Professional Documents
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CEPRO Forensic 5
CEPRO Forensic 5
FORENSIC 5
LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
Polygraph
Polygraph is an instrument that simultaneously records the changes of physiological reactions in the human
body as indicative of deception.
It is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance
as an indication of emotional disturbances especially of lying when questioned.
Thomas Jeffferson was the first person to use the term polygraph to describe one of his inventions which
could repeatedly rewrite words in 1790.
Lying- as commonly used in our study, is the uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading
impression with the intention of wrongfully affecting the acts, opinion or affection of another. It can be accomplished
either by:
1. Verbal terms spoken by the mouth;
2. Acts, feigns, ruses or other means by which may be able to get the desired results through marks and
symbols.
Detection- is the act of discovering the existence or presence of something hidden or obscured.
Polygraphy- from the two Greek word: “POLY” which means MANY or MORE; and “GRAPHOS” which means
WRITINGS.
It is the scientific detection of deception through the aid or use of polygraph instrument.
Polygraph Examination
It is a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a polygraph examiner and an examinee
during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph examination to exist respiration, electrodermal activity,
and cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded. It is also termed “Forensic Psychophysiological
Detection of Deception.”
Polygraph Examiner
Polygraph examiner is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the truthfulness of statement
through the use of a polygraph instrument. He is someone who has successfully completed formal education and
training in conducting polygraph examination and is certified by his agency to conduct such examination. Polygraph
examiner is also known as “Forensic Psychophysiologist”.
Polygraph Examiner
One who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the truthfulness of statement through the use of a
polygraph instrument.
Subject
The Examiner
1. Basic Qualification of Polygraph Examiner
a. An intelligent person with fair educational background- preferably college degree holder (BS Psychology
and/or BS Criminology)
b. He should have an intense interest in the work itself
c. Have a good practical understanding of human nature or behavior in general.
d. Has a suitable personality trait which may be evident from his otherwise general ability to get along with
people and be well liked by his friends and associates.
e. A person of good moral character.
2. Basic Training for Six Months:
a. Reading instruction in the pertinent phases of Physiology and Psychology
b. Frequent observation of an experienced examiner working on actual cases.
c. Personal experience in experimental case testing under instructor’s supervision.
d. Examination and interpretation of a considerable number of records in solved cases.
e. It should also include instruction, as well as observational and personal experience, in the application of
psychological tactics and techniques for obtaining confessions and other helpful information subsequent
to the testing of truthful subjects.
Note: As a general rule, the results of the polygraph test are INADMISSIBLE as evidence.
Limitation of Polygraph
1. Person It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for an investigation.
2. It is not a lie detector, but it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. It does not determine facts; it records responses to that the subject knows to be true.
4. It is an accurate as the examiner is competent.
5. The test will not be given until enough facts of the case have been established to permit an examiner to
prepare a complete set of suitable question.
6. A test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or place in any report that a person will be considered guilty
because he refuse to take the test.
8. A test will not be given until the accusation have been explained to the subject.
9. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.
10. No examination can be conducted to an unfit subject.
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Two Types of Polygraph Instrument
Uses of Polygraphy
1. Pre-employment Screening- a test used to screen applicants for employment. Some private companies in
the Philippines require their applicants to undergo polygraph screening test.
2. Periodic Audit- a test used to determine the honesty and integrity of the present employee with the
company.
3. Case Investigation- a test commonly conducted in the field today when there is an incident or issue
under question.
4. Paired Testing- a polygraph test conducted when there are two persons who asserts contradictory
statement. In this test, both persons simultaneously undergo polygraph exam in separate rooms with
different examiners.
5. Post-Conviction Sex Offender Testing- a test conducted to those convicted of sex crimes to monitor their
behavior while under parole or probation. Presently, this provides effective monitoring procedures in the
field today.
The issue of lie detection is as old as man himself. Back in the ancient times, rulers and their justice courts
used various techniques to catch a liar and establish the truth. Historical chronicles and ancient written records carry
evidence about complex rituals and sophisticated ordeals otherwise known as “divine justice” developed to this end.
Since the dawn of civilization, mankind has been seeking ways to distinguish truth from lies among individuals
suspected of criminal wrongdoing. Various techniques were used for the verification of truth and the detection of
deception over the centuries-many o0f which being ridiculous and cruel.
a.1. Ordeal of Hot Water/ Boiling Water Ordeal- this test requires the accused to
retrieve a stone from a boiling water. The depth from which the stone had to be retrieved
depends on the number of accusations: up to the wrist for one accusation and up to the
elbow for three. The ordeal would take place in a church, with several in attendance, purified
and praying to God to reveal the truth. Afterwards, the hand of the accused is bound and
examined after three days to see whether it was healing or festering. If it is healing, the
accused would be considered innocent, otherwise, the accused is said to be guilty. It was
practiced by the Catholic churches until the 12th century.
a.2. Ordeal of Boiling Oil- there are two version of this ordeal. In one
version, the accused parties are ordered to retrieve an item from a container of
boiling oil, with those who refused the task being found guilty. In the other version of the
trial, both the accused and the accuser have to retrieve an item from boiling oil, with the
person or persons whose hand remains unscathed being declared innocent.
a.3. Red Hot Iron Ordeal- the accused will be required to touch an extremely hot
metal nine (9) times (unless burned sooner) with his tongue. If the tongue is burned, he will
be judged guilty. In some countries, they used a hot needle instead of hot iron to tease the
lips. In this case, the bleeding of the lips is an indication of guilt.
b. Ordeal of Cold Water- this ordeal has a precedent in Code of Ur- Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi.
Under this ordeal, a man accused of sorcery is to be submerged in a stream, if he survived, he is acquitted. In the 16 th
and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with witch hunts. An accused that sinks and usually drowns is
considered innocent, while body that floats indicates witchcraft. Demonologists developed inventive new theories
about how it worked. Some argued that witches float because they had renounced baptism when entering the devil’s
service.
c. Ordeal of Balance- practiced in the institute of Vishnu, India. A scale of balance is used, in one end of the
scale, the accused is placed and in the end a counterbalance.
The person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to deliver an exhortation on the balance and get
back in. if he was found lighter than before then he should be acquitted.
The Ancient China used dry rice to serve as their course. If the subject fails to swallow the rice of
spit out dry, he will be deemed guilty.
e. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal)- In this method the accused will be required to run fast for
twelve (12) hours, take a cup of rice and drink dark colored water (as much as one gallon). The dark water
is believed to be sacred water. As it enters the body, it will search the heart and once it found that the
accused is innocent, it will served as an emetic and will cause the accused person to vomit the rice as
evidence of his innocence. This is also called “The Trial of the Eucharist”.
f. Ordeal of the Corsnead/ Ordeal of the Blessed Bread- a priest puts the corsnead or hallow bread in the
mouth of the accused, with various imprecations. If the accused swallowed it he was freed from
punishment.
g. The Test of the Eucharist- this was applied chiefly among the clergy and monks. When they took the hist
it was believed that God would smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others believed that if the
accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to take in, Angel Gabriel will descend from
heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the poisonous drink.
h. Ordeal of the Bier- it was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out the killer. In England, it was
usual for the accused to approached the bier on the which the corpse lays. In view of the witness, the
wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to bleed again.
i. Ordeal of the Cross/Trial of the Cross- it was introduced in the Early Middle Ages by the church in an
attempt to discourage judicial duels among the Germanic peoples. As with judicial duels, the accuser has
to undergo the ordeal together with the accused. They will stand on either side of a cross and will stretch
out their hands horizontally. The one to first lower his arms will lose. This ordeal was prescribed by
Charlemagne. On the other hand, a decree of Lothar I abolished the ordeal so as to avoid the mockery of
Christ.
j. Trial of the Waxen Shirt- the accused was dressed in a cloth covered with wax and walked barefoot over
coals of fire. If he was hurt by the fire and wax did not melt, he was considered innocent.
k. The Test of the Axe-In Greece, a suspended axe was spun in the center of a group of suspects.
Whosoever was in line with the blade when the axe stops was supposed to be the guilty as pointed by the
divine providence.
l. The Test of the Candle- This ordeal was used in Burma. The accuser and the accused are each given
identical candles which are lighted at the same time. The candle that burns longer determines who
speaks the truth.
m. The “Hereditary Sieve”- Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this ordeal in his famous book on Criminal
Investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of each suspect was called. The
deception criteria were described as follows---“If the beans jumps out of the sieve, the owner of the
name pronounced is innocent, if the bean remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.”
o. Ordeal of the Tiger- practiced in Siam, the accused and the accuser are placed on a cage of a tiger: if the
tiger spare one of them is considered innocent.
Borneo- the accuser and accused were presented with shellfish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured
on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved first was adjudged the winner.
Nigeria- the priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If the feather passed through the
tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method practiced into the
same country is the pouring of corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmed if
innocent. Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is also
practiced.
Ayur Veda- “Hindu book health and science” the earliest known reference of the methods for detecting deception.
The polygraph, or most commonly known as lie detector, has been in existence in police science many, many
years ago. Tracing back its beginning, one may find out that there are several persons instrumental in the
development of the polygraph instrument as we know it today- recording changes in respiration, galvanic skin
response (GSR) or electrodermal activity (EDA) and cardiovascular activity.
Daniel Defoe
In 1730, a year before Daniel Defoe died, he wrote an essay entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate
Preventing of the Street Robberies and Suppressing All other Disorders of the Night” where he suggested the use of
the pulse to detect deception. Defoe’s essay called upon the attention of many scientists to employ medical science
in the fight against crime, he recommended that taking the pulse of the suspicious fellow was a practical effective and
human method for distinguishing truthfulness from lying.
Angelo Mosso
In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of an Italian Psychologist Angelo
Mosso, pursued in his studies of emotion and fear and its influence for measuring blood pressure and pulse change
called a “PLETHYSMOGRAPH.” He also found out that the urination in blood pressure and the circulation of the blood
in the brain during fear is far greater than those resulting from the effect of mere noises and sounds.
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Mosso devised a scientific cradle which was designed to measure the flow of blood while a person lays on his
back in a prone position, so that the blood flow became concentrated first in one part of the body and then in
another. The cradle consisted of a large, heavy table and a deplicate knife-edge fulcrum at the center. A heavy
wooden plank rested securely and evenly on the fulcrum. A heavy metal counterpoise, which could be adjusted up or
down was fastened vertically in the middle of the plank and secured with two metal bars at each end of the plank in
order to prevent from swaying. When the subject experienced emotion, the blood would rush to the head and throw
the cradle out of balance which in turn would be recorded on a revolving smoked drum. A rubber cuff was also
wrapped around the subject’s foot and connected by a tube to a tambour recording pulse fluctuations.
Cesare Lombroso
In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Criminologist and tutor of Angelo Mosso, published the second edition
of his book entitled L ‘HOMME CRIMINEL (The Criminal Men) where he related the use of plethysmograph and
sphygmograph during interrogation of suspects. He made a modification of the plethysmograph resulting in the
hydrospygmograph. Lombroso applied the blood pressure pulse test in actual criminal suspects. The suspect’s fist
would be immersed in a water filled tank then sealed across the top of the tank by a rubber membrane. The
pulsations of the blood in the fist were transferred to the water and the changes in water level were carried over
an air-filled tube which will be recorded on the revolving smoke drum.
He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of detecting
lies. The first person to use polygraph technique in a suspect.
Francis Galton
Francis Galton introduced the word association test in 1879. A group of words would be presented to a
patient with intervals long enough to allow the patient to utter his first thought to each word. Several irrelevant
questions were inserted in every question relevant to the crime committed. Guilty examinee, when confronted with a
relevant word, will suffer from an inner conflict which may be manifested either by a delay in reaction, more rapid
reaction time, repetition of relevant word, blocking in response or uncoordinated physical movements.
George Sticker
Sticker believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the influence of the exciting
mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon it. Sticker made the earliest application of
psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.
He made the first galvanograph for detecting deception based from the work of his predecessor and
introduced the method of detecting from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing. He worked on the influence
and relation of the sweat glands to skin resistance.
An English Clinician and Cardiologist, constructed the clinical polygraph in 1892, an instrument once used in
medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record undulated line, tracings of the vascular pulses
(radial, venous, and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked paper. In 1906, he refined his
clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devised the clinical ink polygraph with the help of Lancashine watchmaker,
Sebastian Shaw. This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper rolling and time-marker movements and
it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.
Veraguth Otto
He is said to be the first person to use the term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth was the first scientist to use
the word association test with galvanometer. In 1907, he described his observation on galvanic phenomena and
Vittorio Benussi
In March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology in
Rome. In his paper, he described how he recorded the subjects pattern using a “Marey Pneumograph” noting the
changes in inspiration/ expiration ratio during deception. In addition to respiration, he also included the recording of
heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception and probably the first person to record more than one
physiological response.
He discovered a method for calculating the quotient of the inhalation to exhalation as means of verifying the
truth and detecting deception of the subject. He demonstrated the changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater
value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.
Marston was credited as the creator of the systolic blood pressure test used. In 1915, he employed in an
attempt to detect deception during questioning, using a standard blood pressure cuff and stethoscope. It required
repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to obtain reading at intervals during examination, which became one
component of the modern polygraph, this was called discontinuous technique. Marston wife Elizabeth Holloway
Marston, was also involved in the development of the systolic blood pressure test. According to Marston’s sons, it
was his mother Elizabeth who suggested to him that when she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to
climb.
In 1938, he published a book, “The Lie Detector Test” wherein he documented the theory and used of the
device. In 1938, he appeared in advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette
razors were better than the competition. He failed several times to apply his technique in investigating a kidnapping
case; thus he went on to pursue other activities under the pseudonym “Charles Moulton”, and created what would
be a famous comic strip character called “Wonder Woman”. Later, Dr. Marston’s mentor, Hugo Munsterberg,
suggested the forensic application of the word association technique in detecting deception.
Harold Burtt
In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of deception. He was able to
determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in the detection of deception than the changes in blood
pressure. The results obtained by Benussi were partially confirmed by Burtt.
An Italian psychologist who developed the galvanic skin reflex. The GSR reflected emotional changes by
measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to electricity.
John A. Larson
His instrument differed from Marston’s as is provided continuous readings, rather than discontinuous
readings. Larson was considered as the “Father of Scientific Lie Detection” for being the first person to verify the
truth and detect deception in a more specific way. Larson was credited as forerunner of modern polygraph, and also
considered as the “Father of Polygraphy”.
Leonarde Keeler
Ruckmick
In 1936, the term psychogalvanic reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick and proposed the
term electrodermal response. However, Veraguth believed that the electrodermal phenomena was attribute not to
vascular changes in the skin but to the activity of the sweat glands.
John E. Reid
Reid was an attorney, polygraph examiner and former member of the Chicago Police Scientific Crime
Detection Laboratory and Director of John E. Reid and Associates. In 1950, he developed the “control question” which
consisted of a known lie and incorporated it into the relevant-irrelevant technique. In addition to the recording of
breathing, GSR and cardio, he developed a means of recording arm and leg movements. Reid also developed the
guilt-complex test to be administered to overly responsive examinee.
He developed improvement with the conventional polygraph by incorporating muscular resistance his device
was known as the Reid polygraph. (Father of Control)
Cleve Backster
Backster, a polygraph expert born in 1924, developed the so called Backster Zone Comparison Technique in
1960. Backster developed the “psycological set theory and the anticlimax dampening concept”. He also developed
and introduced the “quantification system of chart analysis” which permits the examiner to score the charts
numerically according to standard rules.
Richard O. Arther
First polygraphist to record simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. In
1965, Arther, Chief Associate of John E. Reid and Associates from September 1951 to August 1953, introduced the
Arther ll polygraph instrument which contains a “stimulus marker”. He developed an improvised polygraph machine
with two galvanic skin resistance. The instrument is capable of recording the beginning and ending of question and
the moment the examinee answered.
Department of Energy
In 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy commissioned a review committee of the National Academy of
Science to study the scientific evidence on the polygraph.
Withstanding more than a century of research, development and widespread use, the polygraph examination
remains the most effective means of verifying the truth and detecting deception.
Dr. Joseph F. Kurbis (1970)- of Furdham University in New York City is the first researcher who used potential
computer application for the purpose of polygraph chart analysis.
Psychophysiology
The study of the relationship or the effect of the mind to the body.
Homeostasis- is complex interactive regulatory by which the body strives to maintain a state of internal
equilibrium.
When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it immediately prepares the body for fight or flight by
causing the adrenal glands to secrete hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine and the blood will be
distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the emergency.
Fight, Flight, Freeze- are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat, sometimes simply called F3.
The physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors are the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an
expenditure of energy, and narrowing attention and focus to the features of the threat.
Epinephrine- is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to constrict peripheral
blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity through the release of glucose,
and inhibit digestive processes. It is considered a psychogenic hormone because it alters psychological processes
when released in large quantities, such as when under stress. It is produced in the adrenal medulla, located
immediately above each kidney. In British, it is called adrenaline.
Hypothalamus- is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire endocrine-hormonal
system.
If threatening, the hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic nervous system that causes
physiological changes and has psychological impact as well. These physiological reactions such as changes in
breathing pattern, skin response and cardiovascular activity are recorded by the instrument for interpretation.
Polygraph testing uses questions like relevant and comparison questions for numerical comparison and
interpretation.
This shows that every reaction that the subject inhibits while undergoing the polygraph examination, is being
controlled by the central nervous system.
Fear- an emotional response to specific danger that appears to beyond a person defensive power.
Stimulus- a force of emotion reaching the organism and excite deceptors. In short is a force that arouses the
organism of any part to activity.
Truth defined
The deliberate, complete and objective communication whether verbal, written or gesture, of the
recollection of a person, place, thing and/or event which the communication believes to exist, have existed or
occurred.
Lie defined
The deliberate communication to another, either verbally, written or by gesture, of something that the
communicator knows or suspects to be not true.
It is the omission of information, with deliberate intent to deceive and mislead someone who requests the
truth.
Types of Lie
1. Big Lie- a lie which attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which will likely be construed
by the victim’s common sense or by some information that he already possessed.
2. Bluffed Lie- a lie that pretends to have a capability or intention which one does not actually possess. Bluffing
is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when taken in the context of a game (i.e., deception
consented to in advance by the players).
3. Emergency Lie- a strategic lie told when the truth may not be told because harm to a third party would result.
4. Lie of Exaggeration- a lie often used to exaggerate things in order to obtain or get some advantage.
Exaggeration occurs when the most fundamental aspect of statement are true but only to a certain degree. It
is also described as “stretching the truth” or making something to appear more powerful, meaningful or real
than it actually is.
5. Lie of Fabrication- is something made up or a misrepresentation of a truth. It is often used by the subject in
an interview.
6. Lie of Omission- a lie used by omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving another person with a
misconception.
7. Misleading/ Dissembling Lie- it is one when there is no outright lie but still retains the purpose of getting
someone to believe in an untruth. Dissembling likewise describes the presentation of facts in a way that is
literally true but intentionally misleading.
8. Noble Lie- is on that would normally discord if uncovered but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an
orderly society therefore potentially beneficial to others.
9. Puffery Lie- is an exaggerated claim typically found in an advertising and publicity announcements. For
example, “the highest quality at a lower price”. Such statement is unlikely to be true but cannot be proven
false and so do not violate trade laws.
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10. Lie of Compliment or False Reassurance- a lie intended to please others. For example, “that looks good to
you” or “everything is going to be alright”.
11. White Lie- a lie that would cause only relatively minor discord if it were uncovered and typically offers some
benefit to the hearer. It is often used to maintain harmony of friendship, in the home or in the office.
12. Red Lie- a lie used to destroy the ideologies by means of propaganda which is common in communist
countries.
13. Malicious Lie- a lie usually used to mislead or a dishonesty intended to obstruct justice.
Variations of Lie
1. Derail- change the subject of discussion in order to avoid the truth. (For example, one might feign being
offended in order to stop a conversation about one’s questionable actions.)
2. Confuse- quibble or confuse the issue, or deliberately use ambiguity in order to deceive or mislead.
3. Misinform- invent or perpetrate a false story with the intent to deceive or mislead.
Types of Liar
1. Panic Liar- one who lies in order to avoid the consequence of confession. He or she is afraid of
embarrassment to love ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational Liar- is someone who has lied for years. This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a
higher pay-off than telling the truth.
3. Tournament Liar- one who loves to lie and is excited by the challenges of not being detected. He views an
interview as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the only weapon remaining with which to
fight. This person convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her to confess. He
wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethological Liar- is one who is taught not to be a squealer. This person loves to interrogate to be interrogated
and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he or she will never reveal the truth, the creed of
underworld gangs.
5. Psychopathic Liar- this person has no conscience. He or she shows no regret for his dishonest actions and no
manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar because he is a good actor.
6. Pathological Liar- this person who cannot distinguish what is right from wrong. These are those persons who
are mentally sick.
7. Black Liar- one who enjoys pretending. A liar of this type is also known as hypocrite.
Mythomania- it is the condition where there is an excessive or abnormal propensity for lying and exaggerating.
Signs of Lying
Verbal Signs of Deception
The determination of deception through the words uttered by the subject is somehow difficult because
people can easily manipulate or control their verbal expressions. Accordingly, the least dependable signs of lying
are the ones which a person has the most control, such as words, because a person can rehearse their lies.
1. Speech Patterns
When a person is lying one might notice a higher pitch in tone, stuttering, clearing the throat and frequents
pauses. The person might use filler words such as “uh, er, oh” and um” during moments of hesitation as lies are
put together. Liars also will cut out contractions, using “was not” instead of “wasn’t” or “did not” rather than
“didn’t.” It is also typical for a person to get tongue-tied and lose his thoughts in mid-sentence.
2. Repeating Questions
As lies are formulated, the person needs time to think. Instead of giving a straight answer, they usually repeat
the question, or there may have a slight pause between answers. The person might also ask to repeat the question
just asked, even though he heard it the first time. These are the tactics that liars used to buy time before responding.
Defensive behavior, denial and trying to make the other person feel guilty might also be used as the liar tries
to create empathy. One might hear things like, “I would never lie” as the person tries to convince the interviewer that
he is innocent. Most people caught in the act of lying will flat out deny it and even become angry. Everyone tells lies
sometimes, so anyone who say they “never lie” is probably lying.
A swift subject change is another of the verbal signs of lying. The person might also tell a story that lacks
details. If the story starts to change or becomes different at different times, this is strong indication of lying. Liars will
also contradict themselves, making statements that do not completely make sense. If suspicion occurs, press on
asking questions and look for details that do not fit together.
5. Unwillingness to Cooperate
Lies do not want to be found out and will significantly more uncooperative than someone who is telling the
truth. As they are pushed to speak, there are more opportunities to slip up, which might result to frustration or
anger. However, in some accusations, anger is just a common response. There are some subjects who are overly
polite in order to mislead the interviewer that they are telling the truth.
Verbal Clues
Verbal clues to deception include not only the spoken word, but also gestures of acknowledgement, such as
nod of the head. When a deceptive person avoids a truthful answer by supplying evasive answer, he or she does so as
an attempt to reduce the inner conflict created by not telling the truth.
a. Methods of responding to the question- many clues to deception can be found in the way the respondent
answer the question. Truthful people tend to be direct, untruthful people tend to be circumspect about the
answer.
b. Length of time before giving response- in general, truthful persons answer question quickly; untruthful
persons take their time in giving response. There may be an awkward silence, or the respondent may use a
delaying tactic, such as “who me?” or “why should I do”.
c. Repetition of question- repeating the question is another means for the deceiver to gain time to frame his or
her answer. The question may be repeated verbatim, or the respondent may frame the answer with a
request the question. Example; “what did you say again? Or are you asking me if I took kickbacks? A truthful
subject does not have to contemplate his or her answer.
d. Fragmented or incomplete sentence- a liar will often speak in fragmented or incomplete sentences. This is
usually because he or she has commenced the answer, and then thought better of it. Statements such as “I. . .
I. . . can’t think. . it seems to me . . . can be clues of lying.
e. Being overly polite- most people, when wrongly accused of something they didn’t do, don’t take the
accusation lightly. Anger is a common response to an unjust accusation, as well as answering the statement
with a “no”. Untruthful subjects are more likely to be polite to the accuser, using flattering terms such as “sir”
or “maam”. The suspect who has been accused and is untruthful will often say, “sir, no offense to you, but I
didn’t do it”.
f. Oaths- untruthful persons will frequently recite oaths, such as “I swear to God I didn’t do it” or “I swear on
my Fathers grave”. Most truthful person do not need to swear or affirm; they are vehement in their denials.
g. Clarity of response- truthful persons tend to be very clear in their response, while untruthful persons tend to
mumble, talk softly, and diffuse their answers. Such responses are to avoid the stress caused by an untruthful
response; the liar is hedging. In that way, if caught in a lie, the earlier “soft” response may aid in diffusing the
lie.
h. Use of words- truthful subject have no trouble denying the allegation in specific terms, while untruthful one
will have problems with the wording used.
i. Assertiveness- truthful people will respond directly without waiver or qualification; untruthful people tend to
respond indirectly with waivers and qualification.
Prepared by: GTA
j. Inconsistencies- liars get caught up in their own web of deceit.
k. Slips of the tongue- liars, as Freud discovered, quite often slip up and reveal themselves through a “slip of the
tongue”.
l. Tirades- may be in direct proportion to the stress generated in the lie, and occur at a time of anger or other
strong emotion.
m. Pauses- pauses in speech patterns may be one of the more reliable clues to deception. The examiner should
evaluate pauses in speech that are too long, too frequent, or which occur at inappropriate places more
closely.
n. Speed of speech- peoples who are nervous or upset frequently increase the speed of their speech-words
tends to run together and the conversation can be disjointed. A pattern of increased speed of speech during
the relevant portion of the questioning could indicate deception.
The nonverbal signs encompass body movements or gestures of persons while being asked a series of
questions. Body gestures or signals are difficult to control and considered the most reliable clues to lying.
Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist, pioneered the original study of non-verbal communication. In face to face
conversation, verbal competent is less than 35% and non-verbal component is more than 65%. Aside from that, a
person can make and recognize around 250,000 facial expressions. However, not all of these are effective signs of
deception. There are only eight common body gestures associated with lying.
1. Mouth Cover
A lying person tends to cover his mouth with several fingers when lying. The human brain causes this
and the person does this subconsciously to hide the words just being said.
2. Nose Touch
If the person speaking is not suffering from cold or fever and keeps touching his nose while talking, he
is lying. It has a scientific explanation that once a person tells a lie, a chemical named catecholamine is released and
causes the tissues inside the nose to swell due to the mental pressure. The secretion of chemical is not visible but the
swelling creates an itching that urges the person to touch the nose. The same feeling also happens during anxiety or
annoyance. Generally, it can just be a very quick one or at a few times.
3. Itchy Nose
Some people while telling a lie get busy with scratching nose. Usually, they do it to disguise their
mouth cover or nose touch gesture.
4. Eye Rub
This is another lying gesture. It is the brain’s attempt to help a liar to avoid the face to face look
during the utterance of lying words. Men do this gesture more and women show this gesture comparatively less.
5. Ear Grab
People show this gesture (touching the ear lobe) once they suffer from anxiety. A good number of
liars show this gesture to avoid anxiety.
6. Neck Scratch
Some people start scratching their neck by their index finger of writing hand while lying, especially
once the verbal language contradicts with fact.
7. Collar Pull
Lies cause a tingling sensation in neck tissues and a liar feels an urge to rub that place. This is why
some people pull their collar while lying. At the same time, many liars start sweating at their neck region.
8. Fingers in the Mouth
This is an unconscious gesture of liars when lying. By showing this gesture, a liar wants to send a
reassuring signal of guarantee about his false statement.
Non-verbal Clues
Non-verbal clues are caused by the same reason that verbal clues are; increased stress. Non-verbal clues
include pattern in the body movements as well as certain facial expressions.
(Francis Galton- he developed the much acclaimed psychological test known as the Word Association Test and which
was later developed by Dr. Carl Guzrav.)
Allen Bell and Charles Mc Quiston- American inventors who developed a device called Psychological Stress
Evaluator. The instrument detects slight trembling in the voice, which may be interpreted to determine if person is
telling the truth)
c. Polygraph Method
The polygraph examination, or much commonly known as lie detector test, is just one of the lie detection
techniques available today. In this process, the examiner focuses in the formulation of the questions and on
observing the responses and reactions of the subject to every question that will be propounded to him. The
instrument, on the other hand, will be the one responsible to detect and record changes in physiological
responses of the subject with focus on cardiovascular activity, skin resistance and respiration.
2. Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the inhibitor” such as:
a. Administration of “truth serum”
(Dr. Edward Mandel House- a U.S psychiatrist and diplomat who introduced truth serum as a method of
detecting deception.)
Drug Use:
Hyoscine hydrobromide- given hypodermically in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced.
Sodium Amytal
Penthotal
Seconal and other barbiturates
Methanine, methyl pheridate
Droperidol and Scopolamine
Trichloroethylene Anesthetic Drug
The use of this method in criminal investigation is not advisable because of the following reason:
Administration of this drug is dangerous- if not properly administered, it may kill the subject or
damage the brain or spinal in such a manner that the subject will turned like a vegetable.
Unreliable result- the information gathered from the subject is not reliable to be true. If the subject
gave false information before the test, he is also likely to give false information under narcosis.
It deprives the subject of his own free will to speak freely.
Information taken from the subject under narcosis is not admissible in court as evidence.
(Anthon Mesmer- in 1778 he was the first one to introduce hypnotism as a method of detecting
deception.)
Unusual Behavior
Clenching of the fist or hands indicate anger
The placing of the upper extremities tightly at one or both sides of the chest may indicate emotional
tension of the subject.
Crying while being investigated maybe indicative of tension, depression, anger, humiliation and
sometimes a demonstration to prove his innocence about the crime in dispute.
Other behavior such as crossing and uncrossing the leg over the other, tapping the table, rubbing the
face or hair, twisting handkerchief or clothing, snapping the fingers, biting the fingernails,
manipulation of any object and other body movements observed may indicate emotional tension,
nervousness, anger and sometimes mental disturbances.
However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception, these include the following.
1. Brain Waves- has been used in neurophysiological for decades to uncover processes in the brain. One type of
brain waves called Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) is of potential interest in lie detection. ERPs are recorded
by sensors placed on the scalp and can reveal the timing and general location of electrical activity in the brain
elicited by the presentation of sounds, words, text and pictures. It has been shown that the ERPs can reveal
whether an individual has guilty knowledge of crime related information when it is placed in a list of other
information that is unrelated to the crime.
Brain waves have been used in neurophysiology for decades to uncover processes in the brain. One
type of brain waves called Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) is of potential interest in lie detection. ERPs are
recorded by sensor placed on the scalp and can reveal the timing and general location of electrical activity in
the brain elicited by the presentation of sounds, words, text and pictures. It has been shown that the ERPs
can reveal whether an individual has guilty knowledge of crime related information when it is placed in a list
of other information that is unrelated to the crime.
2. Brain Imagery- a leading candidate for technology for lie detection is Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(FMRI). An fMRI is a powerful agnet and sophisticated software that can track the brain’s use of blood over
time. It is assumed that more blood is used in particular regions of the brain when they are active than when
they are inactive. The hypothesis for lie detection is that the sequence of the brain activations will be
different between lying and truth telling.
3. Eye tracking- the pattern of a person’s eye movements over an image can reveal whether the person has
seen the image before. This is especially true for photos of faces, but has also been shown for pictures of
scenes. Movement of the eyes can be monitored by illuminating them with an eye-safe infrared light which
creates a reflection that can be detected by a special camera. A software triangulates the reflection to
calculate where the eyes are focused on an image, and tracks the focal point as the eyes move. Specially
designed algorithms use the eye movement information to determine whether the image is familiar or
unfamiliar. Research has found accuracy above 85% for recognition of familiar faces, with lower accuracy for
other types of stimuli. While the technology is non-contact, the rigorous testing protocol limits its usefulness
in a covert capacity. This technology approaching maturity and may be available to law enforcement agencies
in the near term.
Inability to look straight in the eye or what we called GAZE AVERSION is the most prevalent signs of lying.
So if someone, cannot look straight in your eye during a confrontation. That can be a sign that he or she is
telling a lie.
Polygraph Instruments
1. Cardio-Sphygmograph
It was designed to detect changes in the blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject. It is also made up
of the following:
Blood Pressure Cuff- which is attached to the upper right arm of the subject, slightly above the branchial
artery.
Sphygmomanometer- which is utilized to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the system.
Pump bulb assembly- which inflates air into the system, also known as air pump it has a hose connecting
the blood pressure cuff through which the blood pressure changes and passed into the recording pen.
A resonance control unit- is used for reducing or increasing the amount of air pressure to reach the brass
bellows (tambour) and thus reduce or increase the amplitude of pen excursions.
A centering control- which is used to provide adjustment of the tracing so that the composite records
patterns would be on the guideline.
A vent- which provides the means by which air in the system can be released.
A recording pen unit- which is used to record the blood pressure pulse rate changes on the chart paper by
means of a five inch recording pen.
2. Pneumograph Component:
It is designed to detect changes in respiration of the subject. Its major components are the
pneumography chest assembly and the recording unit.
Rubber convoluted tube- which is ten inches in length corrugated rubber attached to the chest and
abdominal area of the subject. One end of the tube is sealed and the other end is connected to the
instrument by a rather thick walled rubber tube considerably larger in diameter than the pneumography
tube itself, expands and contracts as the subject breathes.
The beaded chain- another component of the pneumography assembly is used to fix in place the rubber
convoluted tube.
The pneumograph recording unit- is made up of brass bellows, a frame, crankshaft, countershaft,
adjustable fulcrum, bearing with adjusting screw pen, vent limiting screws, pen cradle and pen centering
control. Volume changes of the chest caused by breathing are transmitted to the chest assembly to the
recording unit. These activities bellows which move forward and backward pushing the crankshaft in turn
applies a torque to the countershaft upon which the pen cradle is attached. The backward and forward
right movement is then recorded to a chart paper.
3. Galvanograph Component:
Its primary function is to detect changes or alteration in skin resistance of the subject. It is made up of the
following components:
Finger electrode assembly which has a finger electrode and retainer bond attached to the left index and
ring finger of the subject. And a connecting plug designed to fasten the system to the polygraph machine.
Recording pen unit which is usually 7 inches in the length.
Amplifier unit which is made to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to mechanical current.
4. Kymograph Component:
Its primarily serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine. It is the device that
records the different tracings by driving the paper out under a recording pen unit. It pulls or drives the chart
paper under a recording pen unit. It pulls or drives the chart paper under a recording pen simultaneously at
The formulation of proper test questions that will be asked on the subject is one of the crucial parts of any
polygraph examination. Errors in making decision of truthful or deception may occur due to poorly constructed
questions. Thus, the examiner should be able to properly formulate the questions to ask on the subject.
Irrelevant Question- a question that has no connection with the matter under investigation and deals with
known facts that the subject cannot deny. It is designed to be emotionally neutral to examinees and usually
answerable by a “Yes”. Also called neutral question.
1. Establish the professional authority in the room; that means, the examiner asks questions and the
suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal behavior for this heightened emotional situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the subject to establish rapport.
4. It minimizes resistance.
During Interview
- What is your name?
- How old are you?
- Where were you born?
Symptomatic Question- is designed to ensure that examiner will not ask un-reviewed questions or that the
examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-reviewed questions.
Examples:
1. Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not gone over word for word?
2. Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this test I have not gone over
word for word?
3. Do you understand that I will only ask questions I reviewed?
4. Do you believe I will not ask you questions we have not reviewed?
Sacrifice Relevant Question- introduces the relevant question to the subject. This is designed to absorb the
response generated by the introduction of relevant question in the series. Generally, the subject will react
upon hearing the question pertaining to matter under investigation, thus, this will be eliminated by
introducing first the relevant questions.
Example:
ñ Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the questions truthfully?
Relevant Question- a question that deals with the matter under investigation. It is designed to elicit
significant reactions from deceptive subject.
- A question formulate from information pertaining to the object of the examination and pointed
at determining the subject’s knowledge of complicity in, or truthfulness or deception regarding
the issue in question.
Purpose: To produce a change from the subject’s norm tracing plus excitement level plus stimulus.
To detect deception as a result of physiological changes in subject’s norm.
To resolve objectivity of the polygraph examination via chart probe and further testing on
potential reaction that result.
1. Control Question (Probable Lie)- a question regarding a wrongdoing unrelated but is similar and less
serious nature to the offense under investigation, and to which the subject will lie if he does not really lie
he will think about it at the time it is asked or be unsure of the complete truthfulness of his answer.
- A question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant question but broader in scope. A
type of question designed to elicit responses from truthful subject. It is used for comparative
purposes with the relevant question. Also known as Comparison Question.
Purpose: To produce greater than offense question in the subject’s responding truthfully to queries
about the offense.
To evoke less stress that the offense questions in deceitful subjects.
2. Symptomatic Questions- a question that relates about the subject trust in the examiner regarding
confinement to the original issue under investigation. (Ex. Are you now convinced that I will not ask you
any question aside from these we have reviews? Or Are you afraid that I will ask you about something
else which I told you I would not?)
Purpose: To ascertain presence of subject’s hidden fears or apprehension unrelated to the issue.
3. SKY Question- these are three (3) question groups together and used only on the fourth chart in Backster
Zone Comparison Test. S= Suspect, K= Know, Y= You. (Ex. “Do you SUSPECT anyone in particular in
stealing Ana’s money?)
Purpose: To confirm specific response from previous charts taken.
To detect indirect/direct involvement or guilty knowledge.
Purpose: The first 2 irrelevant questions are intended to condition the subject to have standard tracing and to
establish truth telling patterns.
Purpose: To determine the responsiveness of the subject to crucial questions and also serve as a check on possibility
of spot respond.
Purpose: To compare the degree of reaction between Relevant and Control Questions
Polygraph Examination
It is a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a polygraph examiner and an examinee
during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and
Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded.
Polygraph Room
This is a place where the polygraph examination will be conducted by the polygraph examiner. It is important
to consider the conditions of the room because if the room is not conducive for polygraph examination it could affect
the outcome of the examination. The following conditions must be taken into consideration:
Phase I- Pre-Test – is the preparatory stage for polygraph examination. This includes all consideration bearing on
polygraph examination up to the time of actual activation of the examination. The examiner pre-test interview with
the subject prior to the test is considerable both for the purpose of conditioning the subject for the examination and
also to provide and observe indications of guilt or innocence.
Pre-test Interview- before the actual testing is done, the examiner must first make an informal
interview of the subject which may last for 20 minutes to 30 minutes.
Purpose of the Interview:
a. The appraisal of subjects constitutional rights
b. To determine whether the subject has any medical or psychiatric condition or has used drugs that
will prevent the testing.
c. To explain to the subject the purpose of the examination.
d. To develop the test questions, particularly those of the type to be asked.
e. To relieve the truthful subject of any apprehension as well as to satisfy the deceptive subject as
to the efficiency of the technique.
f. To know any anti-social activity or criminal record of the subject.
g. Preparing the subject for the test.
Phase II. Test Execution (Questioning Phase)- the actual questioning to the subject in polygraph examination. These
include all consideration bearing on polygraph examination from the time the instrumental attachments are placed
on the subject until the time the instrument is deactivated.
2. Secondary Markings- are markings which are played only if the examinee does something which will cause
the physiological tracings to distort. These markings are usually placed below the effected tracing.
a. M- Movement
b. T- Talking
c. DB- Deep Breath
d. C- Cough
e. CT- Clear Throat
f. SW- Swallow
g. SNF- Sniff
h. Y- Yawn
i. SZ- Sneeze
j. LGH- Laugh
k. SLP- Sleep
l. B- Belch
m. OSN- Outside Noise
n. ISN- Inside Noise
o. EE- Examiner Error
p. WRQ- Will Repeat Question
q. MI- Movement Instruction
r. TI- Talking Instruction
s. AI- Answering Instruction
t. BI- Breathing Instruction
u. WU- Wake-Up
v. TDB- Take Deep Breath
Phase III- Post- Test- the consideration that bear polygraph examination from the time the instrument is deactivated
following final polygraph examination until the diagnostic opinion is reported and the case is concluded. If the
polygraph test result indicates deception the examiner will then procced to conduct short interrogation. The purpose
of which is to obtain confession.
Post- Test Interview- is conducted when the reactions indicate truthful response and the subject is very
cooperative to the examiner.
Chart Interpretation
The process of reading and deciphering the meaning of graphical responses of the subject based on the chart
tracings.
Chart Probing
The process of showing the polygram to the subject and providing a brief explanation on the dissimilarities or
the responses with the objective of determining the true cause of recorded responses and to clarify the confusion or
misunderstanding that might have been caused by vague response.
Final Result
A Polygraph test result is a strictly confidential statement and its result can only be disclosed to the examinee
or a third party nominated in writing by the examinee.
There are four possible results:
NDI- No Deception Indicated (Truthful)
DI- Deception Indicated (Deceptive)
IC- Inconclusive (Insufficient physiological responses)
DD- Deliberately disruptive
Polygraph and expert testimony relating thereto can be admissible upon stipulation to support other
evidence of a defendant’s involvement in crime charge his testimony under the following condition.
That the admissibility of polygraph test result is subject to the decision of the trial judge like for example if
the trial judge is not persuaded that the examiner is competent or that the test was conducted under proper
condition, he may reject to accept such evidence.
That counsels of both parties and the subject sign a written condition providing for his admission to the
examination and for the succeeding admissions at the trials of the graphs and the examiners opinion thereon
in behalf of either the defendant or the state.
That if the examiners opinion are offered as evidence, the opposing party shall have the right to cross
examine the examiner respecting:
a. The qualification and training of the examiner
b. The stipulation under which the test was administered
c. The restrictions and possibilities for the errors of the technique
d. At the good judgment of the trial judge, any other matter deemed important to the inquiry; and
e. That if admitted as evidence, the examiners testimony does not indicated to prove or disproved any
element of the crime with which a defendant is charge but at most tends only to specify that at the
examination, subject was not telling the truth. The trial judge shall determine the weight and the effect of
such testimony.
Questions: Why it is Polygraph Examination is Self Incriminating?
Answer: Because whatever taken from his/her body can be used against him/her.
Question: Is polygraph result Conclusive?
Answer: No because polygraph result is opinionated.
Question: What is the other means that the Polygraph Result can be admissible in court aside from stipulation and
order from the court?
Answer: During the presentation of the defense they should established the fact that polygraph examiner upon
request of the investigator examined the accused and they would like to offer as evidence the technical report of the
examiner. The court will accept the evidence base on the presumption that the polygraph report is suppressed
evidence since the finding is against the finding of the investigator.