To know the validity of a given s tatement, we first note the Conn of given

statement. To show it has truth value true.

• For "p and q" (ii p is true (ii) q is true

• For "p or q" (i) p is faJse, q is true (iii q is false, pis true (ill) pis
true, q is true
• Fir 'if and only ir.
In order to prove the statement "if and only if", we need to show that
(ii If p is true, then q is true
(ii) If q is true, then p is true
• In order to prove the statement "if p then q", we need to show any one
of the following to be true:
(i) By taking p to be true show that q must be true.
(ii) By taking q to be false, show that p must be false,
(iii) By talcing p to be true and q to be false, reach at a contradiction
 Cbapter - 15 Stattattca

Raap, IIAD Demration

•••&'"' Range represents the difference of maximum and minimum values

of lhe given data.
Range of a series - Maximum value - minimum value
lleao DeTtatioll: Mean deviation is defined a s lhe arithmetic mean of the
absolute values of lhe deviations of the variates from some average value.
For raw of unpouped clata: If x1, x2, .. .. . , xn are lhe variat.ea, then mean
deviation is defined as, Mean deviation • .!. l:~- ,lx, - Ml , where Mis average
•
value
For (nqacacy dwtrfbutlon data: Let x 1, x2, ..... , Xn be the variates with
respective frequencies f,, fa, ..... , fn. Then lheir mean deviation is given by ,

Mean deviation~;= l:r: 1 {,lx, -Ml , N = l:l',. 1 {,

M represents average value of lhe frequency distribution data.

For Grouped clata: When data is given in the form of classes, then lhar
respective mid-values arc taken as variates and process of frequency
(ljstribution data is followed.
Standud Dewtattoa. Veriulce
Standanl dffiattoe: Standard deviation is defined as the positive square
root of the arilhmetlc mean of the squared deviations of the variate&, taken
from arithmetic mean of the variates under consideration. Standard
deviation is denoted by 'ti.
For ungrouped raw data: Let x ,, x,, .... , Xn be lhe given variates, then their
standard deviation is given by

For frequency distribution data: lfx ,, x,, .... , Xn are variates with
frequencies r, , '2, .... , r. respectively, then

o=
l::'., /, (x, - xP
N
For grouped distnoution data : We find the mid-values or the cla-s and
then proceed as in frequency distnoution data. For grouped distnoution
data, we apply shon cut method.

.r, -A •
'\'
d1 = h ,N =L, f,
I• I

A is assumed mean and h is class size.

Variance: Square or standard deviation is caUed variance.

Variance • (Standard deviation)' = u'

llotc: For variance we can use square or the above given formulae.

Coefficient or variation: Coefficient or variation is defined as CV= ix 100,

where "and x arc standard deviation and mcnn of the data.
llote: Less the coefficient of variation, more consistent is the data.

The series having greater coefficient or variation (CV) is said to be more

variable than the other.

The series having leaser coemcienl or variation (CV) is said to be more

consistent than 1he other.
 Chapter - 16 ProbabWtJ

Sample space
Sci of all lhc possible outcomes in an experiment is its sample space. It is
denoted by S and number of clements in sample space is denoted by n(S).

TJpea of nenta

Im,-lble EYent

Event A which cannot happen in the experiment. We can say A • 4> or n(AJ •
0.
If n(Al • 0, then event A cannot happen in the experiment and is knOWill as
an impoaaible evenL
llat11allf uclaam nenta: Two events A and B arc sald to be 111Utualiy
exclusive if they are disjoint, i.e. happening of one excludes I.he
simultaneous happening of the other. We write, if A and Bare mutually
exclusive, then A n B = ,ti • n(A n 8) = 0.

SoNeftllt
An evc_nt A which always happens when an experiment is performed. We can
say A: S, the sample space of an experiment n(A) • n!S). If n(A) : n(SJ, then
event A is sure to happen in the experiment and is known as a sure event.

Ealuuatlfl nenta: If A,, A~ ....... A,, are n events of an experiment such

that A1 U A:; u ... U A.,• a then events A,, A:;, ••••. , An arc said 10 be
exhaustive events.

"' (A,) + n~ + .... + n!An) ~ I.

8Jmpleft'Cllt
An event which baa only one sample point of a sample apace.
lluta&IIJ' kobtal- and klulUffift -t■: If events A1, A2, ..... , An of an
cxp,criment with sample space S arc such that

la! A, u Aa u ... u An • S
(b) Ai n A1 = ,ti Vi,/
Their events arc said to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive • (A1) +
nlA,) + ..• + n(AnJ • I.

Compoand eftAt
 An event lhat has more than one sample point of a sample space.

AJpbra or ffCDta
ComplemeDt.uy neDt
Non-happening of an event A is known as complementaty event of an event
A. For example, if an event ill getting a red card, then its complementary
event of an event A is denoted by A' or Ac or not A or A. Also we have A u :ii =
Sand An A=~-
S-tAor B
Happening of event A or event B or both. We also write A u B.
Sweat A and B
Simultaneous happening of both the events A and B. We also write A n B.

Event A lnat - t B
Happening of only event A. We also write A - B or A n B.

Mk>matk &pplVKII to prol>uuaty

Given an experiment with a sample space S. The probability of an event A.
P(A). is a real valued function, whose domain is power set of A and range is
(0, 1J. Satisfying the axioms
(a) P(A) ~ 0
(b) P(S) • I
(c) If A and 8 arc mutually exclusive events then ptA u 8) • P(A) + P(B)
Probabilit,. of an event
If A is an event of an experiment whose saJDple space is S then its
probability, denoted by P(AI, is the ratio of the number of elements
favourable for an event A to the total number of elements in the sample
apace S . We write it as P(A) = : ;; : .

We notice O S P(A) S I , i.e. probability of an event always lies between O and

1 including O and I . Probability of an event cannot be negative or greater
than 1. If probability of an event is zero then that event cannot happen in
the experiment and if probability of an event is one then event is sure to
happen in the expe.r iment.
Bftat and their respective praba":'UH••
We notice A and A arc mutually exclueive and ellhftue-tive even~. Le. P(AJ +
P(A) • I- P(AJ, P(not Al• I - P(AI.

Additio n tbeonm or p-sobn'bt\lty

If A and B arc two given events, the probability of happening of A or B is
given by P(A u B) • P(A) + P(B) - P(A n Bl
Or

Pl!\ or B) - P(AI + P(BJ - P(A .e nd B)

For three events A, B, C, we have

P(A u B u C) • P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A n Bl - P(B n Cl - P(C n A) + P(A n B n

Cl

Odds

If odde in favour of events A arc p : q, then P(Al • ..E...

p-+q
and P(A) = ..1..
p+q

tr odds against event A are p : q, then P(A) • ..!L

p+q
end P'A'
\n)
=11+q
..E....

Other re.ulu on probability

P(only Al = P(A n Bl = P(A) - P(A n Bl

P(at least one)• I - P(none)1• 1 - P(0) .

P(neither A nor B) • P(A n B)• I - P(A u B) = I - P(A or BJ.