g]kfnefiff
g]kfnefiffof eljioof nFkO' 5'+ k+uMt
! kl/ro
g]kfno\ g]jfMto\ df+efo\sy+ NxfOu' efo\
g]jfMefo\ -g]kfnefiff_ 5u" /fli6«o efo\ vM . rLg–
;Foe\ fo\ vnso\ b'YofMu' Yjof yMu' x] tMtflh
lnlk j tfxfsMu' ;flxlTos k/Dk/f b' . Yjof
yMu' x] sf]if j Jofs/0f g+ b' . Yj :jb]zL j
ljb]zL ljåfgto\ cWoog–cg';Gwfgof ljifo g+
h'ofRj+u' b' . g]kfn /]l8of], l6=le= Rofgnt, ljljw
Pkm=Pd=o\ Yj efif+ ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f j d]du] '
Hof‰jM g+ laofRj+u' b' . onof g]kfnd08n+ g]jfM
efif+ hs ;dfrf/ j tMtflh Hof‰jM GXofsfRj+u'
b' . Yj efo\of b}lgs, ;fKtflxs, dfl;s ;dfrf/
tyf ;flxlTos klqsf g+ k|sflzt h'ofRj+u' b' .
g]kfnefiffof dfWolds tlugo\ P]lR5s
cWofkg j pRr lzIffo\ !)±@ tlugo\ j lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno; aL=P=, Pd=P= tlugo\ k|fWofkg
h'ofRj+u' b';f Yj efiffof dfWod+ ljBfjfl/lw
-Ph.D._ ofo\u' ts g+ Joj:yf b' .
;g\ @))! of hgu0fgfsy+ g] j fto\
hg;+Vof g]kfno\ !@,$%,@## -%=$Ü_ b';f
df+ efo\sy+ g]jfMefo\ Nxfo\;Mlk+ *,@%,$%*
-#=)#Ü_ hs b' . :jlgun+ lkg] g]jfMto\ jl:t
vf; ofgfM bf]nvf, lrTnfª\, kf]v/f, kfNkf cflb
yf;o\ oSjM b' . y'lk+ k'mSs+ bof g+ Yj efo\ yf+
jg]u' nFkO' cfkn+ k+uMt b+jMu' b' .
* g]kfnefiff s]Gb|Lo ljefu, lq=lj=of k'nf+Dx ljefuLo k|dv
+ k|f= 8f= ;'Gb/s[i0f hf]zL *
@ k+uM –
@=!= Yj efo\ Joj;fod"ns -Job Oriented_ dh"
s_ g]kfnefiffof cWofkg /f0ffsfno\ g]kfnL
afx]s d]u' 5'+ g+ efo\ ysfo\u' wofu' ;/sf/L
Joj:yf db' . g]=;+= !)&! -lj=;+= @))&_ ;fnof
k|hftGq+ lnkf g]=;+= !)&$ lg;]+ k"jL{o efiff
-Orienteal Language_ sy+ dfWolds tlugo\
g]jfMefo\ Aj+su] ' Joj:yf h'n .
v_ g]kfnefiffof k|fWofkg
g]=;+= !)*) -lj=;+= @)!&_ lg;]+ cfO=P=no\
d"n ljifosy+ k"0ff{Í @))of lgu" kq dfgljsL j
:yfgLo efo\ -vernacular_ sy+ ljleGg ;+sfo;
k"0ff{Í %) of, g]=;+= !)*@ -lj=;+= @)!(_ lg;]+
:gfts tlugo\ k"0ff{Í #)) of :j+u" kq Aj+su] '
Joj:yf h'n . k+rfotL Joj:yfo\ g]=;+= !)(!
-lj=;+= @)@*_ jofM g]kfnefiffof cWofkg
k|fWofkgo\ tMw+u' k|xf/ h'n . dfWolds tlugo\Rj+u'
d"n ljifo k"jL{o efiff lnsofM ;+:s[t, k|m~] r,
hd{gL cflb !& u" j d]du] ' cltl/Qm ul0ft,
ef}ltszf:q cflb & u" gfk+ ofgfM @$ u"ln 5u"
ofgfM P]lR5ssy+ to\xn, cy] x] ljleGg ;+sfo;
:ogfRj+u' k"0ff{Í %) of :gfgLo -vernacular_
ljifo lnsoflan .
dfWolds tlugo\ cGt/fli6«o efo\ j
Jojzfod"ns ul0ft, lj1fg cflbof ljsNko\
'
63
g]kfnefiff
P]l5ssy+ nfo\j+ Yj ljifo sofM AjgLlk+ 5sn+
kfM h'n . Joj;fod"ns dh'Oj+ Yj ljifo sofM
df+ca'lkG;+ yM d:to\t Ajg]un ' L k|fT] ;fxg dlan .
d]u' vF, P]lR5ssy+ dfWolds tlugo\ toftMu' Yj
ljifo :ogLlklgu' lglt+ AofUn+ b/aGbLof Joj:yf
dbo\sflan . u'u'+ ljBfno Yj ljifo :og]u'
Joj:yf oft wfM;f ;DalGwt ljBfno+ yMu' x]
cfGtl/s >f]t+ ljifolzIfsof tna aLdfMu' h'n .
Jofkfl/s b[li6+ ;+rfng ofgfRj+u' af]l8{ª :s"no\
lgDx KoDx ljBfyL{of nfuL cnu tna laofM
Bfo\dfo\s ug+ d:o+, ;/sf/+ dfSjhs Woaf
laof ;+rfng ofOu' u/La :s"n+ cfdta/+ Yjoft
b'Yofs] dk'mt . ug+ ug+ 5yfo\–lgyfo\ b'YofsftM;f+
cg g+ AjgLlk+ kfM h'h'+ Gxfkf ;n+;M AjgLlk+
b'u'ln+ cfM KoDx v'Dxo\ so\s'+ jg . k|fylds
tlug+lg;]+ g]jfMefo\of ljifo tofM g]jfMefif+ x]
:ogLu' 5u" hs ljBfno wofu' o] F o \ R j+ u '
hut;'Gb/ Ajgfs'ly vM . ug hfkfg+ laoftMu'
5fqj[lQ+ ofgfM hs ;Dej h'ofRj+u' vM .
g]kfnefiffof ljBfno tlugo\ :ogLlklgu'
lglt+ b/aGbL db';f+ k|fWofkgof nflu lq=lj=of
pRr lzIffo\ :ogLlklgu' lg+lt+ dfSj b/aGbLof
Joj:yf b' . a? cfMhs lq=la= O06/d]l8o6 sf];{
ljZj ljBfno+ rLsfM b/aGbL db'yfo\ pRr–
dfWofldso\ 5\jMu' b' . lq=lj= cGtu{t SofDk;o\
ljifo–lzIfslklg cfM cfO{=P= tlugo\ :og]Djfano\
sfo{af]em cem ofpFn t/ pRr dfWofldso\ b/aGbL
db'yfo\ 5\jano\ Gxfkf dfWofldso\ hs Aj+db'
wof+ cfM cfO=P= tlugo\ g+ Aj+db'Ou' h'n, b x]
bM;f+ yMu' x] cfGtl/s >f]t+ dft[efiffof dlxdf
wsfM :ogLyfo\ guGo ?ko\ lgDx–KoDx hs ljBfyL{
bOu' ;Defjgf b' . yf}s+ Gxo\ lh+ ;Ls+ lsk'nL d+un
pRr dfWoflds ljBfno 5yfo\ x] hs !)±@ of
cWofkg h'ofRj+u' b' .
g]=;+= !)*@ ; :gfts tlugo\ g]kfnefiff
Ajg] bofM !)*$ -lj=;+= @)@!_ :gftsf]Q/of
64
nflu pTkfbg gfk+ h'Ow's " f+ g]=;+= !)(& -lj=;+=
+ ;
@)#$_ ; zf]wk|aGw RjofM :gftsf]Q/ ofo\u'
Joj:yf h'n . cg+ KobF lnkf g]=;+= !!)! -lj=;+=
@)#*_ lg;]+ :gftsf]Q/of lgoldt sIff g+
;+rfng h'n . g]kfnefiff+ zf]wk|aGw RjofM
ljBfjfl/lw ofMlk+ g+ bt, g]kfn ljifooft sof
c+uh]| L, hd{g efiff+ zf]wk|aGw Rjof ljBfjfl/lw
ofMlk+ :jb]zL j ljb]zL ljåfgt g+ bt .
Sjo\ bofRj+ u ' Joj:yf pyfo\ :o+ s fM
Rjo\wfM;f :gftsf]Q/ j ljBfjfl/lwof g+ Joj:yf
k~rfotL Joj:yfo\ x] h"u' vM . Sjo\ :o+sfM 5]oF \
tF5fo\ y]+ vM, u'u+' Ono\ g+ b'gf jo\km' . k+rfotL
Joj:yfo\ g]jfMefo\ lj?4 u'u' if8oGq h'n j
k+rfotL Joj:yf k'mgfM lj=;+= @)$^ ; k|hftGqof
k'gj{xfln g+ lnkf yf}+ b]zo\ u0ftGq jo\ws +' fM g+
;d:of dHo+, Gxfkf y]+ x] NogfRjg . emLu' b]zlkg]
l;lSsdo\ g+ g]jfMefo\ :og]u' Joj:yf b' – emLyfo\
Sjo\ :o+sfM Rjo\ Joj:yf h'n, cg Sjo\ k|fylds
tlugo\ g]jfMefo\ :og]u' b/jGbL l;h{gf of;]l+ n
cg g]jfMefo\ :ogLlk+ lzIfslk+ yg kßsGof
SofDk; j g]kfnefiff s]Gb|Lo ljefuo\ tflnd
sfMjn . g]jfMefo\ hs dv' dfgljsLof d]du] '
oSj ljifono\ g+ AjgLlklg NofM Gxfkf:jof cfM
oSjM kfMh"u' b' . g]kfnefiffof Pd\=P= tlugo\ Aj+
dbofM lj36gof l:ylt djo\df wofu' Nofv+
Sjo\ -aL=P=, cfO=P=_ tlugo\ g]jfMefo\ sofM
dAj+d;]+ g+ cyf{t\ GXofu' ;+sfo g+ :gfts h"d;]
g+ g]kfnefiffof Pd\=P= tlugo\ Ajg] k'm jf Pd\=P=
k/LIffo\ ;lDdlnt h'Ok'm . Yj ljifo g]kfnefiffof
s]Gb|Lo ljefu+ dfu oft, lq=lj=of ljBf kl/ifb+
:jLs[lt lan . y'ls+ ofgfM af}l4s kIfo\ 5'+ dv';f+
larfM tyf efj Kj+su] ' eflifs tyf Jofs/l0fs
kIfo\ s'tM ofo\dfMu' b' .
u_ g]kfnefiffof j0f{ Joj:yfo\ dte]b M
g]kfnefiffof j0f{–ljGof; 5'+ erf u+hfuf]n
h'ofRj+ul' n+ ofgfM g]kfnefiff nf vM lg GXofy]

RjM;f+ 5' h'O y]+ hfMu' efjgf AjngfRj+u' b' .
gf+b+lk+ Rjldlklg;+ g+ z'4+ Rjo\l/v] 5lQ s'tM
dofM;] cz'4+ x] ;k"mt lkygfRj+ul' n+ phMu' efjgf
AjngfRj+u' vg]b' . d]l/v] g]kfnefiff+ Rjo\u' vFo\
yLyL l;4fGtof k|ltkfbg h'ofRj+u' b' . g+jfo\sy+
Rjo\un ' L aMaLDx dxfslj …x[boÚ db';l+] n ;flxlTos
;dfho\ ;Lbo\s cg]sy+ RjofjMu' Aojxf/
cKjofjMu' vg]b' .
3_ zAb ro\go\ k"jf{ux|
– s'Gx'÷v'g'
æg]kfnefiffÆ …lbgÚ y'OsLu' lgu" ?k vM
…Gx'Ú j …lGxÚ . NofMvfo\ano\ …Gx'Ú -uy]ls 5Gx',
lgGx', :jGx' O=_ j PsfO y'OsLyfo\ …lGxÚ -uy] ls
…lGxlR5Ú k"ju+ ' lbg g]kfnL+ …lbge/Ú c+uh ]| L+ The
whole day, all the day long_ 5\onL . y'sL
Jofs/l0fs lgu" tTj b' – 5u" …Gx'Ú -Day_ j …s'Ú
af …v'Ú -Particular_ y'v'g' x] wsfM Sj5Lu'
Aofs/l0fs ?k . k'nf+u' …s'Gx'Ú af Gx"u' …v'gÚ' u'u'
lbg SjM5Lu' vM jln;] :jfgfM jOu' a4?kof 5u"
jfSof+z vM . uy] ls ;FNx'vg' ,' k+h/fMv'g' O= .
Gof;M bF GXoM 5'+ ljz]if lbg SjMl5gf
-lstfg ofgfM_ wfOano\ u'u' …–s'Gx'Ú wfOu' vM ;M
lxnfM cfM …–v'gÚ' wfo\u' oft . yy] ;M lxnLu'
lgodoft ljkof{; -metathesis_ wfO . g]jfMefif+
y' s Lt lxnfa' n f wfo\ l 5+ . yy] sfnqmlds
-diactroonic, historical_ kxn+ ;M lxnLu' lgodof
Yj 5u" af+nfMu' b;' vM . ug lguM cfvM …s'Ú j
…Gx'Ú ; lnpg]Rj+u' …Gx'Ú of …xÚ yfo\ lxnf GXog]Rj+u'
…s'Ú -ku_ ; RjgfM v' -khu_ h"jMu' b' . -Ku-nhu
> Khu-nu_ . Gxfkf g+jfOano\ s'Gx' wfOano\
…s'Gx'Ú Rjn, cfM ;M lxnfM …v'gÚ' wfo\ws +' f g+ …s'Gx'Ú
Rjo\u' Yj k'nf+u' ?kk|lt cfu|x -k"jf{ux| _ of b;'
vM .
u'ln+l;g+ Yjoft …v' -six_Ú, Gx' days of
Nofv+ …v'Gx'Ú -six days_ of cy{o\ sofM on a
particular day of of cy{o\ 3fs] dfMu'of afWotf+
g]kfnefiff
s'Gx' Rjo\u' ofgfu' vM wsfM wfOlk+ g+ b' . t/ j
ts{ 5fo\ kfo\l5 dh" wfM;f ljleGgfy{s vFUjMt
g]kfnefiffo\ hs dv' GXofu' efiffo\ g+ oSj b' .
vFUjM ljz]if 5' cy{o\ 5\oMu' wofu' ;Gbe{ y'OsL .
Yj vFo\ efiff j}1flgs 8«fle8 lqm:6n -!(*&M)^)_
-David Crystal_ h'+ wofbL æThe occurance of a
unit e.g. a sound word is partly or wholly
determined by its context, which is specified
in terms of the unit's relation...Æ
g]kfnefiffo\ x] d]du] ' g+ oSjM vFUjMt b'
u'lsof cy{ ;Gbe{ ofgfM kfgfRjgL . b;'of nfuL
5uM vFUjM sfo\ …jfÚ plsof cy{ vM teeth, rain,
chapagaun - 'a valley in south patan', come,
blend . …ef}Ú wfo\ano\ cat vM jf daughter-in-
law d]yfo\ ug+ kfs] DjfM, pv'g' j ps'Gx' hsM
kfs]dfM wsfM pRrf/0f :jofM Rjo\u' 5fo\ kfs]dfn <
-cf_ :j/fGt wft'of cfTd ce'tof lntF;f –o\÷o]
:j/fGt wft' -g–eat, wf–say, Vj–weep etc_ of
cfTd ce"t -self non-past/non-past conjunct_
g+jfo\ano\ go\–, wfo\–, Vjo\– vM;f g+ Rjo\ano\
go], wfo], Vjo] RjOlk+ g+ oSj bofjn . Gxfkf
g+jfOu' g+, RjOu' g+ go], wfo], Vjo] x] vM;f g+
cfM ;M kfgfM ;sl;g+ g+ jfo\ano\ go\, wfo\, Vjo\
wfo\ w's
+ n . Yj lqmofo\ hs dv' ;+1fo\ g+ b', uy]
ls– sfo\ son, DXofo\ daughter, 5o\ grand
son/grand daughter, Tjfo\ bosom friend, Njo\
disease . lqmofo\ go\ – g+jfgfM go] RjOlklg 5'F
wfk' b' wfM;f lqmof?k wofu' :o+s] dlhp . wft'
-lqmofof d"n ?k_ hs 5u" x] h'O, j :ogLdv'
cyjf :o+s] dlhp, vM t/ lqmof?knf wft'O
lntF;f tofM HofgftOu'ln+ e"t, ce"t, k"js { flns,
cf1fy{s cflb lqmof?k ljljw ?kofu' x] h'O .
cfTd ce"t :o+s] dlhp wsfM pRrf/0f lj?4
…go\Ú dRj;] …go]Ú RjOlklg ;+c÷cfsf/fGtof
yf;o\ psf/fGt h'n wfM;f ofpFs x] lqmof?k
:o+sL, uy]ls –
eg: lh+ Ej+ v'O clGtd ?k
I paper tear-out I tear-out the paper
65
g]kfnefiff
5u" vFk' aMrfw+u' vFUjM w'sl' t+ -g]=;+= !!)&_
sfo\ . æcfMoft y'sL å+ljå+ bM;f ;'wf/ ofo\un
cyjf ;'emfj aLu'nL Yj vFUjM w's" 5\onLlkG;+
dg tofaL dfnÆ .
yg ofo]un ' L -gjfo\sy+ ofo\un ' L_ cyjf
;'emfj aLu'nL -ofo]uy' ] lao] h'OdfMu' vM, lqmof
?k :o+sfM yg+ aL_ 5fo\ h'n, cy] x] …dg toflao]
dfnÚ RjMyfo\ …aLdfnÚ dRj;] 5fo\ …lao]Ú h'n .
…o\Ú b]jgfu/L j g]kfn lnkL g+ db'u'ln+ yy]
bo\sftMu' :j/j0f{ vM . y'sLt c+uh ]| L lnKof+sg
ofo\ano\ …eÚ h'O, uy]ls wfo] dhae, go\ næ,
Vjo\ khwæ/khoe. efifflj1fgo\ y'sLof lr+oft
pDnfj6 -umlaut_ wfO . Yj dfUjMof Rjo\ lgk'mlt
y'sy+ RjO – 5o\ -son in law_ Chä, Ujo\ -nut_
gö . hd{g efiffo\ g]kfnefiffo\ y]+ Yj oSj 5\oM
-gö the institute_ dxfslj …x[bo+Ú Yj ljifo;
oSjM lrGtg dgg\ ofgfM pDnfj6\ g+ 5\onf
:jofbLu' vM, t/ b]jgfu/L lnkL ktfM Ajo\s]
yfo\ Yj 5\on] dlhpu'ln+ s/+ SogfM tfnAo cw{:j/
…o\Ú RjofM xnGt ofo\u' ofgflbn . Yjoft Ao~hg
sy+ dv' :j/sy+ jofRj+u' vM . g]kfnefiff :j/fGt
vFUjMof efo\ -open syllabic language_ vM . 5sM
ef/tof ljåfg ebGt cfgGb sf}zNofog g]kfM
jMano\ g]kfnefiffoft sofM g]kfnefiffof lqmof?k
t:;s+ dxTjk"0f{ h", Yjoft :o+s] dlhp wsfM
wfMu' h'ofRjg . jo\sn+ wofbLu' cy{ vM . yMu' x]
lqmof?k bo\s+ d]u' efiff+ vf;ofgf vo\efiff+ TofgfM
5\on]dt] wfMu' vM uy] ls –…åg]Ú of …e'no\ h'oÚ]
af …nf]dg]Ú, …bo]Ú of yf;o\ …n8\o\ h'oÚ] cflb t/
jo\sMof j wfk'oft d]sy+ y'OsfM lqmof?k :o+s]
dlhp wofu' lx;fa+ g+jfo\sy+ ldno\ dh'Os
k'nf+u' ?k+ 5\onfjMu' h'ofRjg . dxfslj …x[boÚof
k|efjo\ :j/fGt wft'of cfTdce'to\ clGtd …o\Ú
pyfo\of gf+b+lk+ ttMw+lk+ g]kfnefiffof slj
n]vslklg;+ 5\onfjMu' vM, t/ dxfslj x[bo
dbo\w'+s;' l]+ n GXof+lklg GXof+y] Rjo\u' ofgfxn,
66
5u" sy+ efiffo\ c/fhstf Ajng . g]kfnefiff
' L s]Gb|Lo ljefu+ ;'wf/ ofo\t :jM;f+ ofo\ kmofRj+u'
db' .
ª_ ?k;GwL ljs[lt M
g]jfMefiffo\ ;lGwof Aojxf/ dh" wsfM zf:qL
-lj=;+ = !(*%, !^_ wsfM Rjoflbn . t/
g]kfnefiffo\ yMu' x] kxMof ;lGw b', uy] ls–
jofM ± Rjg > jofRjg > j}Rjg
wofM ± la ± O > wofaL > w}aL
y'lk+ h'n lqmof ;lGw ug lgu" lqmof ?kof
;lGw h'ofM lgu"of+ 5u" ;+oQ
' m lqmof lgdf{0f h'n .
lntF;f -k|Too_ g+ 5u" Aofs/l0fs ?k vM,
d"n vFUjln;] :jfgfM u'u' ?k rno\ h'O psLt
?k;lGw wfO . lqmof–?kfogo\ lntF;f :jfgfM u'u'
?k rno\ h'O, ;+1f–?kfogo\ lntF;fln;] d"n
?kof u'u' ?k rno\ h'O OldtM g+ ?k;lGw wfO,
pvt+ ;lGw h'ofRj+u' ?k;lGwof b;' –
d"n ?k lntF;f ?k;lGw h"u' clGtd ?k
/fd–-;+1f_ + /fd+ -;sd{s stf{_
/fd– Æ oft /fdoft > /fd}tM -sd{÷;Dk|bfg_
jg\– -wft'_ c jg -k/e"t_
O{ -Zj_ jgL -k/ce"t_
cf jgf -cfTde"t
Yjx] ?k;lGwof vFo\ Ro"tf dt;] emL;+
pRrf/0f g+ dofOsy+ hg lha|fo] f g+ jf:tf dof;]
yf}s
+ Gxo\ yy] g+ Rjo\u' ofgfxn –
jlgO goes k/ ce"t
klgO stops k/ ce"t
lguM j x] af py]h
+ fMu' lguM dfUjM gfknfo\j
j 5uM x], t/ bL3{ ?kofu' h'O . (Coalescence
of similar sounds megere each other) jlgO
Rjo\ano\ yg ;lGw dh'n, ;lGw h"u' h";f clGtd
O 5uM hs bL3{ ?kofu' h'O . d]u' vF …jlgÚ d"n
?k af wft' dv' u'sL vFUjM Hofo\t lntF;f RjgL .

cs]+ dxfslj x[boÚ lklg;+ RjofbL y]+ hfMu'
?k;lGwof b[li6+ z'4 ?k g+ dv', g]jfM d]r+
lkHjOsy+u' ;Mofu' z'4 ?k g+ dv' .
# SjrfMvF –
Xo"kfno\ lnwgfM efiff GXofgf g+ RjgL,
Djfgf g+ RjgL . lns'g ls nM y]+ efo\ g+ :ogfjgL .
pls+ kl/jt{goft kg]u' wofu' x] efo\oft ;f;M
s's
+ fM :ofo\u' y]+ h'O .
GXof+ jg]u'oft cu|ufdL -prograssive
fore-going _ wfO, lnxf+ jg] u ' o ft k| l tufdL
-regressive_÷cu|ufdL h'ofM GXof+ jg]t :jo\u'
x] efo\ ysfo\u' d'Vou' nFk' vM . lkg]hs dv'
g]kfnefiff
:jlguno\ b'g] x] g+ d:t;]+ df+efo\sy+ g]jfM efo\
Nxfo\u' TjMtfj+ xofRj+u' b' . d:t;]+ dNxfOu' efo\
u|fOD;+ -Grimes_ AjyMsy+ :ogfj+u' eroding l:ytL
nfM .
g]jfMt !@ u" nfv+ dofs bof g+ efo\
NxfOlk+ * u" nfv j rfr" hs b'ul' n+ qmfp;+
-Krauss_ AjyMsy+ lemu" nfv+ Sjo\nfMu'ln+ tMw+u'
;+s6o\ -endangered_ nfM .
efiffo\ u'u' lxpkfM jO j ;/ntfof nF
lngfM jOu'ln+ joft dfGotf laofM Xo"kfn+ So+u'
nF lngfM jg]dfM . uBu'? lgi7fgGb+ Nxfgfef;+
RjofM Rjo\ cMk'Osf lan . c:t' !
w u x

;Gbe{ wnM
hf]zL, ;Tod]xg -;+_, g]=;+= &&, aMrfw+u' g]jfM vFUjM w's" . o]F M nfsf}n lkygf .
hf]zL, ;'Gb/s[i0f, g]=;+= !!!*, g]kfMof lzIffo\ g]kfnefiff . on M g]kfnefiff s]Gb|Lo ljefu .
g]=;+= !!@%, g]kfnefiffsf] j0f{ Joj:yf / n]vg k|0ffnL . @)^@ a}zfv #) ; g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f
k|lti7fg+ Uj;fM UjMu' ljz]if uf]i7L GXoAjMu' Hofkf} .
t'nfw/, k|d
] zflGt, g]=;+= !!@), g]kfnefiff ;flxToof Oltxf; . lsk" M g]kfnefiff Ps]bd
] L.
bfxfn, aNnedl0f / eLdgf/fo0f, /]UdL lj=;+= @)%*, æ/fi6«efiff / /fli6«o efiffx?sf] ;xofqf Pj+ ljsf;sf pk]Iffx?Æ
k|1f, (%M(–##
zf:qL, z'qm/fh, lj=;+= !(*%, g]kfnefiff Jofsf/0f . snstf M clDasf k|;fb jfhk]oL .
>]i7, cf]dsf/]Zj/, g]=;+= !!!!, g]jfM n]vg k|0ffnL . o]F M Gx;nf k|sfzg .
…x[boÚ lrQw/, g]=;+= !)&@, g]kfnefiff uo\ Rjo\u' . o]F M g]kfnefiff kl/ifb\ .
Cristal, David 1983, A First Dictionary of Linguastics & Phonetics. London : Andrdeutsch
Grimcs, Barbara F, 2001, Global Language vitality in Sakiyama, Osamu (ed) Endangered
Languages of the pacific Rim, Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim : Lectures
on Endaugered Languags: 2, From Kyoto Conference 2000 (Kyoto : ELPR 45-6.
Krauss, Michael, 2001, Mass Language Extinction and Documentation : The Race Against
Time, in Sakiyama, Osamu (ed) Endangered Language of Pacific Rim Lecture on
Endaugered Langauges : 2, From Kyotu conference Kyoto : ELPR : 19-39

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