3.1. THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI 3.1.1 Introduction : During the middle of the 6! Century, the Chalukya dynasty rose into prominence. The rule of the Chalukyas in the Deccan can be divided as— 1. The Chalukyas of Badami or the Western Chalukyas who ruled between 6" and 8” century A.D. 2. The Chalukyas of Kalyana or the later Western Chalukyas who ruled during the 10" century A.D. 3. The Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from 7h century to the 12th century A.D. The Chalukyas of Badami ruled for nearly two and a half centuries. The rulers of this dynasty like Pulakeshi Il, Mangalesha and Vikramaditya Vi were the outstanding rulers who were known for their valour and ability. They extended the frontiers of the Kingdom from the river Narmada in the North to river Kaveri in the South. The Chalukyas of Badami were not only known for their conquests but also for their immense interest in art and architecture. Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal depict to us the glory of the Chalukyas of Badami. . 3.1.2 Origin of the Chalukyas: According to the Vikramankadevacharita written by Bilhana, the court poet of Vikramaditya VI, Indra requested Brahmadeva to create a hero powerful enough to destroy the wicked people and to put an end to the evil forces in the world Brahmadeva created a mighty warrior from the hollow of the palm, i.e., the Chaluka, where he held water for the Purpose of pouring out libation. He was the ancestor of the line in which the two great heroes, Hariti and Manavya were born, who vowed to Punish tyrants. The Chalukyas were thus known as Haritiputras and they Boers:MI BADA | CHALUKYA RE OF PULIKESIN wae OF PULIKE SIN'S CAMPAg, i ROUTE: a . AVA SN wal belongeg to the Manavyagotra Bilhana tel the Chaly Was yodhya and Gradual and eStablig| leir power Which was also known f es me of lls us that the eee? Y they migrated Da oe rr ’ alukyas settled down at as Vatapi,The inscriptions have referred to the Chalukyas as ‘Chaluka’, ‘Chalikya’ and ‘Chalukya’. Probably, the name must have been derived from the legend that the progenitor of the dynasty was born from the Chaluka, or palm of Brahmadeva. The Chalukyas were the worshippers of Kartikeya or the Lord Narayana. Their emblem was the Boar crest. It symbolised the motto of the Chalukyas. Their main aim was to protect the earth from bad rulers just like Lord Vishnu who took the form of aBoar (Varaha Avatara) to destroy the evil forces on earth. Various inscriptions of the Chalukyas such as the Badami inscrip- tion of Kirtivarma |, the Mahakuta pillar inscription of Mangalesha and the Aihole pillar inscription of Pulakeshi |! help us in tracing the origin of the Chalukyas. One of the most important theories which has been accepted is that the Chalukyas were purely of Kannada origin. The Chalukya rulers assumed the typical Kannada regal suffix called ‘Arasa’. Kirtivarma | was known as ‘Katti arasa’ and Khubja Vishnuvardhana was known as ‘Bitta- rasa’. The name ‘Pulakeshi’ which is the name of one of the most famous rulers of the Chalukyas is itself of Kannada origin. All these suggest to us that the Chalukyas belonged to Karnataka region and their mother tongue was Kannada. 3.1.3. The Political history of Badami Chalukyas: Pulakeshi | Pulakeshi | was the real founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He was the son of Rajasimha and the grandson of Jayasimha. He chose Badami or Vatapi as the capital of the dynasty, as it occupied a strategic position in the Deccan region. He also assumed the titles like ‘Rana Vikrama’, ‘Prithvi Vallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’. By this, we can understand that Pulakeshi | had established himself as a pre- eminent ruler inthe Deccan. He was great patron of art and architecture. Badami became the centre of Chalukyan monuments during his rule. Some of the other places, close to Badamilike Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta also became the centres of the Chalukyan temple architecture. Pulakeshi | undertook the task of constructing rock-cut temples. He contributed significantly to South Indian culture by facilitating the evolution of an indigenous style of architecture. 5| I his son, Kirtivarman 1 Kiivarman hi | was geen ate Fe defeated tng nas ies ro hy on Coben l dha, Kerala, quero a8 Viajes vans Kalinga, sacrifices. rice Vasi aad 7 May, ieaso performed and the Kadambas of Banava; Also Heal Coas' West as of the Sey, ing port: ian sea coast " flourishing ports of the Arabian oa! the flot control over unde' Mangalesa by his brother, Mangalesa as p Kirtivarman | sl fecaias ed He was an AMbitioys Me kesh Il, son of rae of Gujarat and Khandesh, He aleg os He conquered the oa important port. He issued the Mahakuta Goa or mien great devotee of Vishny and was called as Patan steal ere Cuttemple at Badami, dedicated to y gavata’. Pulakeshi | (608 - 642) Pulakeshi |] Was the Greatest ruler Of th first, he had to fight ay ie Chalukyas of Badami. At gainst his uncle, Mangalesa Who wanted to abdicate the throne in favour of hig son, Sundaravarma, However, Pulakeshi was SUCCessfyl i &Scending th, throne by Of his loyal f le by defeating Mangalesa with the help S. After the Civil war, the Chal State of Confusi i kyan Kingdom was ina er. Many of the feudatories seized the i Valour and peated their independence, However, Pulakeshi hu Upreme ruler fp veSS Was SUccessful jn €stablishing himself as 7 Pulakeshi tw, sa eetan "gion. The ashtrakutas during the mee R a Chiotg ae Ja Olicy oF 8ggression and expansion. A Pulakeshj Was *uccecent and Ovinda led an expedition on lar atreaty faehip With Ps Seating Abpaika and he also concl ‘lavas 8° Gutjarae 12: He also Subdued the Alupas, Ganges Se yutlatas, ad extended his empi - After PUlakeshi hi ; is Yasimha, ag et” and Northern sirections, he appointed Mi ' 88 the Gover, f GujaratThe most remarkable achievement of Pulakeshi II was the success he gained in the war against Harshavardhana of Kanauj. A powerful Kingdom had been established by Harsha.and he had conquered most ofthe parts of North India and he turned his attention towards South India. Harsha came into conflict with Pulakeshi II in the region between the Vindhyas and the Narmada. The Aihole inscription, composed by Ravi- keerti and issued by Pulakeshi II and the accounts of Yuan Chwang (Huien Tsang) gives us considerable information about the war between Pulakeshi II and Harshavardhana. According to the Aihole inscription, Pulakeshi who confronted Harsha forced him to flee in fear. "Harsha, whose lotus feet were arrayed with the rays of the jewels of the diadems of hosts of feudatories, prosperous with immeasured might, through Pulakeshi had his (Harsha’s) joy melted away by fear have become loathsome, with rows of lordly elephants fallen in battle". Yuan Chwang tells us that Siladitya (Harsha) who was boasting of his skill and the invariable success of his Generals, was filled with confidence. He mar- ched at the head of his troops to confront Pulakeshi |! but he was unable to subjugate him. By these evidence, it is very clear that Pulakeshi II won a decisive victory against Harshavardhana. By this victory, Pulakeshi became the Lord, of the three countries called ‘Maharashtrakas’, consist- ing of about 99,000 villages. Thus, Pulakeshi |! assumed the title, Para- meshwara. His other titles were Vallabha, Prithvi Vallabha and Parama Bhagavata. According to the Aihole inscription Pulakeshi also conquered * Kalinga from Sasanka or Harsha and then he also occupied the fort of Pistapura. He appointed his brother, Khubja Vishnuvardhana to rule over the Andhra provinces. This led to the growth of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom. He also defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. Pulakeshi Il also had to face the attack of the Pallava ruler, Mahendraverma. Pulakeshi fought a fierce battle against Mahendraverma at Pullalur and forced him to retreat. From then onwards, the struggle between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas assumed hereditary character. The conflict between the rulers of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu became a permanent feature in South Indian politics. The rulers of Andhra supported either the tulers of Karnataka or Tamil Nadu. Thus, an age of perpetual war between the Chalukyas and Pallavas was inaugurated.Rg to Badami after defeating Maheng i ii If spill wh ite some time. His name ang fame 4.4 ulakee ce for Se aiid cultural and commercia, Raa , reigned, nd wide. He oe embassy with letters and Presen spread far Pulakeshi I epee 11, who also reciprocated j, ad Lae the Persian ee of Pulakeshi II. The Chinese travelley | comembassy t0 the or aka by about 641 A.D. and describeg the oa en visited Kara om. He tells us that there were more than of the Chalukyan ea and Hinayana sects. He also q Sanga ramas of mae Pulakeshi ll as a warrior. It is said that he gs bility : ed him wi the valour and al feudatories who served him with a immense respect from various ny one success of Pulakeshi I! over the Pallavas did not last fora ime. Narasimhaverma, the son the successor of Mahendraverma Want cas insult inflicted by Pulakeshi I! on his father. A war ensus between Pulakeshi II and Pallava Narasimhaverma. In the battles g Pariyala, Manimangala and Suramara, Pulakeshi || was defeated b Narasimhaverma. The Pallavas pursued the Chalukyas and enter: Badami. The city was plundered and many innocent people includiy women and children were massacred Pulakeshi Il lost his life in the cours of the war. The Pallavas established a pillar of victory at Badami. Thus Pulakeshi Il had to taste defeat towards the end of his career. a aon was the greatest tuler of the Chalukyas. He was a gred ‘or known for his valour and prowe: ficient administrator, He alse ; oe © contributed to the growth of a distinct culture. Successors of Pulakeshi I : Vikramaditya 66 o returned Vikramadit Pulakeshi ll, He se 28°eNded the Ch, d i lalukya throne after the deat! dynasty, He fo a so restore the gl es of way IO And prestige of the Crab em ba leagainst Ma, 21S against the Pallava rulers. He foul at On Param, etme, 32a Il and also inficted a cust ed the cr Captured the city of Kanchi. Vike heras, Cholas, Pandyas and KalabhrasVinayaditya Vinayaditya became the ruler of the Chalukya dynasty after Vikra- maditya |. He is renowned for his expeditions against the Pallavas, Kalabhras, Malavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. He also claimed tribute from the rulers of Persia and Simhala. Vinayaditya also defeated the North Indian ruler, Yasovarman of Kanauj or Adityasena. Vijayaditya I Vinayaditya was succeeded byhis son, Vijayaditya II]. He continued towage wars against the Pallavas. The most remarkable event of his reign was the defeat of the Pallava King, Parameswaravarman. He assumed the titles ‘Satyashraya’, ‘Samastabhuvanashraya’, ‘Sri Prithvi Vallabha’, ‘Paramabhattaraka’ and ‘Sahasarasika’. He constructed the Siva temple called Vijayeswara, now called Sangameswara at Pattadakal. Vikramaditya II Vikramaditya || succeeded Vijayaditya. After he ascended the throne, he determined to wipe out the power of the Pallavas. The most memorable event of his rule was that Vikramaditya Il won a glorious victory by defeating Pallava, Nandivarman II. Vikramaditya II entered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas without causing any damage to it. He installed an inscription in his own language on one of the largest and most beautiful temples of Kanchi. Vikramaditya II also subdued the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas and the Kalabhras. He erected a Pillar of victory on the shores of the Southern ocean. The last ruler of the Badami Chalukyas was Kirtivarman II. The Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga defeated Kirtivarman II in 753 A.D. He occupied Badami and proclaimed himself as the sovereign of the entire Deccan region. Kirtivarman II tried to regain the territories lost to the Rashtrakutas but he was miserably defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna |. The glory of the Chalukyas, thus came to an end,3.2 THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF MANYAKHETA 3.2.1 Introduction: The Rashtrakutas ruled in Karnataka from about 700 to 1000 A.D. They were renowned for their imperialistic policy. The Rashtrakutas played a predominant role not only in South India but they also displayed their skill and valour in warfare whef they invaded North Indian territories. No other South Indian dynasty, as early as the 7” century A.D. had undertaken a successful expedition to the North. There were many industrious rulers like Dantidurga, Krishna |, Govinda III, Dhruva and Amoghavarsha. Nripatunga in the long line of Kings in the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Most of the Rashtrakuta rulers followed the policy of aggression and expansion. They are not only known for their conquests but they are also renowned for their rich contributions to literature and architecture. 3.2.2 Origin: The origin of the Rashtrakutas has been traced back to the Rattas or Ratikas or Rashtrikas, a tribe mentioned in the Ashokan Rock Edict. It is said that two words called ‘Rashtra’ and ‘Kuta’ were joined to form the word ‘Rashtrakuta’. The original meaning of this word was ‘Viceroy of a province’. It gradually came to be adopted as the name of a dynasty. The word ‘Rashtrakuta’ was a symbol of authority and was used in the names and titles of the rulers of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The Rashtrakutas also assumed the title ‘Lattalur Puravaradhiswara’. It suggests to us that ‘Latur’ was the original home of the ancestors of the Rashtrakutas. Latur or Lattalur has been identified as the Latur in Osmanabad district of Maha- rashtra. Although the place is now in Maharashtra, it had been a place in the frontier region of Karnataka. The Rashtrakutas, claim that they be- longed to the Yadava race. The emblem of the Rashtrakutas who ruled over Karnataka was the Adigaruda, the Vahana of Lord Vishnu. This emblem is found on the copper plates issued by the Rashtrakutas. There are a number of evidences which prove that the. Rashtrakutas were of6 enonided liberal patror N Wey . tunga 1s Considered as VON Ky 7 1 fastirakula Nripal worm in Kannada, The i WVHA my yeon found In Kannada 9 NWA Thy f i Kannada on Ammoghavarsha thes % fini, iherature Kavirgjarniar de the first inerary Aasttrakute aynanly have also t peyond any doubt that (he Rashtrakutas wore trom Karna by no evidences 10 prove that they wore from Maratha ob make Thongs! dynasty 48 claimed by Valdya and Foot YASH on Pugh “4 UTA EMPIRE PALA EMPIRE A cito —_— RAKUTA EMPIRE yTRAKUTA oF FLUENCE RASHT! auth Gonnnaootn™ eae Pronk: mee S| ZONE (NDIA OCEAN3.2.3 The political History of the Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga The progenitor and the first ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Dantidurga. He started his political career as a feudator) under the Badami Chalukyas. Dantidurga possessed extraordinary qualities. He displayed his prowess, extending co-operation to the Chalukyan ruler in his expeditions. He helped Vikramaditya I! in launching an expedition against the Pallavas. He also defeated the Pandyas, Cholas, Paramaras, Latas and the rulers of Kalinga and Kosala. Dantidurga enjoyed the titles ‘Prithvi Vallabha’ and ‘Khadgavaloka’. He performed the ‘Hiranyagarba- dana’ sacrifice to commemorate his victories. After he established his independent rule, he secured the titles ‘Maharajadhiraja Parameswara’ and ‘Paramabhattaraka’. He established the Rashtrakuta empire onafirm foundation. Krishna | Dantidurga died childless and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna |, He led an expedition against the Ganga ruler, Sripurusha and defeated him. The Gangas were converted into the loyal feudatories of the Rash- trakutas. Krishna | also forced Vishnuvardhana IV, the Eastern Chalukyan King to accept his sovereignty. He extended the boundaries of his Kingdom and emerged as a successful monarch. He was also greatly interested in architecture. He built the Kailasa temple at Ellora. It added to the pride and prestige of the Rashtrakutas. Govinda II Krishna | was succeeded by his son, Govinda Il. He was not interested in administrative matters. He was a pleasure loving prince who entrusted the entire responsibility of the administration to his younger brother, Dhruva. Quite opposite to Govinda II, Dhruva was endowed with virtues of life. Gradually he became powerful and Govinda II realised his mistake. He wanted to curb the growth of Dhruva’s popularity. Govinda Il, with the help of the Ganga ruler tried to crush the might of Dhruva. This ed to the outbreak of a civil war. Dhruva successfully defeated Govinda \l and he ascended the throne as ‘Nirupama’,76 Tay _ (780-794 A.D.) Dhruva ~ ( fter Dhruva ascended the throne, he turneg his atten Just afte! nga ruler, Shivamara who had helped Govinda ; tiny towards the Gal ie Shivamara and imprisoned him. He also : ik defeated and fer Dantivermaand forced him to pay a tribute of an ~ the Pallava ruler, edition against the Eastern Chalukya Kingg ns Dhruva led “ Sediane who concluded a peace treaty ang also He osm Shilamahadevi in marriage to him. Dhruva estabign’ i speek in the Deccan beyond doubt. Dhruva was an ambitious ruler. He is famous for his North in i campaigns. He invaded the Pratihara kingdom. He defeated Val ra who was unable to face the forces of Dhruva. Vatsaraja left his capita, ang fled to the deserts of Meru. Dhruva continued his march and Proceeds towards the Pala ruler, Dharmapala and defeated him in the Gang, Yamuna doab region. Dhruva was undoubtedly one of the greatest rulers of t kutas. He was one of the earliest rulers to invade N establish his supremacy over an extensive empire. he Rashtra. lorth India, and Govinda Ill- (793 - 814)” Dhruva was succeeded bi eldest brother of Govinda III fort ler the combi d i Sthamba |, Shivay ined armies under Dantiga, the Pallava a 88 once again imprisoned by Govinda ll. So also, Vishnuvardhana ying accepted the sovereignty of Govinda ll Of Govinda it in the Deccan - tg Of Vengi accepted the supremacy n. Govinda {1 » SUSE ik | ike ndian campaigng are coat Was an ambitious ruler. His No" im| Portant which speak volumes of th®might and ability of Govinda Ill. He made elaborate preparations to attack the North Indian dynasties. The Pratihara ruler, Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhatta i He met Govinda III in the battle field in Bundelkhand He wished to revive the glory and prestige of the Pratihara dynasty Govinda III defeated him and Nagabhatta ran away to Rajputana. From Bhopal and Jhansi, Govinda II! proceeded towards Kanauj. After a fierce battle, Chakrayudha of Kanauj surrendered unconditionally to Govinda lll, Dharmapala, the Pala ruler of Bengal was also forced to accept the sovereignty of Govinda Ill. He extended his campaigns as for as the Himalayas. The conquests of Govinda Ili enhanced the pride and prestige of the Rashtrakutas. When Govinda III was busy in his North Indian campaigns, the Pallavas, Pandyas, Chera and the Gangas joined hands with each other and attacked Manyakheta. Govinda III, hearing about the crisis in his homeland, rushed back with his victorious forces. He engaged himself in a fierce battle and bewildered the forces of the enemies. He emerged as indubitably the greatest ruler in the. India. He also led an expedition against the Ceylonese King and forced him to submit. Thus, Govinda III was one of the gréatest rulers in the history of India. Amoghavarsha | Nripatunga ~ (814 - 878) Govinda Ill was succeeded by his son, Amoghavarsha Nripatunga. He ascended the throne at a very early age. When he ascended the throne, he had to face many problems. He had to face the attacks of the North Indian enemies as well as maintain his control over the South Indian feudatories of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He was assisted by his uncle, Karka of Gujarat and his Chief Minister, Patala Malla. By their able guidance, Amoghavarsha established an efficient administrative system. The ruler of Gangavadi declared his independence and Vijayaditya |! of Vengi attacked the Rashtrakuta empire. Amoghavarsha attacked Vi- jayaditya II and defeated him. Amoghavarsha developed friendly relations with the Gangas of Talakad and the Pallavas. He also concluded matrimonial alliances with the leading dynasties of South India. One of his daughters was married to the Ganga ruler, Bhutuga |, When Vijayaditya and Bhutuga | were seriously contending for the Ganga throne, Amoghavarsha extendedMW uring the throne. Thus, the Gan, 8 ; 1988 to, Jin secu jas. One of the daugh Me hutuga ashtrakut i ers of si tres ofthe pallava King, Nandiverma i, thet, ss ef marted ed to accept the sovereignty of the Ra were also Chalukyas ‘hy not successful in his North She ever, Amoghavarshe Daas way. Amoghavarsh a tas. ea campaigns In the titles like ‘Nripatunga’, irq wa South sane Heassumed nown , and ‘atishaya Davala’ : ‘ad to face the rebellion of his son, Krishna i Amoghavarsta rr ghavarsha despatched his eminent Gat had fled to ain Il. Bankesha captured the fort of kaj . Bankesha enn and attacked Talakad. He defeated Krishn, in crossed is ae and submitted him to Amoghavarsha. The Em took in ae Bankesha’s loyalty and service and appointed tag eae of Banavasi province and built a city called Barkan named after him. Towards the end of the rule of Amoghavarsha, a Great calang befell the kingdom. According to the Sanjam Grant, Amoghavars, offered the fingers of his Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur, by which the Calama was averted. This depicts to us the lofty character of Amoghavarsha Ty: nstantinople and the Khalifa of Baghdad. This sped” volumes about the greatness of Amoghavarsha, Amoghavs int Hinduign ty farsha oe follow Jainism, but he did not try tocu Jinasena, Many 2 @ great patron of literature. He patronise! rana, Waavircneso arya and Sakatayana, Jinasena wrote the Adiot tayana wr i a tn the author Ganitasara Sangraha and Sait tncannada ang Prashnotis, euhavarsha himself wrote Kavirajame? 'ed not Only ag be ‘atnavali in Sanskrit, Amoghavarsta § a Warrior but algo 8 a patron of literature a Krishna tl The son ‘Yall, the Ven Succes, "OI Chay has nMOGhavarsha was Krishnall via 8ded Manyakhet, ital of la, the cap!Rashtrakutas. Krishna I! was forced to submit to him. But, Krishna II wanted to avenge the insult. He reorganised his army and marched against Vengi and defeated Bhima, the successor of Vijayaditya. But the Chalukyas of Vengi, secured their independence, very shortly after a hard fought battle. Indra Ill The grandson of Krishna II, Indra IIl ascended the throne. He was equal to Govinda III in courage and ambition. At first, he led an expedition against the Pratiharas. After the death of Mahendrapala, his two sons, Bhoja II and Mahipala were fighting for the throne. Bhoja occupied the throne with the help of Harsha, the Chandela ruler. Indra III interfered in the Pratihara politics. Indra also defeated Mahipala as well as the Prati- hara vassal, Upendraraja and occupied Ujjain and later on, Kanauj. Indra Ill interfered in Vengi politics also. He helped Yuddhamalla to ascend the throne of Vengi. Krishna Ill The next important ruler in the Rashtrakuta lineage was Krishna III. He had helped Bhutuga I! of Talakad to ascend the throne of the Gangas. When Krishna III led an expedition against the Cholas, Bhutuga I! helped him in the war. Krishna III defeated the Chola ruler, Parantaka | in the battle of Takkolam. Rajaditya, the crown prince of the Chola dynasty was killed in the war. Parantaka fled to ceylon. Krishna II! also occupied Kanchi, He assumed the title, Tanjaiyum - Kanchiyum - Konda (The conqueror of Tanjore and Kanchi). Krishna Ill also reduced the power of the Cheras and Pandyas. He occupied Rameswaram and set up a pillar of victory there. The later rulers of the Rashtrakuta dynasty were Kottiga and Karka Il. The power and glory of the Rashtrakutas began to decline, gradually. The Paramaras of Malwa under Siyaka Harsha invaded the Rashtrakuta empire and sacked Manyakheta. The last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Indra IV, who fled to the Ganga kingdom. Narasimha II Ganga tried to recover the kingdom but he failed in his task. By that time, the Chalukyas who had been the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas declared their independence and established their Kingdom with Kalyana as the capital.~—= ve arteanu arcnitecture. 3.3 THE CHALUKYAS OF KALYANA 3.34 \ntroduction - wer, The Rashtrakuta dynasty had established its po decline of the Po : owe! Wer of the Chalukyas of Badami. Many P after ™ ul rulers alea. of the Rashtrakuta dynasty held the reins of the Government and followed an imperialistic policy till about the tenth century. Gradually, the glory and power of the Rashtrakutas began to decline. The Paramaras of Malwa under Siyaka Harsha invaded and plundered Manyakheta. The last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty fled to the Ganga Kingdom. By that time, the Chalukyas who had been the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas declared their independence and established their Kingdom with Kalyana as their capital. The rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyana has been marked by the constant wars which they waged agairist the Cholas. 3.3.2 The Political History of Kalyana Chalukyas: Taila tl Taila |! or Tailapa was the founder of the Chalukyan Kingdom at Kalyana. The period between 700 A.D. to 1000 A.D. was dominated by the Rashtrakutas. By 973 A.D. the Paramaras attacked the Rashtrakuta Kingdom and plundered Manyakheta. Taila began his political career as a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas. He gained the Taradavadi province, by the dint of his merit and hard work and rose to the position of a Mahasamanta. He forced the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas like the ruler of Banavasi region, Rattas of Sundatti, the Sindas of Bijapur, the Silaharas of North Konkan and the Seunas to acknowledge his sovereignty. Taila turned his attention towards the Paramaras and defeated Munja. He also came into conflict with Raja Raja, the Chola ruler. He was successful in defeating Raja Raja and also gained 150 war elephants as tribute. Satyashraya Satyashraya lrivabedanga succeeded Taila Il. The Cholas cpn- quered Gangavadi. Satyashraya could not tolerate the expansion of the Chola power in the Kannada kingdom. He invaded Vengi and reduced Dharmikota and Yanamandala. The Chola ruler, Rajendra invaded Ka- lyana and massacred innocent men, women and children in an inhuman manner. Satyashraya returned back from the Vengi kingdom and freed his capital from the Cholas. Satyashraya also patronised the Kannada poet, Ranna. The Gadayuddha or Sahasabhima Vijaya was written by Ranna and he earned the title ‘Kavichakravarthi’.her's son, Vikramadip ied by his brot Ya er a short time. Ayyana who @SCENdey or a short period Satyashraya was 1 ascended the throne He nly fe the throne after him also ruled only Jayasimha u During the rule of wars against the Cholas himself in vay imha Il, he had to engage tug “cate paramaras. Bhoja, the Paramara TUley al kingdom and occupied the Northern Part of the ane vee asimha recovered the territories which had bee, kingdom. However, the Cholas and the Chalukyas fought against each occupied by a contra over Vengi, and involved themselves in the other rites The Chola ruler, Rajendra defeated Jayasimha in the battle Vengi p : of Maski in the Raichur region. Somesvara | eeded by his son, somesvara |. He assumag the aha ies ‘Trailokyamalla’. He shifted the capital from Manyakheta to Kalyana. Thus, the political activities of the Chalukyas were centred at Kalyana since the rule of Somesvara |. Somesvara also involved himself in the Vengi politics. The Cholas opposed Somesvara|, The Chola ruler, Rajadhiraja | defeated the Chalukyas in the battle of Dhanyakataka. Somesvara freed his Kingdom from the Cholas and again laid siege on Kanchi. The struggle between the Chalukyas and Cholas was renewed. In the battle of Koppam, Rajadhiraja lost his life. The war was continued by the Chola king, Rajendra Il. He established a pillar of victory at Kollapur by defeating the Chalukyas. Somesvara faced a series of setbacks in his wars with the Cholas. However, he was successful in the expedition he led against the Paramara ruler, Bhoja. Somesvara plundered Dhara, the capital of Bhoja. Somesvara was Suffering from an oe disease. He drowned himself in the Tungabhadra river at uruvatti, Somesvara {I Somesvara |, the eldest son ra | ascer , of Somesvara ded the t , € Chola king, Viraraj ; Kalyana war appeared _¥' Virarajendra and the Chalukyas 0 Vikramaditya to be nevitable, However, it was averted as Vic tins , mening, ofthe & matrimonial alliance with the Cholas by aughters of Virarajendra, Vikramaditya VI, who wasthe younger brother of Somesvara or aspired to becom it ir a, the pi bi le the King himself, Very soon. Virarajer ola , \dra, the Chol ikramaditya. i by Adirajer i vi 'ya. But Adirajendra lost his life asa eriket jevol fe ear roke Ol inst hi ; - oa the one Rajendra succeeded to the Chola th p unga |. Vikramadit hoe i ya VI sect smears Hayakest the Hoysala chiefs, Vinayaditya caee aa ae Hiaweien Som and the ruler of Devagiri, and attacked coin Vikramaditya een ese help of the Chola ruler, Kulotunga. ° jomesvara was ca| i - tya who ascended the throne of the Chalukyas in aTeAD Vikramadi. Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) - Vikramaditya VI was the brother of Somesvara II During th of Somesvara Il, Vikramaditya VI participated actively in pottial ed He led a war against the Chola ruler, Virarajendra. The war ended in a treaty by which Virarajendra gave one of his daughter in marriage to Vikramaditya VI. Gradually, Vikramaditya VI became an independent ruler in the Southern part of the Chalukyan empire. He tried to overthrow the rule of Somesvara Il and he himself aspired to become the King. By 1070 AD., Virarajendra passed away and he was succeeded by Adirajendra. However, a popular revolt broke out in the Chola kingdom against his rule. The Vengi ruler, Rajendra succeeded in ascending the throne of the Cholas by uniting the two Kingdoms. He assumed the new name, Kulotunga. Vikramaditya VI developed friendly relations with the feuda- tories of Somesvara II. Thus, he declared himself as the ruler of the Chalukyas of Kalyana by 1076 A.D. Vikramaditya was undoubtedly the most distinguished ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. His accession to the throne marks the beginning ofa new era called Vikrama era, in 1076 AD. Vikramaditya VI ruled in peace for quite sometime, but towards the end of his rule he had to subdue the revolt of certain rebellious feudatories. Six to set years after 7 i i i he throne, his brother, Jayasimha revo! accession of Vikramaditya to t 2a Tard fought it im. Vil aditya succeeded in defeating hima } agi 7 a was captured. Vikramaditya released him battle. Although Jayasimh u ase after a short ame. Later on, Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi and the Andhra provinces from the Cholas. He also burnt Vengi.ler revolted against Vikra, he Hoysala rul ay, in his independence and put an end to the Cominane, VI. He wanted to er Kalyana. The Hoysalas es feu of the Se Vishnuvardhana secur . 2 e Pang under the Chal e i, Kadamba, Jayakesi of Goa, od FS ang ne Sie es dealt firmly with Nema at Le faceg the Seunas. vi od courage. He also secured help rm on ind 1 Wg a hashine He defeated Vishnuvardhana in t le of Kanng was his ; itya VI also interfered in the Paramara politics. The Pats, Saag passed away and a conflict for the throne mara ruler, a Jagaddeva, Lakshmanadeva and Naraverma fought tc ins Sia verma successfully occupied the throne. Jagaddey, pe athen adi i ditya VI for help and by his guidance and Support see Lait Paramara throne. Vikramaditya continueg to ideva ascent aaa his support even after Jagaddeva assumed power and lookeq after him as his own son. Vishnuvardhana, t Vikramaditya VI was the most outstanding ruler of the Chalukys dynasty. He maintained cordial relations with Ceylon. He sent an embas. sy to the court of the ceylonese king, Vijayabhanu. He was not only a great warrior but also a great patron of art and literature. Bilhana was the Court poet of Vikramaditya VI. He wrote the famous work, ‘Vikramankadeva charita’. Vijneswara, another eminent scholar wrote the Mitakshara Samhita acommentary orfYajnavalkya Smriti. Itis the present law code of the Hindus accepted throughout India, except Bengal where the Dayabhaga is fd- lowed. Kalyana, during the rule of Vikramaditya VI flourished as one o the most prosperous and magnificent cities. Vikramaditya VI found anew city called Vikramapura and bi uilt a big temple there. His rule ended by about 1126 A.D. Somesvara Ill Vikramaditya VI was Succeeded by his son, Somesvara Ill. He wa! a peace loving monarch. He also assumed the titles Tribhuvanamallaaré Bhulokamalia. Duri ing his declare his independe, 's Tule, the Hoysala ruler, Vishnuvardhana tried 19 of Vishnuvardhana, T nce. Somesy; he Hoysala, in the end of the tule of So il Don ‘ara managed to suppress the revo! occupied Ucchangi — re-established Chola Hoel ee II. During his reign, Vikrama C! In Vengi. Somesvara is renowned for hsncy lopaedic ork, * i Cl wi , ‘Abhilashit deals Li <8 arta Chinta ‘ intamani’ or ‘Manasol asa’ with pol ity. medicine, archery, astrology a ! he nd a number of other topics.3.4 THE KALACHURIS OF KALYANA 3.4.1 Introduction : ‘ tat The Kalachuris of Kalyana were known as Kalatsuris em churis. They were the feudatories of the Kalyana Chalukyas fora a rior’ When the power and prestige of the Chalukya dynasty began to aow ate, the Kalachuris occupies Kal ana and began their rule in an i inde- pendent manner. There are various theories about the origin of the Kalachuris. They were Original i rull Thay also assured thies ies ser! ing from Kalanjara of Bundelkhand : ; a Puravaradhisvaras". The Kalachuri: = ne Jiri hcaitain places. The main branches were the Reieslind [ ava branch, the Konkan branch and the Maharashtra a h of the Kalachuris was at Rail ipura a, bia tinal ae were known as the Kalachuris ey belo} i i royal emblem of the Kalachutis v stove italia fas the figure of a golden bull (Nandi). The inscriptions refer to the Kalachuris as ‘Maheswaras’ ane Tay were the ardent devotees of Lord Shiva. The most prominent ruler was Bijjala who ruled between 1162-1168 A.D. The Kalachuris ruled only for 26 years and they occupy a significant place in the history of Karnataka. The earliest references to the Kalachuris have been found in the Nerur copper plate, Mahakuta pillar inscription of 602 A.D. issued by Mangale- sha and the Aihole inscription of 643 A.D. beloging to the period of Pulakeshi I. The ruler called Buddharaja defeated by Mangalesha ia sair to have belonged to the Kalachuri branch ruling over Gujarat, Khandesh and Malava. 3.4.2 Early Kalachuri rulers: The history of the Kalachuris begins with Uchita (925 A.D.) He was the Governor of a province under the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Bijala | was the Mahamandaleswara under Someswava |. He was ruling over the regions around Utungidurga in Bellary district in 1064. A.D. The ancestors of Bijjala who was the founder of the Kalachuri dynasty at Kalyana belonged to the family of the Chedi Kalachuri dynasty. Although the Kalachuris of Kalyana belonged to the Chedi family, we do not have much information about the age in which they settled down in Karnataka and the branch to which they belonged. We have some information about their ancestors through the Kannada inscriptions. There is reference about Mahamandaleshwara Bijjarasa of Mangalavada inthe Chadachana inscription of 1057 A.D. belonging to the age of Somesvara |. According tothe inscription, Bijarasa assumed the titles ‘Kalanjara Puravaradhiswa- ra’ and ‘Kalachuri Kula Kamala Marthanda’. By this, we can conclude that Bijjala belonged to the Kalyana Kalachuri dynasty and ruled at Mangala- vada in 1057 A.D.RA One of the inscriptions of 1162 of Bijjala’s age indicateg iq following information. Shiva picturised a Brahmin maiden in hig he who gave birth to a boy child. He killed a tyrant who was a ma Krishna who was of the Barber profesion captured 9 lakh Dahaly ki er, dom. In his lineage, many Kings began to rule and later on Kannamm, ‘ing. va came to power. He had two sons Bijja and Raja. Bijja was Tuling on the Kingdom. Raja had four sons — Ammugi, Shankarma, Kannara - Jogama. At first Ammugi | ruled, later on Jogama who was known Jogama of Tarika ruled over Mangalavada. He had a son called Permag His son was Bijjaladeva. In this lineage, Bijjarasa, Kannamma and Jogama who was the father-in-law of Vikramaditya VI began to rule over Mangalavada. He had given his daughter Saraladevi in marriage to Vikramaditya VI. Jogamas son, Permadi was the contemporary of Someswara Ill. He ruled from Mangalavada till Tardavadi, 1000 in 1228 A.D. He was known as Permadi, Parmardi or Hemmadi. Vikramaditya VI, the greatest Kalyana chalukya ruler gave his daughter, Nagaladevi who was born to his second queen, Chandaladevi in marriage to Permadi. Bijjala who was the most powerful ruler of the Kalyana Kalachuri dynasty was his son. He was known as Bijja, Biljjala, Vijjala and Bijjanna. His name appears first in 1142 A.D. in the Bijapur inscription as ‘Bijjala Kshonipala’. Bijjala was known as Mahamandale- swara. But later on he was known as Dandanayaka and Mahapradhana. 3.4.3 Bijjala: Bijjala was the son and successor of Permadi. He was a feudatory under the Kalyana Chalukyas during the rule of Jagadekamalla |! and Taila Ill. Bijjala was bidding for an opportunity to attain independence. Tailal became the ruler of Kalyana in 1150 A.D. Bijjala who was a feudatory of the Chalukyas of Kalyana, gradually became an influential person, ac cording to the inscriptions. He began to control the entire administration of the empire. He appointed trust worthy men who were loyal to him in all important provences. Bijjala gained the favour and trust of Taila Ill a” assumed power as the commander-in-chief, When Jagadekamalla or Tailapa was the Emperor, Bijjala appointed the Mandaleshwarés © Nolambavadi, Banavasi and other important provinces. They Wel . tremely loyal to him. In 1157 A.D. Taila Ill led an expedition against t! — |ww Kakatiya King, Prola who had become a had also stopped paying tribute to the However, Taila Ill was defeated by the occupy the throne by overthrowing the Chalukyas of Kalyana. In 1157, Taila Ill was taken away as captive by the Kakatiyas. He was released later on by some of his loyal feudatories. By that time, Bijala had secured help from Shilahara Vijayaditya and the Banavasi chief, Racha. He in- vaded Kalyana and occupied the throne, Taila Ill never tried to return to the Capital city. He went to Dharwar district and ruled till 1162 A.D. and passed away in the same year. Bijjala, thus assumed power as an independent ruler in Kalyana. According to the Chikkalagi record of 1157, Bijjala was hailed as ‘Mahabhujabala Chakravarthi’. : great menace. The Kakatiya ruler Kalyana Chalukya ruler, Taila Ill Kakatiya King. Bijjala wished to Bijjala began his rule as a King by about 1162 A.D. He assumed titles like ‘Tribhuvanamalla’, ‘Bhujabala Chakravarthi’,' Maharajadhiraja’, ‘Parameshwara’, ‘Nissankamallla’, ‘Kalachuri Chakravarti’ and ‘Shaniva- rasiddi’. Bijjala was an efficient ruler. He kept his Mandalikas under his control. He introduced many changes in Administration. He led success- ful expeditions against Santara Jagadeva, Hoysala Narasimha | and Vijaya Pandya of Uchchangi and defeated them. He also defeated the Seunas, Chola Raja Raja Il!, Chola Rajendra | and Ganga Raghava of Kalinga. He also suppressed the Cheras, Nepalas, Latas and Gurjaras. Bijjala was an excellent administrator. His age witnessed the growth of the Veerashaiva religion. Basaveswara served Biljala in. various capacities like the Primeminister, the commander-in-chief and the treasurer. Basaveswara was the son of Madarasa and Madalambika. He started a revolutionary social movement. He wanted to break the caste system and froma new society devoid of caste and class distinctions. He encouraged inter-caste marriages and condemned sacrifices and meaningless rituals. The teachings of Basaveswara began to spread like wild fire(\ eneeuraged the inter-caste-marriages-and_condemned_saerifice and meaningless rituals. The teachings of Basaveswara began te spreadtike witd"tire.)When he encouraged the inter-caste marriage between the daughtér of Madhuvaiah, a Brahmin and the son of Haralaiah, a Harijan, he had to face the Wrath of the orthodox section of the Society. They also Poisoned the ears of the King against Basaveswara. The revolutionarya NAT ay, ‘ed by the orthodox people. The Kin | change was oppos 2d oT i aa pressure from the upper castes. He ordereq that te cele the Harijan boy and Brahmin git! who were Matrieg on parents of Basaveswara was deeply hurt. He left the Capital and y, A monsanaitn He died in 1167 A.D. Arebellion broke Out in Vang eanhes there was chaos and anarchy and Biljjala was MUrdereg i vel : 1168 A.D. 3.4.4 Kalactiuris after Bijjala: ij four sons, Someswara, Sankama, Ahavamalla a See two daughters. After the death of Bijjala, Someswar, ascended the throne. He was able to suppress the revolts which broke out at the time of the death of Bijjala. He ruled till about 1176 ap He defeated the Cholas, Gurjaras and Latas. He also plundereg Khas, Kalinga, Chera, Saurashtra and other regions. Someswara Was suo, ceeded by his younger brother, Sankama. He ruled till 1180 A.D. Atte him, Ahavamalla succeeded to the throne. He defeated the Hoysala ruler Ballala Il, Silahara Aparaditya lI, Paramara ruler, Vindhyavarman and others. The rule of the Kalachuris came to an end as Someshwara IV, the Kalyana Chalukya ruler reoccupied Kalyana and other Parts of the Dec. can, It is said that Ahavamalla continued to tule Belvola and Banavasi He was succeeded by Singhana who surrendered to Someswara, both the provinces of Belvola and Banavasi. Thus, the rule of the Kalachurs came to an end by 1183 A.D. The rule of the Kalachuris is significant although they ruled only for a short period. The age of Bijjala witnessed the growth of the Veerasaiva movement under the leadership of Basaveswara. This indicates to usthat there was growing awareness among the people about the caste and Class distinctions Prevailing in Society. Due to the growing discontent: Ment among the People, , @ Movement was started to provide a religion to the people which Preached the Principle of equality. Moreover, @ movement started to break the Caste system proves to us the growind change in society about social and religious values set by the anciet Scriptures. The time had Come to discard dogmatic ideas and meaning less rituals and rites, The brief rule of the Kalachuris led to the rise of h? Seunas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra,Uhoers — Contributions of Shathavahanas The Shathavahana rulers continued ¢h,,; ej administrative tradition of. Mouryas with s, t innovations. Monarchy existed. The king me the pivot of administration. He was the = preme commander of army and fountain-heag of justice. The kings were educated j, Koutilyan system of education. The kings pry. moted both the material and spiritual welfare of the people. The king was assisted by a council of ministers. One original feature of Shathavahana administration was the asso. ciation of Queens in Political Life. Queen Balashri and her son Gowthaniputra Shathakarni jointly issued orders. The Shathavahana king was assisted bya council of ministers which included Amatyas or governors of Aharas, Rajamatyas, who at- . tended the king, Mahamatras, assigned a spe cial work, Bhandarika, superintendent ofstores, Heramika, the treasurer, Mahasena- pathi, the commander of the army and Lekhaka, who drafted documents to the king. For administrative convenience the Shathavahana kings divided their empire into various provinces known as Aharas, placed in charge of governors. The Aharas were sub- divided into towns known as Nigamas. Each Nigama had an assembly called Nigamasabha, which administered the Nigamas and consid- ered the voice of citizens. Further each Nigama was sub-divided into Gramas or villages incharge of headmen called Graminis. It was the lowest unit of administration. There were three categories of feudatories under the Shathavahanas. 1. Rajas, who struck coins in their own names, 2. Mahabhojas and Maharathis, who were blood relations of the royal family in the western part of the empire. 3. Mahasenapathis or mili- tary governors who were incharge of certain outlying provinces. Thus the Shathavahanas established a sound and efficient administra- tion and ensured a long period of peace, law and ardar in thair tarritarv1. Administration a | . < continue the administrative system ka. The King was the head of the administrative system. He was regarded as an ee boas He was the Commander-in-chief of the army and was the highest court of appeal. The Satavahanas were Dharmic monarchs. They were well-educated. The Kautilyan principles of administration were adopted. Many queens also played an active role in the political life. They issued many grants and also acted as regents. Gautami Balasri, mother of Gautamiputra Satakarani also undertook the task of instituting a charitable endowment. Various officers like Amatya, Rajamatya, Mahamatya, Mahasenapathi, Heranika and Lekhaka assisted the king. The empire was divided into Aharas headed by Amatyas. They were further divided into Nigamas (towns) and Gramas (villages). During the rule of the Satavahanas, the feudatories were known as Mahabhojas and Maharathis who administered The Satavahanas preferred to evolved by the Mauryas in Karnatathe different parts of the Satavahana empire. The an efficient system of administration and also contributed to the of an indigenous culture. The inscriptions give us information abut ‘he education of Princes. The study of the Arthashastra of Kautilya was followed ina systematic manner. During the Satavahana period the! Manat Parishad was the chief governing body. The ministers were accorded a place of respect. The Governors sought the advice of the Mantri Parishad on all important administrative matters. The Satavahana King was as- sisted by a Council of ministers. It consisted of (1) Amatya-the Governor of the Aharas (2) Rajamatya — attendants of the king (3) Mahamatra - officer in charge of an important task (4) Bandagarika — Superintendent of stores (5) Heranika — Treasurer (6) Mahasenapati - Commander-in- chief of the army (7) Lekhaka — officer who drafted the letters of the King. The Satavahana Kings also maintained different Departments like the Police, Finance, Justice, Agriculture, Industries etc. Satavahanas evolved During the Satavahana period the Headman of the village was in charge of the administration at the village level. There were village assemblies which were a link between the king and the village officials. The inscriptions of the Satakarani period tell us that in those days villages, towns and professional classes had their own separate unions with diversified rights and duties to be fulfilled. The Satavahana rulers were renowned for their sense of justice, efficient administration, religious tolerance, social welfare and generosity.1 administration. The rulers of the Kadamba dynasty were Brahmanas. They ‘ad: heredto Vedic religious rites and rituals. They performed many sacrifices. They also granted land to the Brahmanas. They were Dharmic monarchs. They cared for the welfare of the people. One of the noteworthy features of the Kadaqnba administration was the creation of the post of the Yuvaraja. The King was assisted by the Yuvaraja in administrative mat- ters. The Yuvarajas (heir apparents) were appointed as viceroys before they ascended the throne inorder to train them in administrative matters. Ultimately this led to the division of the kingdom itself under different princes. Hostility and rivalry began to grow among the Kadamba princes. The most unique feature of the Kadamba administrative system was the creation of the Panchapradhan or a Council of five ministers. It consisted of (1) The Pradhana who was the Prime minister (2) Manever- gade who was the minister in charge of the expenditure of the royal household (3) Tantrapal who was the foreign minister (4) Kramukapala ; who was in charge of the royal court (5) Sabhakarya Sachiva who was the Secretary of the Council. The Kingdom of the Kadambas was divided into different parts. The Western and Northern parts had their capital al Halasi. The Southern part was controlled by its capital at Triparvata. The Eastern part was administered by its capital at Uchchangi. Viceroys were appointed to administer the different parts of the Kingdom. The Districts were under the charge of Manneyas and the villages were administered by Grama- Mukhya. : The King was the highest authority in the judiciary. Many courts were established. The chief justice was known as Dharmadhyaksha. Punishments were awarded according to the gravity ofthe offence. Those who violated the rules and regulations had to pay three gold coins as fine. Even murderers were only punished by fine. There was no capital pun- ishment. The Kadambas maintained an army which was well-trained in Guerilla warfare. The army consisted of forest tribes and hill tribes. The Kadambas built strong forts to defend their kingdom from external aggression. The King was the Commander-in-chief of the army. The eS Ssa . “ON Ady administrative system evolved by the Kadambas was highly comp, able. na.Urabheas Was LOse. Contribution of the Gangas The Gangas made rich contribution to Karnataka culture. The administrative insti- tutions of Gangas resembled very much to those of Kadambas. They called themselves as Dharmamaharajas. They followed Manudharmashastra and other works on Rajanithi. The welfare of the subjects was the sole governing and guiding principle of Ganga rulers. The king was the supreme com- mander and fountain-head of justice. The king was assisted by Yuvaraja and a council of ministers, which consisted of Sarvadhikari or the Prime Minister, Sandhivigrahi or the min- ister of war and peace, the Dandanayaka orthe chief commander of armen paces srikaranadhikari or the minister “iva Bhandarl, incharé s. Sometimes ded the king in religio read a There were also officials li seal or king’s personal secretary, ’ cater a or the private secretary, Nidhikar: treasurer etc. . ; The kingdom was divided into pate provinces. Inscriptions refer to Torenadu, andhinadu lena, aranadu, AS oT galnaen ee e head of the Nadus. Nadus we : Vishayas or districts and Kampanas which resembled Taluks, consisted of a group of vil- lages. Vishaya had a Vishayapathi. The vil- lage administration was the responsibility of the Gowda, the Senbhova and the Maharajana Assembly or Gramakuta, the latter providing it a strong democratic element. Land was the chief source of revenue. Professional Taxes on potters, weavers, smiths etc. were collected. Marriage houses were also taxed. The Gangas organised an efficient army. Gajasahani or commander of elephant corps, Ashwadh- yaksha or head of the cavalry are mentioned in the inscriptions. The administration of jus- tice was mostly a local concern, but the final court of appeal was king himself. The punish- ments were generally mild.4. Administration. tt was monarchy which preva; The usual form of Government we eval during the rule of the Chalukyas of Badami. The Chaidkyas were Dharmig monarchs. They did not believe in unprovoked aggression for the sake of expansion of the territories of the Kingdom. They waged war only to il forces on earth. They were benevoley uphold Dharma and to destroy ev! T f onan who gave top priority to the welfare of their subjects. The eldeg son was regarded asthe legal heir to the throne. The empire was divideg into Vishayas and Rashtras. Members of the royal family were appointed as the provincial Governors. This is evident as Pulakeshi I! appointed his brother, Vishnuvardhana to administer the Andhra provinces. Women of the royal family enjoyed respect and certain special privileges. Some. times women were also appointed as the Viceroys of the provinces, Several provinces of the Chalukyas were administered by the feudatories who accepted the sovereignty of the Chalukyas of Badami. The head of the towns were Pattanaswami. The villages were headed by the Gowda. The Mahajana and Gramakuta were the popular assemblies of the town and village. They assisted the King in administra- tive matters. During the rule of the Chalukyas, the guild of the five hundred known as Virabanajus also exerted influence on the King. The Chalukyas maintained an army consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephants and cha- riots. The Chalukyas had evolved an efficient administrative system, which helped them to rule for quite a long time.dypae~’ 32. contributions of Rashtrakutas Rashtrakutas followed the administra- The stem of Chalukyas. The king was the tive SY wers. Kingship was heredita head of all po 1 k “Kj . oe ty. In the words of Dr. Altekar “King in ministry was the normal form of administration in the Rashtrakuta empire.” Their feudatories are also governed by the same principle in their respective regions. Even the princesses ac- tively took part in administration. For administrative convenience, the Rashtrakutas divided their empire into Rashtras also known as Mandalams governed by Rashtrapathis. This provincial governor was vested with both civil and military du- ties. The Rashtras further divided into Vishayas headed by Vishayapathis. Vishayas are also known as Desha which roughly corre- aan toamodern district. Each Vishaya was ane Bhuktis and each Bhukti known Bhogh was governed by an officer known as apathi or Bhojika. Village was the low-~ est unit of administration. Gramapathi was its head. The Mahajana assemblies functioned as focus of popular opinions. The Rashtrakutas maintained a powerful army. According to Al Masudi, the armed forces contained horses and elephants, but infantry was the most im- portant branch. The state revenue consisted of land tax. Tributes from the feudatories also augmented the state revenue. Taxes were col- lected both in cash and in kind