membrane potential. The ion channels provide a circuit for movement of charge across the cell membrane to
create the separation of charge

Ci = ci*

Equilibrium potentials if ion concentrations in both compartments are the same then there is no net flux of K+ ions.
The one-way flux of K+ ions is the same in either direction.

78. The Nernst equation for resting membrane potential. Donnan equilibrium

𝑅×𝑇 𝑐 U potential difference, membrane voltage

𝑈= × 𝑙𝑛 c/c* randomly selected ratio
𝑧×𝐹 𝑐∗
F Faraday constant 96 487 C/mol
z charge of an ion

𝐶 ∗𝐾+ 𝐶 ∗𝐶𝑙−
𝑙𝑛 = ln
𝐶𝐾`+ 𝐶𝐶𝑙−

79. The Goldmann equation for resting membrane voltage for sodium, potassium and chloride ions

𝑅×𝑇 𝑃𝐾+ · [𝐾+]𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑃𝑁𝑎+ · [𝑁𝑎+]𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙− · [𝐶𝑙−]𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑈= × 𝑙𝑛
𝑧×𝐹 𝑃𝐾+ · [𝐾+]𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑃𝑁𝑎+ · [𝑁𝑎+]𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙− · [𝐶𝑙−]𝑒𝑥𝑡

80. Definition and function of action potential. Origin of action potential

Action potential: membrane potential rapidly depolarizes and repolarizes back to the resting membrane potential.

Functions:

• provide how electrical excitation can travel significant distances along specific neuronal structures known as axons
• trigger rapid influx of Ca2+ into cell for triggering a cellular response (neurotransmitter, hormone release, muscle
contraction)

Origin of action potential

• Action potential initiated chemical agents/small change in electric voltage on membrane

• Starts with the opening of Na channels – their permeability increases 500 times
• Na penetration inside the cells – depolarization
• K+ channels are opened and K flows from the cell whereby the rapid change of potential is stopped – repolarization
• Lower values of potential than resting values hyperpolarization
• During which the membrane is hyperpolarized is refractory phase
 81. Peak potential of Na and K ions. Conditions for starting action potential

• Must be reached a threshold level of depolarization range -50 to -30 mV for different cell types
• Suprathreshold depolarizing currents initiate an action potential
• The height of the potential above zero is known as the overshoot. This is known as the afterhyperpolarization.
• After a neuron fires an action potential there is a brief period during which it is impossible to fire another action
potential. This is known as the absolute refractory period

82. Propagation of action potential. Rate of propagation

Origin of action potential is influencing propagation of AP

Na+ channels open if the value of resting membrane potential changes by at least 15 mV. Transfer of ions along the
opposite sides of the membrane are local currents

Either does not originate at all or it does originate and then it always has the same magnitude

Rate of propagation is variable and depends on the structure and on nerve fibres. Action potential propagates between
the gaps by leaps

83. Synaptic transfer, electrical and chemical synapses. Excitatory and inhibitory synapses

Transfer between nerve or nerve-target cell. Are found in CNS between sensory and motor neurons, smooth and
cardiac muscle and elsewhere.

Electrical: electrical ions flow directly between cells.

Chemical: using chemical messengers.

The activity of synapses results in:

• triggering of the action potential on postsynaptic membrane – synaptic excitation

• worsening of the conditions for its origin – synaptic inhibition

84. Types of intermolecular and intramolecular interactions. Phase states of matter

Intramolecular interactions hold atoms together in a molecule, whereas intermolecular interactions hold molecules
together. → ELECTROMAGNETIC origin (physics)

Intermolecular (van der Waals interactions, hydrophilic, Hydrophobic interactions, Hydrogen bonds)

Effects of non-bonded interactions:

• STATIC effect: formation of tertiary structure of proteins, conformation of oligomers

• DYNAMIC effect: recognition of proper partners in reactions, formation of supramolecular complexes, aggregates

Phase states of matter:

GASES: distances between the particles are large – attractive (cohesive) forces are weak – shape and volume is not
preserved

LIQUIDS: molecules are in contact (touch)

nonpolar molecules – disperse cohesive forces

polar molecules – dipole cohesive forces

preserve volume – adopt the shape of vessel – practically incompressible

SOLIDS: strong cohesive forces, limited mobility vibrations around equilibrium positions, preserve the shape and
volume, internal structure, all types of interactions occur

PLASMA: is a mixture of atomic nuclei, free electrons, ions

85. Classification of dispersive systems

Disperse Dispersed Coarse dispersions Colloid dispersions Analytic dispersions

medium phase
Gaseous Gaseous Mixtures (Air)
Liquid Aerosol (rain, inhalation spray) Aerosol (fog, drugs) Vapor of liquid in gas
Solid Aerosol (dust) Aerosol (smoke) Vapor of solid in gas
Liquid Gaseous Bubble, foam Foam (whipped cream) Solution (oxygen in water)
Liquid Emulsion (milk, hand cream) Emulsion (oil in water) Solution (ethanol in water)
Solid Suspension (chalk in water) Lyosol (blood) Solution (glucose in water)
Solid Gaseous Dry foam (dry sponge) - inclusion Dry foam (polystyrene) Solution (H in metal
catalysers)
Liquid Bubbles (wet sponge) - inclusion Solid foam Solution (amalgam)
Solid Solid mixture (granite) Solid sol (glass w colloid Solid solution (alloy)
gold)

86. Henry’s law. Dalton’s law. Solubility of O2 in blood, partial pressures of O2 and CO2 of the body.
Exchange of respiratory gases. Decompression sickness 𝐶𝑝 – concentration of the dissolved gas in liquid
𝑃𝑝 – partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
Henry’s law 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑃𝑝 · 𝛼 𝛼 – concentration solubility coefficient ç

Dalton’s law 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 … 𝑝𝑁 N− nº of components of analytic dispersion

𝑝1 – partial pressure of i-th gas
𝑝 – pressure of gas mixture
Two mechanisms of Oxygen solvation in blood:

• physical solubility (O2 in plasma or red blood cells 1,5%)

• chemical solubility (O2 bound to haemoglobin 98,5%)
Partial pressure of O2 99,7 mmHg

Partial pressure of CO2 35-45 mmHg

Exchange of respiratory gases follows the direction of pressure gradient

Decompression sickness is a disorder in which nitrogen dissolved in the blood and tissues by high pressure forms tiny
bubbles in the blood and body tissues as pressure decreases

87. Colloidal dispersions and their physical properties. Lyophilic and lyophobic colloid solutions

• Water solutions of biopolymers (proteins, DNA, ... in the human body)

• Micellar – association colloids (soap, phospholipids)
• Heterogenous systems (sol)

Lyophilic (hydrophilic) – having strong affinity for the solvent (water)

Lyophobic (hydrophobic) – having repulsion towards the solvent (water) - (liquid form – lyophobic sol, solid form - gel)

88. Electric properties of liquid colloidal dispersions. Electrokinetic potential

Preparation methods:

• Dispergation
• Condensation

Stability is provided by:

• Solvation (hydration) envelope

• Electric charge

Electrokinetic potential ζ (zeta) and φ0 – the potential of the surface of the colloidal particle relative to infinity
 89. Cohesive forces, surface tension, liquid viscosity, shear stress
𝐹2
Surface tension is surface force acting perpendicular to the length l of the surface of the liquid 𝛿 =
𝐼

Liquid viscosity influences the real liquid flow. Is caused by intermolecular force of cohesion and molecular momentum
exchange. Slower layer of liquid slows down the faster layer – on contact surface S acts force F – creates shear stress.
ηs viscosity of the dispersion system
Einstein’s equation for viscosity: 𝜂𝑠 = 𝜂0 · (1 + 𝑘 · 𝑐) η0 viscosity of the dispersion medium
C volume concentration of the dispersed phase
k constant
𝑑𝑢
Shear stress τ (tau): express the action of forces between two layers of liquid. 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 𝜇 Viscosity
𝑑𝑢
Rate of shear
𝑑𝑦

90. Viscosity of blood

Blood is a colloidal dispersion viscose-elastic fluid with disperse particles with electric double-layer and electric charges
on the inner surface of the vessels.

Blood viscosity depends on temperature, flow rate, cross-section of vessel, physical properties of the internal walls of
the blood vessels, systole, diastole, content of blood

91. Diffusion. First and second Fick’s law of diffusion through membrane.

Diffusion is a spontaneous process of transferring particles from a higher concentration site to a site with a lower
concentration until a steady state occurs

Δ𝑐 𝐷 Diffusion coefficient
Fick’s law 𝐽 = −𝐷 · Δ𝑥 · Δ𝑡 Δ𝑐
Concentration gradient of solute
Δ𝑥

Allows the exchange of substances between cells and body fluids, between body fluids themselves and body fluids and
the surrounding air

92. Dialysis and artificial kidney

Dialysis is the process of removing excess water,

solutes, and toxins from the blood in case the
kidneys no longer perform these functions
naturally.

Parts of hemodialyzer: 1. extracorporeal blood

circulation 2. function unit - dialyser 3. dialytic
solution flow

Transfer of metabolic toxins from blood through

membrane of dialyser into dialysis fluid is based
on diffusion (along toxin’s concentration
gradient).
 93. Colligative properties of solutions. Rault’s law, ebullioscopy and cryoscopy

Depend on number of particles of dispersion phase. 𝜑 = 𝑘 · 𝑐𝑚

Raoult’s law reduction of solvent vapor pressure above the solution is proportional to the relative content (mole
𝑐𝑚1 𝑐𝑚1 is the molal concentration of dissolved substance
fraction) of the dissolved substance. Δ𝑝 = 𝑐
𝑚0 +𝑐𝑚1 𝑐𝑚0 is the molal concentration of solvent

Ebullioscopy is related to the boiling point elevation of a substance whereas cryoscopy is related to the freezing point
depression of a substance.

94. Osmosis and osmotic work. Vant Hoff’s law of osmotic pressure

Osmosis the system (solvent, semipermeable membrane – permeable only for solvent, solution) can reach its
minimum potential energy if the solvent molecules pass into the concentrated solution and dilute it.

𝐶1 c1 urine concentration in the original undiluted state

Osmotic work of system 𝐴 = 𝑅 · 𝑇 · 𝑙𝑛
𝑐2 c2 urine concentration in the diluted state

The Van't Hoff theory describes those substances in dilute solution obey the ideal gas laws, resulting to the osmotic
pressure formula π = (n/V) RT = [Ci]RT where R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and [Ci] the molar
concentration of solute i in dilute solution (1).

95. Filtration in capillary loop

The magnitude and direction of filtration depend on filtration pressure, pores sizes, size of filtered particles

The filtration pressure depends on:

• Oncotic pressure is a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins either in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid
that displaces water molecules.
• Hydrostatic pressure is a force generated by the pressure of fluid on the capillary walls either by the blood plasma
or interstitial fluid.

Filtration pressures in capillaries: from capillary to interstitium:

• hydrostatic pressure of blood in capillary HTk

• oncotic pressure of interstitial liquid OTint

from interstitium to capillary (reabsorption):

• oncotic pressure of blood plasma proteins OTk

• hydrostatic pressure in interstitium HTint

96. Oncotic pressure in living organism. Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions and their effect on
the cell.

Oncotic pressure, or colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure induced by the proteins, notably albumin,
in a blood vessel's plasma (blood/liquid) that causes a pull-on fluid back into the capillary
 97. Processes – endosmosis, haemolysis, plasmoptysis, plasmorhysis

• Endosmosis water enters into the cell

• Haemolysis swelling and rounding of the erythrocyte which can culminate in its bursting
• Plasmoptysis in the other types of cells
• Plasmorhysis shrinkage of cell

98. Laminar and turbulent streaming of a fluid and their criteria. Hagen-Poiseuille’s law. Reynold’s number
𝑣·𝜌·𝑟 𝑟 Tube radius
Reynolds flow: 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜂 𝜌 Liquid density
𝜂 Liquid viscosity
𝑣 Liquid mean velocity

Laminar streaming Re < 1000. A fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers.

Turbulent streaming Re > 1000. Flow regime characterized by chaotic property changes.

Hagen–Poiseuille law, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in an incompressible and fluid in laminar flow
flowing through a long cylindrical pipe

99. Resting and action potential of woring cardiomyocytes. Ion’s exchange

Resting potential

• Steady state membrane voltage (potential Vm) difference between intracellular and extracellular electric potential
• External charge → + Internal charge → -
• The cardiomyocyte is in polarized state
• Active pumping of ions is necessary to keep the dynamic imbalance of ion concentrations

Action potential occurs after excitation of cardiomyocyte caused by external impulse

 100. Phases of action potential of working cardiomyocyte

• Phase 0: depolarization because of opening of fast sodium channels

• Phase 1: transpolarization because of fast sodium channels close
• Phase 2: plateau phase when Vm = 0 V, Ca2+ flows into the cell and 2K+ out of the cell
• Phase 3: repolarization: Ca2+ channels slowly close, potassium K+ channels remain open, Vm falls down.
• Phase 4: polarization: ion pumps restore back the ions initial concentrations

101. Propagation of depolarization through myocardium tissue, non-invasive measurement of

myocardial electrical activity

• Each myocardial cell behaves as electrical dipole during

depolarisation and repolarization, forming a current-
dipole vector
• Total current vector at any instant is the sum of the
current-dipole vectors for all the cells in the heart.
• ECG measures various components of this vector in time

Non-invasive measurement of myocardial electrical activity

The amplitude of the potential depends on:

• mutual position of electric vector and electrodes

• conductivity properties of a tissue
• electrode properties

If the electrical heart vector is pointing towards a positive electrode, then on the ECG is recorded an elevation.

If the vector is directed in opposite direction (from the positive electrode), the ECG depression is recorded.
 102. Characterization of blood and blood flow. Metabolism between blood and tissue

Blood is a mobile component set in motion by the pumping activity of the heart. Blood flow is a closed system
consisting of two circuits: systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation. Blood flow is caused by the pressure
differences between the arterial region and the venous region resulting from the activity of the heart. Normal systolic
aortal pressure is about 16 kPa and during diastole pressure is about 10.5 kPa. The mean aortal pressure is 13.3 kPa.

103. Electrocardiography. Electrodes and leads

ECG records impulses to show how fast heart is beating, rhythm of the heart beats and strength and timing of electrical
impulses as they move through the different parts of heart. Shape and amplitude of ECG curve depends on electrodes
placement and mutual distance.

EKG lead = pair of electrodes, between which the potential is recorded as a function of time

• Bipolar limb leads both electrodes are electrically active. Electrodes form an equilateral Einthoven triangle. Limb
leads sense heart electric vector in frontal plane.
• Unipolar limb leads: The potential on the limb electrodes is measured against the Wilson’s central terminal. Limb
leads sense (measure) heart electric vector in frontal plane
• Unipolar chest leads: Potential difference is measured between each separate electrode and WCT Use: monitoring
of electric activity of heart in horizontal plane.

104. Atrial and ventricular depolarization and repolarization of electrocardiogram

 105. Cardiac cycle and Wigger’s diagram

Cardiac cycle consists of 4 phases:

1. Isovolumic (isometric) contraction

2. Ejection

3. Isovolumic (isometric) relaxation

4. Inflow

Relaxation phase – fill cardiac cavities – diastole.

Contraction phase – empty cardiac cavities – systole.

Ratio of times spent in systole: diastole = 1: 2

Heart beats per minute (bpm), typical: 75

106. Isovolumic contraction, ejection, isovolumic relaxation and inflow phases

Stage AV valves Semilunar valves Status of ventricles and atria and blood flow
1 Isovolumic Closed Closed semilunar (pulmonary and aortic) valves close at end of ejection
relaxation stage; blood flow stops
2a Inflow Open Closed ventricles and atria together relax and expand; blood flows to the
heart during ventricular and atrial diastole
2b Inflow Open Closed ventricles relaxed and expanded; atrial contraction (systole)
forces blood under pressure into ventricles during ventricular
diastole–late
3 Isovolumic Closed Closed AV valves close at end of ventricular diastole; blood flow stops;
contraction ventricles begin to contract
4 Ejection Closed Open ventricles contract (ventricular systole); blood flows from the
heart—to the lungs and to rest of body during ventricular ejection

107. Heart work. Efficiency of heart work

Mechanical work components Static (potential) Kinetic

Heart pushes blood of volume ∆V ∆V volume of blood with density ρ
with pressure p acquires speed υ
𝑊𝑆 = 𝑝 · ΔV 1
𝑊𝐾 = 𝜌 · Δ𝑉 · 𝑣 2
2
Total mechanical work 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝐾 = 1.123𝐽 𝐸ℎ = 6,7 𝐽
Efficiency of heart work 𝑃𝑀 Fraction of total energy used for blood
𝑈𝑆 = = 0,19 (19%)
𝑃 movement
 108. Mechanical properties of blood vessels, elastic effect and resistance

Vessels change their volume, diameter passively and actively due to their structure of elastin and collagen fibres and
smooth muscle fibres.

Passive change occurs when the heart squeezes blood into a blood vessel with prevalent elastic elements. Active
change occurs with blood vessels contain muscle fibres. The muscle fibres are shortened upon arrival AP.

Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 initial and final volume of blood pushed into vessel

Elasticity law 𝑉1
= 𝑀 · Δ𝑝𝑑 𝑀 volume expandability coefficient of vessel
Δ𝑝𝑑 developed pressure on vessel wall
Blood pressure inside the vessel (pi) squeezes the walls of the vessel during systole. External pressure of ambiental
tissue pe tries to narrow vessel during diastole.

109. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, methods of blood pressure measurement.

Blood pressure is present in cardiovascular system, and it is described as the pressure of the blood against walls of the
vessels.

There are two types of blood pressure:

• Systolic blood pressure, is the highest arterial pressure due to ejection of blood from the heart
• Diastolic blood pressure is the lowest arterial pressure because occurs when the heart ventricles are relaxed.
• Normal resting blood pressure for a young adult is 120 mm of mercury (Hg) over 80 mm, or simply 120/80.

Most common methods for measuring blood pressure are palpatory but only systolic pressure can be measured with
this method and the so-called “cuff method” that involves strapping an inflatable cuff over the upper arm to
temporarily cut off the blood supply; then calculating the blood pressure once the cuff is relaxed.

110. Characterization of sensory system. Fundamental sequence of events in a sensory system

Stimulus: form of energy to which is not responsive. Activates a receptor.

Sensory organ or receptor: specialized structures activated by stimuli and transduce the incoming stimulus into
electrochemical signals.

• Free nerve ending

• Receptor, responding to pressure, or mechanical stimulus.

Sensory cell may constitute all the receptor and organ contains separate sensory cells.
Sensory membrane: stimuli cause a change in the membrane permeability to some ion. A stimulus will cause a change
in the membrane potential of the sensory membrane (Receptor potential which is the generator one and Action
potentials which is the nerve impulse)

Then the impulses are sent to brain processed there

111. Classification of receptors. Sensory adaptation

Classification of receptors by complexity of the receptor structure

• Free nerve endings

• Multicellular structures
• Sense organs

Classification based on origin of stimulus

• Exteroceptors
• Interceptors
• Proprioceptors

Classification based on stimulus type

• Mechanoreceptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Nociceptors
• Photoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors

Sensory adaptation: reduction in sensitivity of a receptor in the presence of a constant stimulus. Receptor membranes
become less responsive. Action potentials decline in frequency or stop

Adaptation occurs, when a proportion of the voltage-gated Na+ -channels is rapidly inactivated by depolarisation,
which also opens K + - channels. Adaptation can also be caused by a hyperpolarization induced by gradual activation
of Ca2+ -dependent K + -channels.

112. Weber’s law. Fechner’s law. Steven’s power law.

Weber’s law ΔΙ = 𝑘 · 𝐼

∆I ‒ is the minimal stimulus strength difference to perceive jnd – just noticable difference
I ‒ is the initial stimulusintensity
k ‒ cte. indicates the proportion of the stimulus that must be changed to detect a change
 S - sensory intensity
Fechner’s law 𝑆 = 𝑘 · log 𝐼 I - physical intensity
k – cte.
describes how the subjective sensation is related to increases in stimulus size: where S is sensation, k is Weber’s
constant, and I is the magnitude of a stimulus

Steven’s power law 𝑆 = 𝑘 · 𝐼 𝑎 S ‒ is the perceived sensory intensity

k ‒ cte.
I ‒ is the physical stimulus intensity
a ‒ different for different types of sensory stimuli, depends on modality,
characterizes the rate of sensation change with changes in the stimulus intensity

113. Biophysical relationship between stimulus and sensation

The intensity of sensation increases with stimulus intensity non-linearly. It was presumed earlier the sensation
intensity is proportional to the logarithm of stimulus intensity (Weber-Fechner law). Intensity of sensation is IR,
intensity of stimulus is IS , then:

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐾1 log 𝐼𝑆

Today is the relation expressed exponentially (so-called Stevens law):

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐾2 · 𝐼𝑆 𝑎

k1, k2 are the proportionality constants, a is an exponent specific for a sense modality (smaller than 1 for sensation of
sound or light, greater for sensation of warmth or tactile stimuli). The Stevens law expresses better the relation
between the stimulus and sensation at very low or high stimulus intensities.

114. Audiometry, hearing and pain threshold. Sound level meter

Human can perceive 16 – 20.000 Hz

Loudness is intensity of sound

Pain threshold: intensity level of a loud sound which gives pain to the ear, usually between 115 and 140 dB

Sound level meter

115. The structure of the eyeball and its optical properties. Accommodation of the eye, near point
and far point. Presbyopia

They eyeball has diameter of about 24mn. The outer layer is sclera, in anterior segment of eyeball we find the cornea.
The middle layer is rich in blood vessels and is called the vascular layer. In the anterior part of the eyeball, it changes
into two bodies, each with a different function: the ciliary body and the iris.
The iris has an aperture in the centre called the pupil, which by
changing the diameter controls the amount of light. Situated
behind the pupil is the lens. The cavity behind the lens is
transparent called vitreous humour. The inner layer of the wall
of the eye is the retina.

Accommodation is the automatic focusing of the optical system

of the eye

The far point is the limit to the eye's accommodation range. The near point of the eye is the minimum distance of the
object from the eye, which can be seen distinctly without strain.

Presbyopia is physiological insufficiency of accommodation associated with the aging of the eye that results in
progressively worsening ability to focus clearly on close objects.

116. Spherical and aspherical vision defects. Causes and corrections

spherical – myopia and hyperopia: optical power of the eye is either too large or too small to focus light on the retina.
People with refraction error frequently have blurry vision.

aspherical – astigmatism: an optical defect in which vision is blurred due to inability of the optics of eye to focus a
point object into a sharp focused image on the retina. This may be due to an irregular or curvature of cornea or lens.

Corrections:

Hyperopia → light rays come to a focus behind retina, convex lens corrects it by focusing light rays directly to retina.

Myopia → light rays focus in front of the retina, concave lens in front of the eye causes the light rays to diverge slightly
before striking the eye

117. Visual acuity, equation for the refractory power of the eye, the function of the Snellen’s
optotype and its construction

Visual acuity is the smallest visual angle at which an eye distinguishes two point as
separate. Ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute.

1
𝑃=
𝑓

The Snellen optotypes consists of alphabet letters designed to subtend 5’ to the eye at
5 meters. Each letter is enclosed in a square of 5', and the details can be separated by a
visual angle of 1’.
 118. Biomechanics principles, mechanical stress, strain, stiffness. Viscoelasticity

Mechanical stress expresses the internal forces that neighbouring particles of a continuous material exert on each
other, while strain is the measure of the deformation of the material.

Strain is the % of change in length of the material in relation to original length. When a force is applied to any material,
such as bone, it undergoes deformation. The amount of deformation in the material relative to its original length is
the strain.

Stiffness is the extent to which an object resists deformation in response to an applied force.

Viscoelasticity refers to the tendency of a material to act like both a solid and a fluid. Property of materials that exhibit
both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation.

119. Biomechanics of bones and ligaments. Muscle structure and actions

120. Virtual and augmented reality

Virtual reality (VR): simulated experience, similar but still different from real-world experiences

Augmented reality (AR): real-world objects are supplemented or modified by computer-generated perceptual
information

121. Haptic interface and robotically assisted surgery da Vinci

 122. Nanoparticles properties and preparation, nanotechnology in medicine

There are three major physical properties of nanoparticles:

• Highly mobile in free state

• Have enormous specific surface areas
• They may exhibit what are known as quantum effects

Nanoparticles are traditionally synthesized using wet chemistry methods, which involve first generating the particles
in a solution, drop casting the wet particles onto a substrate, and removing the solvent, surfactants, and other
materials from the particles.
 123. Nanomedicine, targeted pharmacotherapy with nanoparticles, oncotherapy, theragnostic

124. Health risks of using nanoparticles

• Lung inflammation and heart problems

• Alters system that regulates involuntary functions in cardiovascular system, such as control of heart rate
• Can cause cell damage and damage to the DNA
• Human body has no natural immunity to new substances and is more likely to find them toxic