LECTURE-3

 SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

 Science
 Science is the body of knowledge of the physical and natural worlds.
 Science seeks to describe and understand the natural world and its physical
properties.
 It is a process for evaluating empirical knowledge (the scientific method) by a
global community of scholars, and the organized body of knowledge gained by
this process and carried by this community.
 A method of learning physical universe by applying the principles of scientific
method, which include making empirical observations and tasting these
hypothesis in valid and reliable ways.
 Also refers to the organized body of knowledge that results from scientific
studies.
 Science uses varied approaches - scientific methods such as controlled
experiments or longitudinal observations studies- to generate knowledge.
 Scientific knowledge can be used to make predictions.
 Science Engineering and Technology are interrelated as shown in Figure-1

Figure-1

Empirical: Based on observations or experiments, not on theory

 Engineering
 The practical applications of scientific knowledge in the design, building and
control of machines, roads, bridges, electrical appliances, chemicals, etc.
 The work, science or profession of an engineer.
 The discipline which deals with the art or science of applying scientific
knowledge to practical problems.

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 It is the application of science to the needs humanity accomplished through
knowledge of mathematics and practical experience.
 Analysis or design work requiring extensive preparations and experience in the
use of mathematics,, physics, chemistry, biology and economics.
 Planning, designing, construction and management of materials, machinery,
goods, roads, bridges, buildings, waterways, etc. in an economic manner by
application of the natural and social sciences, and the engineering sciences itself.
 Major Branches of Engineering
 Aerospace Engineering
 Agricultural Engineering
 Bioengineering/Bioprocess Engineerin/Biochemical Engineering
 Biomedical Engineering
 Computer Engineering
 Civil Engineering
 Chemical Engineering
 Electrical Engineering/Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Environmental Engineering
 Industrial Engineering
 Material Science and Engineering
 Mechanical Engineering
 Petroleum Engineering
 Railway System Engineering
 Technology
 It is the state of the art in a socio-economic environment.
 Technology represent the complete usable knowledge which the society applies
and directs towards the attainment of cultural objectives.
 It is the systematic utilization of knowledge and application of scientific
information.
 Technology, research and developments are closely related.
 Research aims for knowledge, technology aims for “Know how”, rather than
know what.
 It is the complete blue-prin, detailed information (diagram, flowcharts,
equipments, processes, etc) with statement to achieve certain social objectives.

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 Comparison of Science, Engineering and Technology
 Science, Engineering, and Technology are often confused with each other.
 All three are closely related but mean different things.
 In this section, it has been tried to bring out the differences between science,
engineering, and technology.
 According to George Bernard Shaw: You see things, and you say “Why?”; but I
dream things that never were; and I say “ Why not?”
 “Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never
been” by Theodore von Karman.
 “ Science is the study of the natural world as it is; engineering is creating new
tools, devices, and processes based on scientific knowledge; technology is the sum
total of all the engineered tools, devices and processes available” by Me.
 The scientists want to know something not yet known, the technologists want to
put new knowledge to use.
 Engineering is concerned with design of a solution of a practical problem
whereas a scientist may study about the reason of the problem.
 A scientist may ask, “Why?” and proceed to research in order to find answer to
the question. By contrast, engineers want to know how to solve the problem and
how to implement the solution.
 The difference may be more clear from the following figures:

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 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 Chemical engineering is a dynamic discipline.
 It has been evolving continuously since the days of craft and innovations of
prehistoric times.
 It has played an important role in the development of chemical industry, which, in
turn, has played a key role in the matters of providing the essential human needs
such as food, clothing, shelter, etc. to the mankind.
 Definition of Chemical Engineering
 No definition of chemical engineering can be complete in the light of broad
spectrum of products produced by chemical process industries.
 The profession of chemical engineering has to do with the technology of chemical
and process industries.
 The work of the chemical engineers is concerned primarily with the design,
construction, and operation of equipments and plants in which these processes
and operations are applied in a safe and profitable manner.
 Chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics are the underlying
sciences of chemical engineering.
 One of the old definitions of chemical engineering given by AIChE is:
“Chemical engineering is the application of principles of physical sciences,
together with the principles of economics and human relations, to fields that
pertain directly to processes and process equipments in which matter is treated
to effect a change in state, energy content, or composition.”
 Perhaps the most appropriate definition may be “Chemical engineering is that
branch of engineering concerned with the development and application of

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manufacturing processes in which chemical/biochemical or certain physical
changes are involved. These processes may usually be resolved into a
coordinated series of unit physical operations (unit operations) and chemical
processes (unit processes).”
 Origin and Growth
 As the chemical industry developed in the early nineteenth century, there was
little or no intercommunication among the various parts of the industry.
 In the latter half of the nineteenth century the great expansion in the chemical
industry led to an increased demand for leadership trained in the fundamentals
of chemical processes.
 One of the earliest attempts to organize the principles of chemical processing
and to clarify the professional area of chemical engineering was made in
England by George E. Davis.
 In 1880 he tried successfully to organize a society of chemical engineers.
 He recognized that the problems of chemical industry were engineering
problems requiring the application not only of chemistry but also of physics.
 In 1887 he gave a series of lecturers which were expanded and published as “ A
Handbook of Chemical Engineering” in 1901.
 In his lecturers Davis presented the concept of unit operations.
 In 1888 the first course in chemical engineering was started in the USA at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) by Lewis M. Norton, a professor of
industrial chemistry.
 The course applied aspects of chemistry and mechanical engineering to chemical
processes.
 The programme was later expanded and modified by William H. Walker.
 In the early years of 20th century chemical engineering began to gain
professional acceptance.
 The American Chemical Society was founded in 1876.
 In 1908 the ACS organized a division of industrial chemist and chemical
engineers and authorized the publication of a journal, Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, which is still published.
 Later on the American Institute of Chemical Engineers was established.
 ACS and AIChE became the spokesmen for chemical engineering profession.
 Since the Second World War chemical engineering has developed in several
countries.
 Now it is taught as a separate discipline of engineering in all countries of the
world and has contributed a lot in the development of the modern civilization.

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 Indian Perspective
 In India, it was the foresight of Dr. H.L. Roy, who introduced chemical
engineering in the curriculum of the then Bengal National College, the nucleus of
the present Jadavpur University, as early as 1921.
 Interestingly, then the discipline of chemical engineering was still in its infancy
even in the developed countries of the West.
 From this early start chemical engineering evolved in tune with the needs of the
nation and today the Indian chemical engineering community faces challenges,
which can be converted into great opportunities.
 On the world scene, we have witnessed a great change of emphasis from
homogeneous materials to composites, from commodity chemicals to specialities,
from synthesis to formulation, from process concerns to product emphasis, from
cost competition to quality competition, and so on.
 The perception of chemical engineering in India have been somewhat different.
 Indeed science and technology in prehistoric times in India had a character and
flavor of its own.
 In pre-vedic times it was leading the rest of the world in many areas of medicine,
materials etc.
 Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChE)
 It is the professional body for chemical engineers in India established in 1947 by
H.L. Roy, the founding father of chemical engineering in India.
 The headquarter of IIChE is in the campus of Jadavpur University, Kolkata.
 The organization has 42 regional centers along with 172 student chapters spread
throughout India.
 The institution's membership comprises academics, professionals from the
chemical industry, researchers, and students.
 IIChE also publishes scientific journal "Indian Chemical Engineer", which is
published in two sections – A and B.
 Section A provides an international platform for presenting original research
work, interpretative reviews and discussions on new developments in the
expansive areas of Chemical Engineering and its allied fields.
 The journal invites papers describing novel theories and practical applications,
including reports of experimental work – carefully executed and soundly
interpreted.
 Section B features technical articles or overview of technology with a view to
guiding practicing chemical engineers, news snippets on research developments,
industry updates, issues of environment and health hazards, etc.

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 This section also offers in-house news for those associated with the institute.
 NIT Srinagar has also been recognized as regional centre of IIChE with a
student chapter too.
 Branches of Chemical Engineering
 Chemical engineering is a very vast field and there are many specialties within
this field, such as Biochemical engineering, in which living things such as bacteria
or genes are used to make or change products and to treat illnesses.
 The fundamental principles of chemical engineering underlie the operation of
processes extending well beyond the boundaries of the chemical industry, and
chemical engineers are employed in a range of operations outside traditional
areas.
 Plastic engineering, which concerns with the making of stronger, lighter
materials and improving recycling of materials to make plastics.
 Ceramic engineering, which deals with the different methods of transforming
sand and clay into useful products such as unbreakable glass, computer chips,
and fire proof bricks.
 Environmental engineering, which is concerned with the development of methods
to prevent air, water, soil, thermal and noise pollution.
 Environmental engineers develop equipment to measure pollution levels and
design pollution control devices. They work to clean up unsafe dump sites and do
research to determine new ways of disposing or recycling the wastes.
 Polymer engineering, which deals with the production of polymers especially
polyesters and methods of improving their strength.
 Fuel engineering in which methods to develop more economical and efficient fuels
are devised. Ways and means to process the fuel oils and gases are also studied in
this field.
 The dyeing of a fibre is a mass-transfer problem.
 Pulp and paper manufacture involve considerations of fluid flow and heat
transfer.
 While the scale and materials are different, these again are found in modern
continuous production of foodstuffs.
 The pharmaceuticals industry presents chemical engineering problems, the
solutions ofwhich have been essential to the availability of modern drugs.

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 The nuclear industry makes similar demands on the chemical engineer,
particularly for fuel manufacture and reprocessing.
 Chemical engineers are involved in many sectors of the metals processing
industry, which extends from steel manufacture to separation of rare metals.
 In the second half of the 20th century, considerable numbers of chemical
engineers have been involved in space exploration, from the design of fuel cells
to the manufacture of propellants.
 Looking to the future, it is probable that chemical engineering will provide the
solution to at least two of the world’s major problems: supply of adequate
freshwater in all regions through desalination of seawater and environmental
control through prevention of pollution.
 The Chemical Engineers
 Chemical engineers must understand the basics of chemistry in addition to certain
mechanical aspects of the equipment, they are dealing with, so that they are able to
work with complicated high pressure and high temperature vessels and reactors.
 In fact the combination of chemistry and mechanical engineering leads to chemical
engineering.
 Chemical engineers must know how to handle and transport large quantities of
chemicals.
 They have to understand such problems as heat transfer from one substance to
another, absorption of gases, and drying of materials.
 They have to control chemical processing plants where processes like evaporation,
distillation, filtration, mixing, crushing, crystallization, and adsorption are taking
place.
 In addition to these a chemical engineer must know how to design a chemical
plant.
 The design of individual units and equipment involved in a chemical plant, is no
doubt the best attribute of chemical engineering.
 For this purpose chemical engineers have to rely heavily on the principles of
chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics.
 Chemical engineers use their knowledge and skill to develop useful chemical
substances and new materials.
 They design equipment for producing various substances in an efficient and
economical way.

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 They devise systems to control pollution, invent new materials for plant growth,
develop new pesticides, and create new stronger materials.
 They also join forces with physicians to develop drugs to fight diseases.
 The number of products being produced by chemical engineering are numerous.
 Paints, solvents, varnishes, dyes, pigments, fertilizers, insecticides, plant-nutrients,
preservatives, artificial flavours, fragrances, perfumes, soaps, detergents, tooth
pastes, creams, medicines, fuels, rubber, plastics, adhesives, paper, fibre, and
various acids and bases, are just some of these products.
 In fact the importance of chemical engineering in our daily life can hardly be over-
emphasized.
 There is hardly any field or profession which is not dependent on chemical
engineering.
 If farmers are responsible for providing us food and different crops, they cannot
do so without using fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and plant nutrients.
 Without the food processing techniques and preservatives their production will
decay in no time.
 It is the chemical engineers who provide them with all these products and
techniques.
 If the doctors save human lives they can only do so with the drugs and medicines
made by chemical engineers.
 If soldiers protect nations from enemies, they are capable of doing so only with the
weapons and explosives provided by chemical engineers.
 If the astronauts have conquered space, they reached these distances with the
propellants developed by chemical engineers.
 If the entertainment industry brings audio and visual programmes to world-wide
audience, it relies heavily on chemical engineers to provide them recording tapes,
CD's, records, special effects, and other aids.
 If the computers are revolutionizing the whole world, making office work,
calculations, and communications simpler and easier, their lithographic support
such as microprocessors and silicon chips are developed by none other than the
chemical engineers.

 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 Chemists are concerned with
 the mechanisms of chemical reactions

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 how molecules come together to form a new substance
 what makes their bonds stronger or weak
 what is the best way to synthesize a substance
 what are the physical and chemical properties of substances
 what is the structure of an atom/molecule
 how can the elements and compounds be represented by symbols
 so on so forth
 Chemical Engineers/Chemical Engineering
 Takes information from the chemists to design, build and operate a process
that can produce tones/hour of such a substance profitably and safely.
 Chemical engineers are concerned with issues such as sizing chemical
reactors, calculating heating or cooling requirements for processes and
designing control systems to ensure product quality.

 CHEMICAL ENGINEERS AT WORK

 The chemical engineering profession includes a wide variety of activities in a
number of institutions including industry, research, government, and academia.
 Chemical engineering mainly deals with industrial processes in which raw
materials are changed into useful products.
 The chemical engineers develop, design, and engineer both complete processes
and the equipment used; choose the proper raw material; operate the plants
efficiently, safely, and economically; and see to it that the products meet the
requirements set by the customers.
 Chemical engineering is both an art and a science.
 The variety of processes and industries that call for the services of a chemical
engineer is enormous.
 Chemical engineers work in numerous areas besides petroleum refining and the
petrochemical industries because their background and experience are easily
portable and found useful.
 Products of concern to chemical engineers range from commodity chemicals
like sulphuric acid and chlorine to high-tech items like lithographic support for
electronic industry ( Silicon chips, microprocessors ) and genetically modified
biochemical agents.

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 The number of chemical engineers working throughout the world is enormous.
 These engineers are employed by both private and public enterprises.
 They work in a variety of fields besides process and designing.
 The wide spectrum of application of chemical engineers shows that chemical
engineers must be trained to function in any phase of chemical manufacturing.
 A chemical engineer during his career performs various activities.
 From plant design to successful plant operation he has to face many tasks and
challenges.
 To have a better understanding of the work of a chemical engineer let us
consider the important activities undertaken by him.
1) Process Selection
2) Operation
3) Instrumentation and Control
4) Chemical Process Economics
5) Marketing
6) Safety
7) Construction of a Plant
8) Research and Development
9) Management
10) Process System Engineering
11) Environment
12) Design

1) Process Selection
The selection of a process is one of the most hectic and time consuming activities
undertaken by a chemical engineer. One process may be energy efficient than
the other but the other may be less polluting or may have its raw materials
readily available. For example, in selecting a process for an ammonia plant we
can use many raw materials such as natural gas, fuel oil, wood, lignite, coal, and
even water ( by electrolysis ). Then there are a number of processes available
such as steam reforming of natural gas and Partial oxidation process. Selecting
a process out of these is no easy job because each process has certain advantages
and certain disadvantages. In addition to these they have certain limitations and

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require certain conditions. To select a process many constraints have to be faced
such as time, available data, investment, and economics. As all industries are
mainly concerned with profits, hence out of all the constraints economics always
remains the chief concern and is always the main factor in selecting a process.
While selecting a process, the following factors are always considered:
 Technical factors: Process flexibility, Controls involved, Commercial yields,
Energy requirements, Auxiliaries, Modification, and Hazards .
 Raw materials: Availability, Processing required, Handling, Storage.
 Equipment: Cost, Materials of construction, Maintenance, Availability,
Modification.
 Plant location: Land, Labour, Transportation, Raw material availability,
Markets, Climate, Government regulations and taxes, Energy.
 Costs: Raw material, Energy, Depreciation, Processing, Overheads, Labour,
Real estate.
 Process considerations: Technology available, Raw materials, Other processes,
Consistency of product.
 Other considerations: Waste products, By-products, Value of money.
Selecting a process to be in batches or to be continuous is another important
task. Early chemical processing was usually done in batches and much
continues to be done in that way. Batches can be measured most concisely and
are much suitable for small scale production. However, the temperature and
pressure control can be troublesome. Furthermore time and resources lost in
attaining the required conditions such as temperature and pressure, limits the
use of batch processes. On the other hand, continuous processes require far
smaller and less expensive equipment, have much less material in process, have
less chance to ruin large quantities, have more uniform operating conditions,
and give more uniform products than batch processes. Continuous processes are
very suitable for large scale productions. However, these require concise control
of flow-rates and conditions, which is impossible without quality
instrumentation. The reduction in plant cost per unit of production is often the
major force in selecting a process to continuous or in batches.

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2 - Operation
Operation of a plant is another important activity carried out by a chemical
engineer. Chemical processing of a raw material into the desired product can
only be achieved by operating the chemical plant. The quality and quantity of
the product is directly dependent on the efficient operation of a plant. The
smooth operation of a plant is a very difficult task and requires close attention
of the engineer at all times. Many problems like temperature and pressure
control, maintenance, and safety continue to arise during the plant operation.
Experience and application of engineering principles is always needed to shoot
out these problems. Negligence of a small problem can often lead to bigger,
more complex problems and can cause unnecessary halts in production. In
order to be able to handle plant operation smoothly, a chemical engineer should
start early to become familiar with the industrial equipment such as pumps,
compressors, distillation columns, filter presses, and heat exchangers, etc.
Almost every industry wants its engineers to be intimately familiar with every
pipe & gauge of that industry. That is why every industry makes its new
engineers spend their earlier time in tracing pipelines, an activity known as line
tracing. The reason behind this practice is to intimately familiarize the
engineers with all the pipelines, gauges, valves, and equipment of that industry
so that whenever there is any fault in any section he should be able to identify
the location and problem immediately to work out its solution immediately. In
fact trouble shooting is the core of plant operation. Successful plant operation of
a chemical plant does not only depend upon the original strength of the
materials of construction but also upon the affects of corrosion. Constant check-
ups and watch must be kept to avoid corrosion. Mechanical failures are seldom
experienced unless there has been previous corrosion or weakening by chemical
attack. Chemical manufacturing process can be divide into the following steps
 Raw material
 Physical treatment steps
 Chemical/biological treatment steps
 Physical treatment steps
 Recycle

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 Product
The initial physical treatment steps include feed preparation methods such as
mixing. Some purification and preparation of the raw materials is usually
necessary before sending them to the chemical treatment or chemical reaction
step. Liquids may be purified by filtration or gravity settling. Sometimes they
need to be vapourized. Gases may be purified by adsorption or absorption.
Solids may need crushing, grinding, and screening. Initial physical treatment
steps are also called feed preparation stage. After the initial physical treatment
the raw materials are sent to the chemical reaction step. The reaction step is the
heart of a chemical manufacturing process. This step is carried out in a reactor.
After the reaction step the feed is sent for the final physical treatments. These
treatments are carried out for product separation. After the product separation,
the unreacted materials are sent back to the initial physical steps and the
product is further purified to the required degree. This product is then sent for
storage.

3 - Instrumentation and Control

In large scale continuous operations the function of the workers and the
supervising chemical engineer is to maintain the plant in proper running
conditions. Maintaining required temperature, pressure, flow-rates, and other
conditions is a very difficult task. Quality instrumentation is a must for
maintaining these conditions. Instruments are the essential tool for modern
processing. A chemical engineer must have the proper knowledge of the
instruments involved for controlling and measuring process variables. He
should have adequate ability to design control systems for processes and
workout problems faced in controlling process operations. Batch operation
requires few instruments and hence more supervision on the part of the workers
and the chemical engineer because the conditions and procedures differ from
the start to the finish. Even these problems can be solved by programmed
instruments if the expense can be justified. Instrument costs, once a trivial part
of the total plant investment, have risen up to 25% of the total investment. The
use of computers has reduced this cost to some extent. Earlier plants used
mechanical control instruments. These were replaced by pneumatic control

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systems which were replaced by electronic control systems. Nowadays plant-
control is being done by DCS ( Distributed Control System ) using computers.
DCS incorporates the use of electronic control devices but it utilizes computers
to monitor and control process conditions. Even though many industries
continue to use pneumatic and electronic control systems, however, the global
trend is towards DCS because of its ability to handle plant operation more
smoothly. Instrumentation has been forced into this position of eminence by the
increase in continuous processes, increase in labour and supervision costs, the
relative unreliability of human actions, and by the availability of many types of
instruments at decreasing price and increasing reliability. Instrument types
include indicating instruments, recording instruments, and controlling
instruments. Two types of instruments are generally used: analog and digital.
Analog instruments such as pressure spring thermometer and Bourdon
pressure gauges, show results by mechanical movement of some type of device (
e.g. spring or Bourdon tube ), which is proportional to the quantity being
measured. Digital devices generally utilize a transducer, a device which converts
the measured signal into some other type of signal usually electronic or
pneumatic. These devices also use electronic circuits which convert the signal to
readable numerical figures ( digits ) which are then displayed and may be
recorded.

4 - Chemical Process Economics

Economics is a vital part of an engineers work. Engineers are distinguished
from scientists by their consciousness of costs and profits. Economics plays a
vital role in the operation, design, and maintenance of every chemical plant. A
good chemical engineer always gives economics top priority in his every effort.
Every engineering decision involves cost considerations. Engineers must
continue to keep up with the economic changes that may affect their products.
The primary objective of an engineer's endeavours must be to deliver safely the
best product or the most efficient services at the lowest cost to the employer and
the consumer. Since change is an outstanding characteristic of the chemical
procedures, hence potential alteration of a process is of importance not only
when the plant is being designed but continuously. Judgements based on

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comparative facts must be exerted in most of the important discussions of a
chemical engineer. Careful calculations using local parameters generally lead to
clear and just decisions. Yield and conversions of the chemical process form the
basis for the material and energy balances which in turn are the foundation for
the cost determination. Primary stress must be laid on these balances to keep
the plant operation economical and profitable. Economic conditions and
limitations are one of the most important factors of any plant design activity.
The engineer must consider costs and profits constantly throughout his work.
Cost per unit product always turns out to be the key issue for any business
enterprise and an engineer should always work to keep it as economical as
possible. Its almost always better to sell many units of product at a low profit
per unit than a few units at a high cost. An engineer must take into account the
volume for production when determining costs and total profits for various
types of designs, keeping in view customer needs and demands.

5 - Marketing
Whenever a new product is under appraisal, market evaluation for that product
becomes essential. The job of a chemical engineer then leads to the market
evaluation of that product. The factors generally considered in the market
evaluation are the present and future supply and demand, present and future
uses, new uses, present buying habits, price range for products and by-products,
character, location, and number of possible customers. The marketing of a
product does not only depend upon its advertisement but also on the quality of
the product, its physical conditions, and its packing. Good firms rarely
compromise on quality. Proper instrumentation, uniform plant conditions, good
operators, and careful supervision leads to quality production. The physical
conditions of the products have a very strong impact on the marketability. The
physical conditions involve crystal structure, particle size and shape, colours,
and moisture content. For example, gasoline is dyed in various colours to
provide distinctive trademark, but also to conceal a colour which is often
objectionable to the customer but otherwise has no affect on the performance.
Here it is cheaper to dye the product than to remove the undesirable colour.
Packaging of the product also plays an important role in the marketing of a

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product, especially the consumer products. However, packaging is often
expensive. The most economical containers are refillable bulk ones such as
tanks, tank-ships, tank-cars. But these cannot be used for the consumer
products since the container appearance is very important to the customers. For
consumer products quality packing with attractive colours, designs, and
materials has to be used. Price of a product is the real concern for a customer.
Prices should be maintained within the affordable range of a large number of
people, since bigger markets lead to larger profits. To enhance the marketing of
a product, an engineer should listen to the suggestions and the information
brought to him by the salesperson, since he is the link between the company and
the customer. The suggestion and ideas of the salesperson are very important,
for he is the eyes, ears, and nose of a company, bringing in information to aid in
economic forecasting and help increase marketing of products.

6 - Safety
Chemical engineer also has to work as a safety engineer. Nothing is more
dangerous to a plant than fire. Precautions to prevent fire and to fight fire must
be taken. Employees must be protected against toxic chemicals. Safety measures
not only keep the employees out of danger but also save money and time by
reducing accidents and any unnecessary halts in the production. Even though
every human being is apt to err sometime, but at times he gets careless too.
Sometimes too much familiarity with chemicals breeds carelessness, hence well-
run plants have safety devices and continuing programmes for alerting those
working with a given process to its hazards. Adequate safety and fire protection
measures require expert guidance. There is considerable difference of opinion in
rating certain chemicals as hazardous and their degree of toxicity. For example,
particular attention is given to carcinogens ( substances causing cancer ) and
teratogens ( substances causing fatal malfunction ), but there is considerable
difference of opinion about just how much dangerous many of these materials
are. There are different standards for many toxic and harmful substances,
however nowadays the governments decide these standards and are very severe
on their implementation.

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7 - Construction of a Plant
The construction ( erection ) of a plant is another important activity carried out
by a chemical engineer. The presence of the chemical engineer is essential
during the erection of the plant in order to implement the design standards and
interpret technical and design data whenever needed. The chemical engineer
should always work closely with the construction team during the final stages of
construction and purchasing designs. In this way, the design sequence can be
arranged to make certain important factors that might delay construction, first
priority. Construction of the plant may be started before the final design is
completed. During plant erection, the chemical engineer should visit the plant
site to assist in the interpretation of plans and learn methods for improving
future designs. The engineer should also be available during the initial start-up
of the plant and early phases of operation. During the erection of a plant the
engineer becomes intimately connected with the plant and hence learns the
internal structure of the plant. He becomes involved with the installation of
every pipe and gauge of the plant and this helps him greatly while running the
plant and eliminating problems faced during operation. He learns methods and
techniques which are very helpful to him in the maintenance of the plant and
provide him knowledge and information for making the maintenance and
check-up plans in future.

8 - Research and Development

Adequate and skilled research with patent protection is necessary for future
profits. The chemical process industry has certain outstanding characteristics
such as rapidly changing procedures, new processes, new raw materials and
new markets. Research creates or utilizes these changes. Without forward-
looking investigation or research a company would be left behind in the
competitive progress of its industry. Development is the adaptation of research
ideas to the realities of production and industry. The progress of industry opens
up new markets for even the most fundamental, established products. The
advantages of research can be summed up as
 New and improved processes

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 Lower costs and lower prices of product
 Services and products never known before
 Change of rarities to common commercial supplies
 Adequate supply of materials previously obtained only as by-products
 Freedom from domination by foreign control
 Stabilization of business and industrial employment
 Products of improved quality
 Proper utilization of materials once taken as waste products
 Control of substances causing pollution and hazards

9 - Management
Due to the dramatic rise in productivity and the recent technological changes in
the chemical process industries, this industry has become very complex. The
complexity of this industry has made it very difficult for business graduates,
who do not have any knowledge of chemicals and equipments, to handle it. Now
the chemical companies like to have chemical engineers as their mangers.
Management is a very important aspect of plant oepration. Handling the
personnel, most importantly the workers is one of the most difficult jobs but a
chemical engineer is always in contact with his workers and most of the time has
to rely on them. Dealing the personnel is often called Human Engineering. The
job of a chemical engineer is to control and run machines effectively and
efficiently, and there is no machine better or more complex than human being.
Controlling this machine is perhaps the most difficult task, a man has to
perform. But as an engineer is in constant interaction with his workers and
personnel so he has to perform it effectively. Hence, a good engineer must be a
good manager as well. He has to listen to their opinions and understand their
attitude. He has to listen to their problems they are facing in the plant
operation, since they are the one who are more closely in contact with the plant
and its units. He has to them feel part of the team and boost up their morale.
Keeping the personnel in high spirits and high morale is very important.

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10 - Process System Engineering

More and more engineers are realizing that they can no longer think of a
process plant as a collection of individually designed operations and processes.
It is becoming increasingly evident that each separate unit of a plant influences
all others in subtle ways. It is also true that the plant is a part of an ecological
system extending well beyond its boundaries. The general availability of the
computers has made it possible to study the dynamic behaviour of plants as well
as their static or steady-state behaviour. Such intense studies have shown new
possibilities for plant operation not previously conceived. Instead of measuring
and attempting to maintain rigid temperature, pressure, and general conditions
( feedback control ), chemical engineers are trying to adjust system variables so
that the output is satisfactory even though the inputs very widely and are not
fixed ( feed-forward control ). Attempts at optimizing control are also being
made. The next generation of engineers will be studying, analyzing, and
optimizing such interacting and complex systems. This is a major improvement
over envisioning design as involving simple, non-interacting, static systems that
use only operations and unit processes.

11 - Environment
Role of a chemical engineer in controlling pollution and waste generation can
hardly be over emphasized. More and more chemical engineers are
concentrating in the area of environmental engineering to develop new methods
and techniques to treat wastes generated by the process industries, minimize
waste generation trends,a nd develop renewable sources of material and energy.
These engineers are working towards developing sustainable and renewable
technologies. Their role in the earlier design phases of process industries has
now led to new practically fume-less chemical plants.

12 - Design
Design of a chemical process plant is the one activity unique to chemical
engineering and is the strongest reason justifying the existence of chemical
engineering as a distinct branch of engineering. Design is a creative activity and

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is perhaps the most satisfying and rewarding activities undertaken by a
chemical engineer. It is the synthesis, the putting together of ideas to achieve a
desired purpose. It is perhaps the most important task undertaken by a
chemical engineer. The design does not exist at the commencement of a project.
The designer starts with a specific objective in mind, a need, and by developing
and evaluating possible designs, arrives at what he considers best way of
achieving that objective. A principle responsibility of the chemical engineer is
the design, construction, and operation of chemical plants. In this modern world
age of industrial competition, a successful chemical engineer needs more than a
knowledge and understanding of the fundamentals sciences and related
engineering subjects such as thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, and computer
technology. The engineer must also have the ability to apply this knowledge to
practical situations for the purpose of accomplishing something that will be
beneficial to society. However, in making these applications, the chemical
engineer must recognize the economic implications which are involved and
proceed accordingly. Plant design includes all engineering aspects involved in
the development of either a new, modified, or expanded industrial plant. In this
development the chemical engineer makes economic evaluations of new
processes, designs individual pieces of equipment for the proposed new venture,
or develops a plant layout for coordination of the overall operation. Because of
these design duties, the chemical engineer is many times referred to as design
engineer. On the other hand, a chemical engineer specializing in the economic
aspects of the design is often referred to as cost engineer. Chemical engineering
design of new chemical plants and the expansion or revision of the existing ones
require the use of engineering principles and theories combined with a practical
realization of the limits imposed by individual conditions. Development of a new
plant or process from concept evaluation to profitable reality is often an
enormously complex problem. A plant design project moves to completion
through a series of stages, which involve each and every activity explained in the
preceding pages. The main stages in a plant-design project are:
 Inception
 Preliminary evaluation of economics and markets
 Development of data necessary for final design

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 Final economic evaluation
 Detailed engineering design ( including process selection, material and energy
balances, equipment design, materials of construction, instrumentation and
process control, and cost estimation )
 Procurement
 Erection
 Startup and trial runs
 Production
These steps clearly show that the plant-design project involves a wide
variety of skills. Among these research, market analysis, design of individual
pieces of equipment, cost estimation, computer programming, and plant
location surveys. In other words plant design involves every aspect of chemical
engineering and allows a chemical engineer to use not only his knowledge but
also his experience, skill, and innovation. The first step in preparing design is to
establish the bases for design. In addition to the known specifications for the
product and availability for raw materials, the design can be controlled by such
items as the expected energy requirements, fuel used, and the value of by-
products, etc. The next step consists of preparing a simplified flow diagram
showing the processes that are involved and deciding upon the unit operations
which will be required. After preparing diagram material balance is carried
out, which is followed by energy balance, a knowledge of raw material and
product specifications, yields, reaction rates, and time cycles.
The temperature, pressure, and composition of every process stream is
determined. Design of individual pieces of equipment comes next. Use of unit
process principles is incorporated here. Volume, length, dia, wall thickness,
head thickness and type of head, number of plates for columns, type of packing
or plates, catalyst type, heat interchange facilities, power requirement and
pressure heads for pumps and compressors, and materials of construction, etc.
are determined. After this design step the instrumentation and control required
for the process is determined, which is followed by utilities and labour
requirements tabulation. Estimates of the total capital investment and the total
product cost complete this plant-design sequence. The general approach in any
plant design involves a carefully balanced combination of theory, practice,

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originality, and plain common sense. In original design work, the engineer must
deal with many different types of experimental and empirical data. The
engineer may be able to obtain accurate values of heat capacity, density,
vapour-liquid equilibrium data, or other physical properties from the literature.
In many cases, however, exact values for necessary physical properties are not
available and the engineer is forced to use approximate estimates of these
values. Many approximations also must be made in carrying out theoretical
design calculations. In the engineer's approach to any design problem, it is
necessary to be prepared to make various assumptions. Sometimes these
assumptions are made because no absolutely accurate values or methods of
calculations are available. At other times, methods involving close
approximations are used because exact treatments would require long and
labourious calculations giving little gain in accuracy. The good chemical
engineer recognizes the need for making certain assumptions but also knows
that this type of approach introduces some uncertainties into the final results.
Therefore, assumptions are made only when they are necessary and essentially
correct.

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