Miss Nenye's Note On Psy 391

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PSY 391 – NOTE

BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH
BY
IFEDIGBO, C.F.R.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the students should able to:
1) Define variable, types and uses.

2) Clarify in detail the meaning of references: components, uses, advantages and
disadvantages
3) Elucidate the meaning of participants
4) Describe hypothesis, types and uses
5) Illustrate with example the meaning of abstract and abstraction
6) Explain the meaning of concepts
7) Describe with example, sample and sampling
8) Define theory, its characteristics and uses
9) Explain the meaning scales, inventory and questionnaire
VARIABLE: TYPES AND USES

Variable – meaning
The process of undertaking a research entails the consideration of measurable factors that are
subject to change due to circumstances. These factors are called variables. The idea of
variable is central to research because the title of a research is made up of it. Variable
however is a term frequently used in research project, and may simply refer to something that
can change and can have more than one value. It is not only something to be measured, it is
what a researcher can also manipulate and control for as obtainable in experimental research.
By this, variable is something that varies or changes in value according to situations or how
treated. This means that variable can be weight, height, anxiety level, income, body
temperature and so on. Each of these properties varies from one person to another and also
has different values along a continuum. It could be demographic, physical or social, and can
include religion, occupation, humidity, language, food, fashion etc. Some variables can be
quite concrete and clear, such as gender, birth order, types of blood group etc., while others
can be considerably more abstract and vague.
To this end, a variable is a symbol or property that assumes different values taken from a
prescribed set of values at different times or in different circumstance (Bandele, 2004). This
prescribed set of values is known as the domain of the variable. To a reasonable extent, the
researcher reserves the right as to defining the delineations of the domain of the variable. As
such, a researcher might decide to include sub-values like, 'Never Married', 'Divorced' or
'Separated' to the common ones like, 'Married', or 'Single' in contemporary times when
marital relations seem to be more complicated. The sub-values are also referred to as
attributes of the variable.
In line with this, variables are concepts that may be divided into two or more categories or
groupings known as attributes. The ability to divide the variables into categories enables us to
study their relationships with other variables. Attributes by this are the grouping into which
variables may be divided. As an example, "male" is an attribute of the variable, "gender," In
this wise, the variable can also be construed to be first and foremost a concept or a construct,
but a concept or a construct may not necessarily be a variable.
Variable has two notable traits, namely: exhaustiveness and mutual exclusivity. By
exhaustiveness, a variable should include all "possible answerable responses". For example,
attributes like ‘OND’, ‘HND’, ‘BSC,’ ‘ICAN’, ‘Masters’, ‘Ph.D.’ in relation to a variable like
"Educational Qualification" under study might be considered exhaustive depending on the
expected qualification of the target audience. Mutual exclusivity on the other hand pertains to
the feature that disallows respondents from being able to have two attributes simultaneously.
For example, a variable like, 'Highest Academic Qualification' could have attributes like,
‘SSCE’, ‘NCE’, ‘First Degree’, ‘Master’ and 'Ph. D".
TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are different types of variables. They include:
1. Categorical and Continuous Variables
Categorical Variable
Categorical variable also known as discrete variables or classificatory variables or qualitative
variables is a type of variable used in statistics and research, which represents data that can be
divided into categories or groups based on specific characteristics. These categories are often
non-numerical and are used to represent qualitative data, such as gender, color, or type of car.
A categorical variable has a limited number of distinct values, that is, they can be classified
into distinct limited categories. In categorical variables, the variations of the variables are
associated with specific categories. As such, the variance in the subsets of a categorical
variable is a function of the placement of these values or attributes in different categories

rather than with respect to a scale of measurement. For example, sex can be classified into
two distinct categories of male and female. Here, all members of category or subset are
recognized as the same and assigned the same values.
Categorical variables are further divided into nominal, ordinal, dichotomous and
polychotomous variables.
a. Nominal Variables – Nominal variables are those that describe a characteristic or quality
without any specific order or ranking. They represent data that can be divided into
distinct categories, but these categories do not have any inherent hierarchy or ranking.
Examples of nominal variables include gender, race, religion, or type of vehicle.
Classification of the values of this variable type is based on equality or sameness or
difference. No category can be said to be greater than or less than the other. A nominal
variable does not actually show measurement; rather it names the characteristics of the
subgroups. A variable like level of study could have values like 100L, 200L, 300L, 400L,
and 500L. Other examples of such variable may include mode of study, dept., etc.
b. Ordinal Variables – Ordinal variables, on the other hand, have categories that can be
ordered or ranked based on their value. They represent data that can be divided into
distinct categories, and these categories have an inherent order or hierarchy. Examples of
ordinal variables include income brackets, or survey responses that use a Likert scale
(e.g., strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree). Consequently, a
category can be said to be greater or less than another. A test score for example can
assume any value with a range, likewise height, income level etc.
c. Dichotomous variables: These variables have only two categories or levels. A
dichotomous variable may have similar features of nominal variables in terms of not
having intrinsic orders. An example is gender. The categories are likely to be male and
female. Another example is a variable like 'cadre of staff whose subsets could be 'senior
staff and 'junior staff. In other instances, a dichotomous variable may assume the feature
of rank ordering. For example, test scores which normally have multiple values can be
dichotomised as categories like 'high' or 'low' based on a boundary score set by the
researcher to delimit one category from the other.
d. Polychotomous variables: These variables have more than two categories of subsets. An
example is a variable like ‘educational qualification’ – SSCE, B.Sc., PhD. Others include
socioeconomic status, religion etc.
Continuous Variables
A continuous variable is defined as a variable which can take an uncountable set of values or
infinite set of values between the lowest and highest points of measurement. They can be
measured by scales such that the subsets or groupings are different from each or one another
on the basis of quantity, degree, level or amount. They vary on the basis of magnitude along
an ordered continuum. Such variables can take an infinite number of values, that is, they can
assume an unbounded range of values along a specific continuum. They are also known as
quantitative or measured variables, and they have the feature of rank-ordering.
Continuous variables can be further divided into classes like: interval or ratio variables.
a. Interval variables: An interval variable is a one where the difference between two
values is meaningful. It can be measured along a continuum in a scale, and its subsets
have a numerical value. As such, we can talk of the size of the interval between the subsets
of an interval variable. Example of interval variable is temperature. Equal interval on a
scale typifies equal amounts of the attribute being measured. For instance, the difference
between 20oC and 30oC is the same as that between 30 oC and 40oC. Also, the difference
between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between 90
degrees and 80 degrees. Additionally, interval variables do not have a true or absolute zero
point. A reading of 0°C does not indicate a complete lack of temperature.
b. Ratio variables: A ratio variable is a type of quantitative variable in statistics that has a
meaningful zero point and can be measured on a continuous scale. In other words, the
values of a ratio variable can be expressed as a ratio of two numbers, where the
denominator is not equal to zero. Ratio variables have the features of magnitude and order.
Unlike interval variables, a ratio variable has an absolute or true zero point, which
represents the absence of the measured attribute. This allows for meaningful comparisons
between measurements using ratios and proportions. For example, if one person’s income
is twice that of another person, it means they earn twice as much money, not just that they
earn more. Examples of ratio variable include test scores, height, weight, length, age,
income, and many others.
2. Dependent and Independent Variables

Dependent
Dependent variable (DV) also known as criterion or outcome variable is the variable that is
affected by the manipulation of the independent variable. It represents the presumed effect or
consequence of another variable. Its value therefore depends on another variable. Example,
‘Effect of noise on learning outcome.’ By this topic, learning outcome would depend on the
manipulation of the IV (noise); that is, checking whether students who learn in a noisy
environment will differ significantly from students who learn in a controlled or noiseless
environment in their learning outcome.
Independent Variable
An Independent variable (IV) is the input variable, which causes, in part or in total, a
particular outcome. It is a stimulus that influences a response, an antecedent or a factor which
may be modified (e.g. under experimental or other conditions) to affect an outcome.
Example: Effect of alcohol on academic performance. By this topic, it will take the
manipulation of the independent variable (alcohol) to observe its effect on academic
performance. To do this, the researcher may choose to divide the students into two groups:
namely 1) Experimental group (that is, those that would be exposed to alcohol consumption)
and 2) Control group (that is, those that would not be exposed to alcohol consumption).
Besides the above stated and explained variables, there are other kinds of variables which
could affect the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable.
Oftentimes, such variables are not recognized to be present at the onset of the investigation.
They are said to be ubiquitous variables (Bandele, 2004). These include the moderating
variable, the intervening variable, and the extraneous or confounding variable.
Moderating Variable:
This is a variable that has a conditional influence which is strong enough to modify the
original relationship between the dependent and independent variable. As the name implies, it
moderates the strength of the relationship or association between the dependent and
independent variables. It affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an
independent and a dependent variable. For example, a research into the effect of quality of
instruction on academic performance of students may have a moderating variable like interest
of students. This implies that students who have an interest in a particular subject area are
likely to perform better academically while students without such an interest may not do well
academically irrespective of how good the quality of instruction is.
Intervening variable:
The intervening variable, also known as the mediating variable explains the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. In more complex causal relationships, the
intervening variable acts like a link between the dependent and independent variable, and in a
way, accounts for the causal relationship between them. The intervening variable cannot be
directly measured or controlled and have direct and strong effect on the result or end product
of a study.
Intervening variable does not change the relation between the DV and IV but explains it. For
example, a research work which focuses on the association between management practices
and staff productivity may have an intervening variable like job satisfaction. It could be
argued that good management practices would lead to job satisfaction on the part of the
members of staff which in turn may lead to high staff productivity. As such, the intervening
variable functions like a dependent variable to the independent variable (management
practices) and at the same time like an independent variable to the dependent variable (staff
productivity).
Extraneous Variable:
This is a variable which is either assumed or excluded from the investigation but has to be
controlled because it interferes with the relationship between the dependent and independent
variable. This is practicable in experimental research. Extraneous variables are variables that
may affect research outcomes but have not been adequately considered in the study. They
exist in all studies and have the potential of affecting the measurement of study variables and
the relationship among these variables.
In its essence, therefore, an extraneous variable is any factor that is not the independent
variable that can affect an experiment’s dependent variable, which are the controlled
conditions. It can be natural characteristics of the participant such as age or gender, or they
could be features of the environment such as noise or lighting.
Extraneous variable can be categorized into four distinct types, to include:
Situational Variables:
These are factors, conditions, or characteristics related to the external environment that can
influence a situation’s behavior, decision-making, or outcome. They are called “situational”
because they are specific to a certain situation or context, as opposed to more stable, personal
characteristics (like personality traits) that are relatively constant across situations. Examples
of situational variables can range from physical aspects of the environment (like weather,
location, time of day, or noise level) to social aspects (like the presence of others, group
dynamics, or societal norms) to more abstract aspects (like time pressure, level of risk, or the
clarity of instructions).
Participant Variable
This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other and how this could
affect the results, e.g., mood, intelligence, anxiety, nerves, concentration, etc. For example, if
a participant that has performed a memory test was tired, dyslexic, or had poor eyesight, this
could affect their performance and the results of the experiment. The experimental design
chosen can have an effect on participant variables. Participant variables can be controlled
using random allocation to the conditions of the independent variable.
Experimenter / Investigator Effects
In experimenter/investigator’s effect, the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants
how they should behave – this is called experimenter bias. The experiment might do this by
giving unintentional clues to the participants about the experiment and how they expect them
to behave. This affects the participants’ behavior. The experimenter is often totally unaware
of the influence that s/he is exerting, and the cues may be very subtle, but they may have an
influence nevertheless. Also, the personal attributes (e.g., age, gender, accent, manner, etc.) of
the experiment can affect the behavior of the participants.
Demand Characteristics
Demand characteristics are all the clues in an experiment that convey to the participant the
purpose of the research. Demand characteristics can change the results of an experiment if
participants change their behavior to conform to expectations. Participants will be affected
by: (i) their surroundings; (ii) the researcher’s characteristics; (iii) the researcher’s behavior
(e.g., non-verbal communication), and (iv) their interpretation of what is going on in the
situation. Experimenters should attempt to minimize these factors by keeping the
environment as natural as possible and carefully following standardized procedures. Finally,
perhaps different experimenters should be used to see if they obtain similar results.
Be it as it may, extraneous variable can be generally controlled by firstly determining the type
of extraneous variable present in the study, which will enable the researcher to choose the
best way to control it. However, the following can be used:
 Elimination method
 Having it as a additional variable in your research title
 Statistical control as a covariate
 Randomization
 The use of Standard procedures
USES OF VARIABLE
1. Variable plays a critical role in determining research questions. As such, research

questions are formulated based on the variables that are under investigation. It also
helps to formulate research questions that are specific, measurable and relevant to the
research objectives.
2. Variable helps researchers to identify the key concepts and phenomenon that they
wish to investigate.
3. Variable also plays a critical role in the design of research studies. The selection of
variables determines the type of research design that will be used as well as the
method and procedures for collecting data.
4. Variables are also essential in the analysis of research data. Statistical methods are
used to analyze the data and determine the relationships between the variables. The
type of statistical analysis that is used depends on the nature of the variables, the level
of measurement and the research design.
5. Variables are crucial in drawing conclusion from research studies. The results of the
study are based on the relationship between variables and the conclusions drawn
depend on the validity and reliability of the research methods, and the accuracy of the
statistical analysis. Variables thus help to establish the cause and effect relationship
between different factors and to make predictions about the outcome of future events.
MEANING OF REFERENCES:
COMPONENTS, USES, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Referencing is about acknowledging the ownership of resources used in your academic
writing, and provides information necessary to identify and retrieve the work cited in the text.
There are four widely-used referencing styles or conventions, which include the MLA
(Modern Languages Association) system, the APA (American Psychological Association)
system, the Harvard system, and the MHRA (Modern Humanities Research
Association) system. However, Psychology uses APA referencing style.
What then is APA referencing style, you may ask;

APA referencing style is an author-date referencing system published by the American
Psychological Association.
Components of APA Referencing Style
There are two components in the APA referencing style, namely: in-text citations and their
corresponding reference list entries. These components specifically state that with
anything that you have read, used and referred to in your academic writing, you must:
 Acknowledge in text (i.e. in the work / assignment/ essay you are writing).
 Include in your reference list (i.e. the list at the end of your work of all the sources
you refer to).
In text Citation
An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or
paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author's last name, the year of publication, and the
page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source
information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.
Types of In-text Citation
There are two basic ways to cite someone's work in text. They include:
a. Narrative citations – In narrative citations, the authors are part of the sentence, and the
writer is referring to them by name. For example:
Ifedigbo (2013) defined forensic psychology as …………..
Ifedigbo and Okorie (2019) noted that forensic psychology is ……...
Also, in narrative citation, if an in-text citation has the authors' names as part of the sentence
(that is, outside of brackets) place the year and page numbers in brackets immediately after
the name, and use 'and' between the authors' names: Ifedigbo and Okorie (2020, p. 29).
b. Parenthetical citations – In parenthetical citations, the authors are not mentioned in the
sentence, just the content of their work. Place the citation at the end of the sentence or clause
where you have used their information. The author's names are placed in the brackets
(parentheses) with the rest of the citation details:
Forensic Psychology is the ……….. (Ifedigbo, 2013).
Also, in parenthetical citation, if an in-text citation has the authors' names in brackets use "&"
between the authors' names.
Interestingly, trained persons in this area can function as ………… (Ifedigbo & Okorie,
2019).
General Guide for In Text Citation
The following generally guide the ‘in text’ citation:
Dates – APA includes the year of publication in every parenthetical citation and in the first
narrative citation of each source in any paragraph (although some teachers require it in all
narrative citations). Only the year of publication goes in your in-text citation, even if the
reference page entry includes a month. Manual, p. 262.
Page Numbers – APA requires specific page, paragraph, or location numbers for all direct
quotations. Hence, list all digits in every page number. For written sources without page
numbers, use “para.,” the paragraph number, and, when possible, the section heading. Put
document-specific headings in quotation marks and shorten them if needed. For video or
audio sources, use the timestamp; for PowerPoint presentations, use the slide number.
Manual, p. 264.
(Ifedigbo, 2002, para. 4)

(Okorie, 2009, Introduction, para. 12)…
(Dianyi, 2013, “Idaho Dentists Find,” para. 3)
Major classical works like the Qur’an, The Odyssey, and Macbeth have standard numbering
systems that cross all editions and translations, so use those systems instead of page numbers.
Manual, p. 274.
(Shakespeare, 1623/2003, 1.5.45-60)
(King James Bible, 1769/2017, 2 Sam. 12:1-10)
Names - The body of an APA paper typically uses last names only, even on first reference.
Endings like “Jr.” and academic degrees are not included. Manual, p. 262.
Ifedigbo and Wilder (2013) found that…
Other research suggests that this model may be inadequate (Ifedigbo & Wilder, 2013).
APA does not use first names or initials in citations unless that’s the only way of
distinguishing between two sources. However, be aware that some fields like English may
expect first and last names on first narrative reference. Manual, p. 262.
No author – When you do not know the name of your source’s author, use the first words of
its title. Italicize the title of a periodical, book, or report; use quotation marks for an article.
Manual, p. 265.
Book: (Eating Disorders, 2018) or the book Eating Disorders (2018)
Article: …benefits have been demonstrated (“Holistic Approach,” 2002)
Multiple authors – If your source has two authors, cite both every time. If it has three or
more authors, use the first author’s name with “et al.” Note that “et al.” is not italicized and
that there is a period after “al.” If you name two authors in a narrative citation, write out the
“and” between their names. In a parenthetical citation, use “&.” Manual, p. 266.
Ifedigbo and Ugbo (2013) state that …………….

Ifedigbo et al. (2013) argue that ……………
One study of peer relationships… (Ifedigbo & Patil, 1997).
A later study of peer relationships… (Ifedigbo et al., 1999).
Group Authors – When the author of your source is an organization, its name is spelled out
in full on first reference. If it’s well-known or will be used at least two more times, an
abbreviation (in parentheses) follows the full name and replaces the full name later. Do not
go back and forth between the full name and the abbreviation. Manual, p. 268.
One Author, Multiple Works – If you are citing two works written by the same author(s) in
different years, cite them as you normally would. If you have two works written by the same
author(s) in the same year, however, those works will be listed alphabetically by title on your
reference page, where they will be labeled (YYYYa) and (YYYYb). Manual, p. 267.
Ifedigbo (2011a) found….
…..direction for future research (Ifedigbo, 2011a).
One Citation, Multiple Sources – If you refer to several sources within the same
parentheses, put them in the same order in which they appear in your reference list and
separate them with a semicolon. Manual, p. 263.
(Ifedigbo et al., 1996; Gillis, 2017; Gillis, 2019; Ifedigbo & Blythe, 2013)
One Paragraph, Multiple References to same Source – If all the information in a
paragraph comes from one part of one source, identify its author and date at the beginning. If
you use transitional phrases and pronouns like “these findings” to show that each following
sentence paraphrases material in the same source, you will not have to repeat the citation
unless your teacher requires it. Manual, pp. 269-270.
If you cite a source by putting the author’s name in your sentence, you do not have to include
the date again in other sentences within the same paragraph (although some teachers will
expect you to). You do have to include the date in any parenthetical citations. Manual, p. 265.
Ifedigbo (2006) found that the children underestimated the amount of sugar in their
diets. Travers also found that the children in the study consumed more than twice the
recommended amount of sugar. They also failed to recognize the sugar content of
many common foods.
If your paragraph moves back and forth between different sources or between one source and
your discussion, you will cite the source of each sentence to help keep the reader on track.
Any sentence you do not cite is understood to represent your own words and ideas.
Ifedigbo and Kelly (2014) proposed that creative writing assignments be integrated into
composition classes. It is unclear, however, that this suggestion would improve test
scores. Although 72% of students surveyed believed that creative writing exercises
improved their written fluency (Ifedigbo & Kelly, 2014), other research suggests that
those gains in fluency do not transfer to research assignments (Collins, 2011).
Secondary Citations – If an idea or phrase that you want to use is quoted in another source,
find the original source if you can. If not, name the original source in your sentence and then
use parentheses and the words “as cited in” to identify the source (listed on your reference
page) where you found it. Manual, p. 258.
Ifedigbo (2001) found no correlation between the variables (as cited in Brooke, 2003).
No correlation was found (Ifedigbo, 2001, as cited in Brooke, 2003).
Email and Personal Interviews – Personal communications that a reader ca not retrieve (ex.
letters, memos, e-mail, interviews, telephone conversations) appear as in-text citations only.
Do not put them in your reference list. Include your source’s initials and last name and as
exact a date as possible. Manual, p. 260.
S. Crewe argued that not all sources agree (personal communication, May 3, 2012).
Not all sources agree (S. Crewe, personal communication, May 3, 2012).
Long quotations - If you use a quotation that’s 40 or more words long (also called a “block
quotation”), set it off from the rest of your paper by indenting it five spaces (one tab space).
Double space it and do not use quotation marks. The final period goes before, not after,
the citation at the end. Manual, p. 272-273.
How much can I quote? As a general rule, not more than 10% of any paper should consist
of direct quotations. Formal research papers in APA style often include no quotations at all.
A REFERENCE LIST
A reference list lists only the sources you refer to in your writing. The purpose of the
reference list is to allow your sources to be found by your reader. It also gives credit to
authors you have consulted for their ideas. All references cited in the text must appear in the
reference list, except for personal communications (such as conversations or emails) which
cannot be retrieved.
General APA Guide for Reference List
The following are the general guide for the reference list
Page Format – The reference list starts on a new page. Every line is double-spaced, without
extra spaces between entries. The word “References” is centered at the top and bolded. The
pages are numbered as if they were part of your paper. Manual, pp. 66, 303.
Use the “hanging indent” format: start the first line of each entry at the left margin, but indent
all subsequent lines one tab space (five spaces). Manual, p. 66.
Order of References – List each source alphabetically by the last name of its first author. If
there is no author, alphabetize the source by the first word of its title (excluding a, an, the)
Manual, pp. 303-304.
Names – Shorten all first and middle names to initials. List all authors by last name first, then
initials. If a source has multiple authors, do not change the order they are in. Manual, p. 286.
Multiple authors – If a source has up to 20 authors, list them all. If it has 21 or more, list the
first 19, add an ellipse (three dots separated by spaces), and name the last. Manual, p. 286.
One Author, Multiple Works – List more than one work by the same author in the order of
the years they were published. If multiple works were published in the same year, alphabetize
them by their titles and label them (2011a), (2011b). Manual, p. 304.
World Health Organization. (2012). Immunization: Closing the gap…
World Health Organization. (2015a). Global vaccination targets…
World Health Organization. (2015b). Keeping Syrian children free from polio…
Dates – Put the year of publication in parentheses immediately after the author’s name(s). In
a book, the date is usually on the copyright page behind the title page. The date of a website
is trickier: do not use a “Last Reviewed” date or a website copyright date. Use a “Last
Updated” date only when the update clearly applies to the information you are reading as
opposed to some other feature of the page. If your source truly provides no date, use the
abbreviation “n.d.” (“no date”) instead of the year. Manual, pp. 262, 290.
If you are citing a work that’s been republished, put the recent publication date in the usual
place, after the author’s name. The original date closes the citation, after any DOI or URL,
and looks like this: (Original work published 1815). Manual, p. 265, 325
Capitalization – In the title and subtitle of a book, chapter, or article, capitalize only the first
word and any proper nouns. In journal, magazine, and newspaper titles, capitalize all major
words. Manual, p. 291.
Italics – Italicize titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers. Also italicize volume
numbers in journal references. Leave article and chapter titles alone: do not italicize them or
put them in quotation marks. Manual, p. 293.
Publication Information – The publication information required for books includes only the
name of the publisher; if the publisher is the same as the author, it does not even need that.
The requirement for articles includes volume, issue, and page numbers. Manual, pp. 295-296.
Databases – APA does not include database information unless a source is available only
from a particular database, like Cochran. If you include a database name in your reference
(some archival documents can only be found in electronic databases), put it in italics.
Manual, p. 296.
DOIs – Many sources have a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), a permanent number that goes
with them wherever they are published online. If your source has a DOI, your citation must
include it. The doi itself looks something like 10.xxxx/gobbledygook. It can appear in many
formats, but APA only uses one. If you find a doi as part of a larger URL that does not look
like the one below, cut out everything except the doi and reformat it. Don’t put a period at the
end. Manual, pp. 299-300. htpps://doi.org/10.xxxx/gobbledygook
URLs – If an electronic source has a DOI, do not include the URL (uniform resource
locator). No DOI? Try to find a URL that links to the source directly. Do not use a URL
specific to a particular library; do not use a URL specific to a general database like EBSCO
or Academic Search Complete. If those are the only URLs you can find, do not include a
URL in your citation. Manual, pp. 299-300.
If your source is available only from a specific database and the URL linking to the document
does not require a login, use that URL. If it does require a login, list the URL for the database
instead. A URL begins with “http” or “https”: do not put a “retrieved from” statement before
it or a period after it. You can leave your URLs live and hyperlinked (blue, underlined) or you
can remove the hyperlinks. Check your teacher’s preference. Manual, pp. 298-299.
Retrieval Dates – Do not include retrieval dates for online sources unless the source is both
unarchived and expected to change over time (e.g. online dictionary, Google map). Wikipedia
pages are archived, so you do not need to include a retrieval date for them. Manual, p. 290.
USES OF REFERENCE
Referencing is used to do the following:
 Acknowledgement of Other Writers/Researchers’ Contribution - Referencing

allows a writer/research to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and
researchers in his/her work. As such, any university assignments that draw on the
ideas, words or research of other writers must contain citations.
 Credit to the Writer/s – Referencing is a way to give credit to the writers from
whom a writer has borrowed words and ideas. By citing the work of a particular
scholar, a writer acknowledges and respects the intellectual property rights of that
researcher. As a student or academic, you can draw on any of the millions of ideas,
insights and arguments published by other writers, many of whom have spent years
researching and writing. All you need to do is acknowledge their contribution to your
assignment.
 Providing of Evidence – Referencing is a way to provide evidence to support the
assertions and claims in a writer’s article/assignment. By citing experts in one’s field,
one is showing that he/she is aware of the field in which he/she is operating. Hence, a
writer’s citations map the space of one’s discipline and allow him/her to navigate
his/her way through his/her chosen field of study, in the same way that sailors steer by
the stars.
 Referencing is also used to let the reader see if a writer has included up-to-date work,
seminal (early and influential) work, and material central to his/her research topic.
 Referencing is used to provide the reader with an indication of the quality and
authority of the material you are referencing (e.g., published article in a respected
journal, unpublished opinion piece on a popular online website).
 To position new research in relation to previous publications – A central aim of
research is to expand knowledge. In order to show what is new, scholarly writers need
to position their work in relation to previous research in the field. This positioning is
carried out in different ways, depending on discipline and text type. A common
method is to present previous research and then present new facts that either expand
the knowledge presented by earlier research, or, indeed, contradict it. In order to show
what is new in their essay or article, writers thus need to acknowledge what has
previously been published within the field.
In all its essence, references should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the
sources of information you have used. The best way to make sure you reference accurately is
to keep a record of all the sources you used when reading and researching for an assignment.
Citations also make one’s writing more persuasive.
Advantages of Referencing
The following are the advantages of references:
Credibility and Validity: References provide evidence of thorough research and support a
writer’s arguments with authoritative sources. They enhance the credibility and validity of a
writer’s work by demonstrating that his/her ideas are grounded in existing knowledge and
scholarly discourse.
Building on Existing Knowledge: References allow a writer to engage in academic
conversations and build upon the work of others. By citing relevant sources, he/she
acknowledges the contributions of previous researchers and situates his/her work within the
broader scholarly context.
Demonstrating Research Skills: Properly citing references demonstrates a writer’s ability to
locate, evaluate, and utilize relevant sources. It showcases his/her research skills and
academic rigor, indicating that he/she has engaged with a variety of perspectives and
literature on the topic.
Avoiding Plagiarism: Referencing is crucial for avoiding plagiarism, which is the act of
presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own. By properly citing sources, a writer
gives credit to the original authors and shows integrity in acknowledging their intellectual
contributions.
Further Reading and Verification: Referencing provides readers with the opportunity to
explore the sources a writer has cited, allowing them to delve deeper into the subject matter
and verify the accuracy of his/her claims. It promotes transparency and fosters a culture of
knowledge sharing.
Disadvantages or Challenges of using references:
Over-reliance on Sources: A potential drawback is over-relying on references without
offering enough original analysis or synthesis of the material. A writer’s essay should strike a
balance between incorporating external sources and presenting his/her own insights and
analysis.
Time and Effort: Finding and properly citing relevant sources can be time-consuming. It
requires careful searching, reading, and referencing according to the specific citation style
guidelines, which may add to the workload of a writer’s academic writing.
Source Credibility: While references are meant to enhance the credibility of your work, it is
important to ensure that the sources one cites are reliable and authoritative. Relying on poorly
researched or biased sources can weaken one’s arguments and undermine the overall quality
of one’s writing.
Maintaining Flow and Coherence: Incorporating references smoothly into one’s writing
can be a challenge. It is important to integrate them seamlessly into one’s sentences and
paragraphs while maintaining a coherent flow of ideas. Improper integration can disrupt the
readability and cohesiveness of one’s work.
MEANING OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Research participants also called human subjects or an experiment, trial, or study participants
or subjects are the individuals who take part in a study, either directly or indirectly via a
representative, and who have given their informed consent. It may also mean persons who
voluntarily participate in human subject research after giving informed consent to be the
subject of the research. A research participant is different from individuals who are not able to
give informed consent, such as children, infants, and animals. Such individuals are
preferentially referred to as subjects. Study participants are an integral piece of all successful
human subject research.
HOW TO CHOOSE/SELECT PARTICIPANTS FOR YOUR STUDY

Define your sample and target population - One of the first steps a researcher undertakes
in conducting his/her research is to determine the target population, guided largely by his/her
research interest. Indications for consideration may include:
 Age (children, elderly)
 Sex (females, males, or both)
 Location
 Ethnicity
 Religion
 Level of training (trained or untrained)
 Level of performance (experts or novices)
 Size (weight, fatness)
 Special types (athletes, cyclists, runners) etc, all of which are guided by the research
interest, aims/objectives.
This determination helps the researcher in defining his/her sample. Consequently,

defining research sample in research enables the researcher to choose or select research
participants from a larger population using pre-defined selection method. It is an
efficient method of conducting research.
Define/determine your Sample Size – Sample size is a research term used for defining the
number of individuals included in a research study to represent a population. It references
the total number of respondents included in a study, and the number is often broken down
into sub-groups by demographics such as age, gender, and location so that the total sample
achieves represents the entire population. However, determining or defining the appropriate
sample size is one of the most important factors in research. If the sample size is too small, it
will not yield valid results or adequately represent the realities of the population being
studied. On the other hand, while larger sample sizes yield smaller margins of error and are
more representative, a sample size that is too large may significantly increase the cost and
time taken to conduct the research. To define the sample size, however, the researcher should
determine: a) The population size (if known); b) The confidence interval; c) The confidence
level; d) The standard deviation (a standard deviation of 0.5 is a safe choice where the figure
is unknown) and e) Convert the confidence level into a Z-Score. This can be done using any
standard sample calculation formula such as Andrew Fisher’s Formula or Taro Yamane
Formula.
Define your Sampling Technique – Once you have chosen the sample size for your study,
you will need to define which sampling technique you will use to select your sample from the
target population. The sampling technique that’s right for you depends on the nature and
objectives of your project. Sampling techniques can be broadly divided into two types:
probability and non-probability (random sampling and non-random) sampling.
Minimize Sampling Error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample
that represents the entire population of data. As a result, the results found in the sample do
not represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population. It’s normal to
make mistakes during sample selection. Your efforts should therefore always be to reduce
the sampling error and make your chosen sample as representative of the population as
possible. The robustness of your sample depends on how you minimize the sampling error.
The extent of errors during sampling varies according to the technique or method you choose
for sample selection. Discussed below are ways a researcher can minimize sampling error.
How to minimize Sampling error
 Minimize the potential for bias in the selection of the sample through random sampling.
Ensure the sample is representative of the population by implementing a stratification
protocol. For example, if you studied the drinking habits of university students, you
might expect differences between fraternity students and non-fraternity students.
Splitting your sample into those two strata at the outset reduces the potential for
sampling error.
 Use larger sample sizes – As the size increases, the sample gets closer to the actual
population, thereby decreasing the potential for deviations from the actual population.
For example, the average of a sample of 10 varies more than the average of a sample of
100. Larger samples do, however, involve higher costs.
 Replicate your study by taking the same measurement repeatedly, using more than one
subject or multiple groups, or by undertaking multiple studies. Replication allows you to
swamp out sampling errors.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Research participants have the following rights:
Right to Informed Consent – Informed consent is the process of telling potential research
participants about the key elements of a research study and what their participation will involve. Its
intent is that human participants can enter research freely (voluntarily) with full information about
what it means for them to take part, and that they give consent before they enter the research. The
consent process typically includes providing a written consent document containing the required
information (i.e., elements of informed consent) and the presentation of that information to
prospective participants. In most cases, investigators are expected to obtain a signature from the
participant on a written informed consent document (i.e., to document the consent to participate).
Generally, informed consent will involve a description of the following:
 An explanation of the purpose of the research.
 A description of what you will be asked to do and how long it will take should you
participate and whether or not you will be compensated for your time.
 A description of any risks involved in participating. These risks could be physical,
psychological, social or criminal. The steps taken to minimize these risks should also
be described.
 A description of any benefits to you or to society as a whole.
 The degree to which the information will be kept confidential.
 Who to contact should you have questions about the research or about your rights as a
participant.
 A statement that you are free not to participate and can stop participating at any time.
Right to Voluntary Participation - Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected
by international law and many scientific codes of conduct. It simply means that all research
subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion. In other words, all
participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an
obligation to continue; and they need not to provide a reason for leaving the study. It’s
important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or
repercussions to their refusal to participate.
Right to Reporting Concerns – Concerns and complaints are taken very seriously and are
treated with the utmost respect and all possible confidentiality. A research participant
however have the right to report any forcible concern regarding the research and also has the
right to withdraw from the research without being forced or coerced to continue by the
researcher.
Right to Anonymity
Anonymity is a condition in which the identity of individual subjects is not known to
researchers. It simply explains that there is no way for anyone (including the researcher) to
personally identify participants in the study. This means that no personally-identifying
information can be collected in an anonymous study. In other words, anonymity means that
you do not know who the participants are and you cannot link any individual participant to
their data.
Right to Confidentiality – Confidentiality refers to a condition in which the researcher

knows the identity of a research subject, but takes steps to protect that identity from being
discovered by others. Most human subjects research requires the collection of a signed
consent agreement from participants, and the collection of other personally identifiable data,
and thus researchers are aware of the identity of their subjects. In such cases, maintaining
confidentiality is a key measure to ensure the protection of private information.
HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is a strong and concise statement that forms the basis of your research. A
hypothesis may also be defined as an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This
is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions.
It includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A
research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more
variables
Furthermore, hypothesis is defined in statistics as a formal statement, which gives the
explanation about the relationship between the two or more variables of the specified
population. It helps the researcher to translate the given problem to a clear explanation for the
outcome of the study. It clearly explains and predicts the expected outcome. It indicates the
types of experimental design and directs the study of the research process.
Hypothesis has the following characteristics
 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.
Also, hypothesis can come from the following sources:
 The resemblance between the phenomenon.
 Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis can be broadly classified into different types. They are:
Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a hypothesis that states that there exists a relationship between two
variables. One is called a dependent variable, and the other is called an independent variable.
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. An
example is a study investigating the relationship between attachment style and marital
satisfaction. The hypothesis may read: “Attachment style will significantly and positively
correlate with marital satisfaction. “
Complex Hypothesis
A complex hypothesis talks about relationship between multiple variables. Thus, it shows the
relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent
variables. Example, in a study on trust and respect as correlates of marital stability, the
hypothesis may read: 1) Trust will significantly and positively correlate with marital stability;
2) Respect will significantly and positively correlate with marital stability.
Null Hypothesis
Null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis that provides hypothetical statement in contrary form.
It is often regarded as a negative statement that shows no relationship between independent
and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “H O”. Example include: “Attending
physiotherapy sessions will not affect athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims
physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a
coincidence.
Alternative Hypothesis
Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is donated as H1
or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the independent variable. Hence,
in alternative, the hypothetical statement shows that there will a significant relationship
between IV and DV. A good alternative hypothesis example may read: “Attending
physiotherapy sessions will improve athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water evaporates at
100°C.” In an alternative hypothesis, the simple observations are easily influenced by some
random cause.
Directional Hypothesis
A directional (or one tailed hypothesis) states which way you think the results are going to
go. In relational studies, directional hypothesis is used to state whether the result would be
either positive or negative. It accompanies H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign. The relationship
between the variables can also predict its nature. For example in an experimental study we
might say…”Participants who have been deprived of sleep for 24 hours will have more cold
symptoms in the following week after exposure to a virus than participants who have not
been sleep deprived”; the hypothesis compares the two groups/conditions and states which
one will ….have more/less, be quicker/slower, etc.
Non-directional Hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis is a two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of
the difference or relationship. It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that
a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of
the relationship. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that college students will
perform differently from elementary school students on a memory task without predicting
which group of students will perform better.
ABSTRACT AND ABSTRACTION

ABSTRACT
An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work.
That is, a mini-version of a research paper. In order words, it is a short statement about a
research paper designed to give the reader a complete, yet concise understanding of the
paper's research and findings. Explicitly, an abstract summarizes (usually in one paragraph
between 150 and 500 words in length, depending on the type of research), the major aspects
of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study
and the research problem(s) investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings
or trends found as a result of analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of interpretations and
conclusions.
Purpose of an Abstract:
A well-written abstract serves the following purposes:
 An abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of a researcher’s paper or article
quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
 An abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and
arguments in a researcher’s full paper;
 An abstract helps readers remember key points from a research paper.
 A well-prepared abstract allows a reader to quickly and accurately identify the basic
content of your paper.
 An abstract allows the readers to see if the related research is of interest to them.
Content of an Abstract
Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of
research paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. Here are the
typical kinds of information contained in most abstracts:
a. An explanation of the purpose of the study/paper: Ideally in one sentence, an abstracts
should briefly show, the primary objectives and scope of the study or the reasons why the
document was written. It also should show the rationale for the research, why the research
was carried out and whether the research topic is an ignored or newly discovered one.
b. A Description of Research Participants and their Characteristics: An abstract should
briefly show the number of the people that participated in the study or subjects used in the
study, their gender, age range, mean age and standard deviation.
c. An Account of the Method Used: In terms of the research method, an abstract should
clearly show the techniques or approaches used in the study. That is, the instrument/s used for
data collection, design employed and the statistics used for data analysis.
d. A Description of the Results/Findings: An abstract should contain an explanation of the
results/findings of the study as informatively and concisely as possible. These results may be
experimental or theoretical, just remember to make note of that in your abstract.
e. A Report of the Conclusion/Recommendation: An abstract should contain brief
statement on the implications of the results or possible suggestions arrived at from the
findings of the study.
However, the abstract SHOULD NOT contain:
 A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's
attention,
 Lengthy background or contextual information,
 Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
 Acronyms or abbreviations,
 References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or
"studies have indicated..."],
 Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
 Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
 Citations to other works, and
 Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.
TYPES OF ABSTRACTS
Generally, abstract is divided into four types, namely:
Critical Abstract
A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a
judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher
evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical
abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive
commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.
Descriptive Abstract
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no
judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does
incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of
the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized.
Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive
abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.
Informative Abstract
The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work,
they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work
itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important
results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be
found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and
conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies
according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in
length.
Highlight Abstract
A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No
pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact,
incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight
abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and,
therefore, rarely used in academic writing.
ABSTRACTION
Abstraction is the process of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept
or an observable phenomenon, typically in order to retain only information which is relevant
for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a black-and-white leather soccer ball to a
ball retains only the information on general attributes and behavior of a ball. Similarly,
abstracting “happiness” to an “emotional state” reduces the amount of information conveyed

about the emotional state.
Abstraction typically results in the reduction of a complex idea to a simpler concept or a
general domain, which allows the understanding of a variety of specific scenarios in terms of
certain basic ideas. Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in
reality or exist only as sensory experience, but there is a difficulty in deciding which things
"exist" in reality. It is difficult to reach agreement on whether concepts like God, the number
three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both.
Furthermore, abstraction involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into
one general theory about something. It is the opposite of specification, which is the analysis
or breaking-down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts.
CONCEPTS
A concept is defined as an abstract idea. It is understood to be a fundamental building block
underlying principles, thoughts and beliefs, which play an important role in all aspects of
cognition. In scientific research, however, concepts are the abstract ideas or phenomena that
are being studied (e.g., educational achievement).
Researchers generate concepts by generalizing from particular facts. Concepts are based on
our experiences, real phenomena and are a generalized idea of something of meaning.
Examples of concepts include common demographic measures such as: Income, Age,
Education Level, Number of Siblings.
We can measure concepts through direct and indirect observations:
1. Direct Observation: We can measure someone's weight or height. And, we can
record the color of their hair or eyes.
2. Indirect Observation: We can use a questionnaire in which respondents provide
answers to our questions about gender, income, age, attitudes, and behaviors.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

SAMPLE:
Sample is the subset of the population. It consists of some observations drawn from the
population. It is the group of elements who participated in the study. Thus, a sample refers to
a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is a subset containing the characteristics of
a larger population. It is also a group of people who take part in the investigation, often
referred to as “participants.” Overall, samples are used in statistical testing when population
sizes are too large for the test to include all possible members or observations.
A good sample should satisfy the below conditions:
1. Representativeness: The sample should be the best representative of the population
under study.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample.
An accurate (unbiased) sample is one that exactly represents the population.
3. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliability.
SAMPLING:
The process of selecting a sample is known as sampling. Thus, it is the selection of a subset
of the population of interest in a research study. In statistical analysis, sampling process is
where researchers take a predetermined number of observations from a larger population. It
allows researchers to conduct studies about a large group by using a small portion of the
population. The method of sampling depends on the type of analysis being performed.
Sampling Method/Technique
Sampling method is numerous approaches adopted by a researcher in selecting a sample that
is representative of the group as a whole. The various approaches to sampling can be broken
down into two groups—namely:
1. Probability, and
2. Non-probability sampling.
With regards to this grouping, the choice between using a probability or a non-probability
approach to sampling depends on a variety of factors, namely:
1. Objectives and scope of the study

2. Method of data collection
3. Precision of the results
4. Availability of a sampling frame and resources required to maintain the frame
5. Availability of extra information about the members of the population
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

Probability sampling is a technique in which the researcher chooses samples from a larger
population using a method based on probability theory. It is normally preferred when
conducting major studies, especially when a population frame is available, ensuring that we
can select and contact each unit in the population. It also allows us to quantify the standard
error of estimates, confidence intervals to be formed and hypotheses to be formally
tested. The most critical requirement of probability sampling is that everyone in your
population has a known and equal chance of getting selected. Hence, for a participant to be
considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Basically, there are four types of probability sampling technique, namely:
Simple Random Sampling:
This is a type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of
participants from a population. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. The probability that any one individual will be included in the sample is 1 divided
by the size of the population.
One possible method of selecting a simple random sample is to number each unit on the
sampling frame sequentially and make the selections by generating numbers from a random
number generator. Example: If a sample of 20 needs to be collected from a population of 100.
Assign unique numbers to population members and randomly select 20 members with a
random generator.
ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (SRS)
Ensures Equal Chance of Selection
The main advantage of SRS is that it ensures that each member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected, which leads to a representative sample of the population. This is
important because it allows for accurate estimation of population characteristics and unbiased
inference.
Easy to understand and implement
Another advantage of SRS is that it is easy to understand and implement. This makes it a
popular choice for researchers who are new to sampling or who have limited resources.
Versatile method
Additionally, SRS is a versatile method that can be used for both large and small populations,
and it can be used to sample from both homogeneous and heterogeneous populations.
DISADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Time-consuming
One of the main disadvantages of SRS is that it can be time-consuming and costly to identify
and contact every member of the population. This is especially true for large populations or
populations that are spread out geographically. Additionally, SRS can lead to sampling errors
if the sample is not large enough or if the population is not randomly distributed. This can
result in a sample that is not representative of the population, which can lead to inaccurate
conclusions.
Difficult to achieve a good sample
Another disadvantage of SRS is that it can be difficult to achieve a good sample size,
especially for small populations. This can lead to low precision and unreliable estimates.
Additionally, in some cases, SRS can lead to a sample that is not diverse enough to be
representative of the population.
It does not consider heterogeneous population
Another disadvantage is that SRS assumes that the population is homogeneous. However, if
the population is heterogeneous, the sample may not be representative of the population. In
such a case, stratified random sampling or cluster sampling may be more appropriate.
Difficult to achieve a good sample size
Another potential disadvantage of SRS is that it can be difficult to achieve a good sample
size, especially for small populations. This can lead to low precision and unreliable estimates.
Additionally, in some cases, SRS can lead to a sample that is not diverse enough to be
representative of the population.
Difficult to obtain a response
Another disadvantage is that it can be difficult to obtain a response from every member of the
population. This can lead to non-response bias and make it difficult to estimate population
characteristics. In such cases, researchers may need to use more sophisticated sampling
methods such as weighting or multiple imputation to account for non-response bias.
Affected by non-response bias
Another limitation of SRS is that it can be affected by non-response bias. This occurs when
some individuals in the population are not included in the sample because they cannot or will
not respond to the survey. This can lead to a biased sample if the individuals who do not
respond are systematically different from those who do respond. Researchers can use
weighting or multiple imputation methods to account for non-response bias, but these
methods can be complex and time-consuming.
Not suitable for all type of researches
Another potential disadvantage of SRS is that it may not be appropriate for certain types of
research. For example, if the population is divided into subgroups (e.g. age groups, gender,
etc.) and researchers need to make inferences about these subgroups, stratified random
sampling may be more appropriate. In this method, the population is divided into strata
(subgroups) and a sample is selected from each stratum. This can ensure that the sample is
representative of each subgroup and allows for more accurate estimates of subgroup
characteristics.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:
This is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members from a larger
population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic
interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population
size by the desired sample size. The systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed
with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals. In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item
from the population. Then, the researcher will select each nth item from the list. Example:
Suppose we have a list of all the social workers employed by our city, 600 in all. We could
obtain a sample of 100 by selecting every sixth person on the list (i.e., 600 divided by 100 =
6). The probability that any person will be included in this sample is 1 in 6.
Steps to Create a Systematic Sample
You can use the following steps to create a systematic sample:
1. Define your population: This is the group from which you are sampling.
2. Settle on a sample size: How many subjects do you want/need to sample from the
population to get a reflective idea of it?
3. Assign every member of the population a number: If the group you are looking at
consists of, say, 10,000 people, start lining them up and giving them numbers.
4. Decide the sampling interval: This can be achieved by dividing the population size
by the desired sample size.
5. Choose a starting point: This can be done by selecting a random number.
6. Identify members of your sample: If you have a starting point of 15 and a sample
interval of 100, the first member of the sample would be 115, and so forth.
Types of Systematic Sampling
Generally, there are three types of systematic sampling:
 Systematic random sampling: The classic form of systematic sampling where the
subject is selected at a predetermined interval.
 Linear systematic sampling: Rather than randomly selecting the sampling interval, a
skip pattern is created following a linear path.
 Circular systematic sampling: A sample starts again at the same point after ending
Applications
Systematic sampling can be applied in:
1. Quality Control: The systematic sampling is extensively used in manufacturing
industries for statistical quality control of their products. Here a sample is obtained by
taking an item from the current production stream at regular intervals.
2. In Auditing: In auditing the savings accounts, the most natural way to sample a list of
accounts to check compliance with accounting procedures.
Advantages
Systematic sampling is simple to conduct and easy to understand, which is why it’s generally
favored by researchers. The central assumption, that the results represent the majority of
normal populations, guarantees that the entire population is evenly sampled.
Also, systematic sampling provides an increased degree of control compared to other
sampling methodologies because of its process. Systematic sampling also carries a low risk
factor because there is a low chance that the data can be contaminated.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of systematic sampling is that the size of the population is needed.
Without knowing the specific number of participants in a population, systematic sampling
does not work well. For example, if a statistician would like to examine the age of homeless
people in a specific region but cannot accurately obtain how many homeless people there are,
then they will not have a population size or a starting point.
Another disadvantage is that the population needs to exhibit a natural amount of randomness
to it or else the risk of choosing similar instances is increased, defeating the purpose of the
sample.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
This type of probability sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that
may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that
every subgroup is properly represented in the sample. To use this sampling method, you
divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.,
gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role). Based on the overall proportions of the
population, however, you calculate how many people should be sampled from each subgroup.
Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Furthermore, stratified sampling is used when a researcher reasonably expects the
measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and wants to ensure
representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of learning outcomes, the
researcher may stratify the population of students by sex, to ensure equal representation of
male and female students. The study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes
from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal
sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the psychological wellbeing of
lecturers in the Faculty of Social Sciences, if there are five departments, each with different
numbers of academic staff (Economics has 50 academic staff, Mass Communication has 100,
Political Science has 200, Psychology has 300 and Sociology has 400), then it would be
appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each Department proportionally (e.g. 10
from Economics, 20 from Mass Communication, 30 from Political Science, 40 from
Psychology and 50 from Sociology). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of
the Psychological Wellbeing of lecturer in the Faculty.
TYPES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
There are two types of stratified random sampling-
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of
the stratum when viewed against the entire population. For example, you have 3 strata with
10, 20 and 30 population sizes respectively and the sampling fraction is 0.5 then the random
samples are 5, 10 and 15 from each stratum respectively. This type of stratified random
sampling is often a more precise metric because it’s a better representation of the overall
population.
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
In a disproportional stratified sample, the size of each stratum is not proportional to its size in
the population. The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified
random sampling is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different
strata have different sampling fractions.
Advantages of Stratified Random Sampling
The main advantage of stratified random sampling is that it captures key population
characteristics in the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling
produces characteristics in the sample that are proportional to the overall population.
Stratified random sampling works well for populations with a variety of attributes but is
otherwise ineffective if subgroups cannot be formed.
Stratification gives a smaller error in estimation and greater precision than the simple random
sampling method – The greater the differences among the strata, the greater the gain in
precision.
Disadvantages of Stratified Random Sampling

Unfortunately, this method of research cannot be used in every study. The method’s
disadvantage is that several conditions must be met for it to be used properly. Researchers
must identify every member of a population being studied and classify each of them into one,
and only one, subpopulation. As a result, stratified random sampling is disadvantageous when
researchers cannot confidently classify every member of the population into a subgroup.
Also, finding an exhaustive and definitive list of an entire population can be challenging.
Overlapping can be an issue if there are subjects that fall into multiple subgroups. When
simple random sampling is performed, those who are in multiple subgroups are more likely to
be chosen. The result could be a misrepresentation or inaccurate reflection of the population.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
This is a method of probability sampling that is often used to study large populations,
particularly those that are widely geographically dispersed. In this sampling technique,
researchers analyze a sample that consists of multiple sample parameters such as
demographics, habits, background – or any other population attribute, which may be the
focus of conducted research. This method is usually conducted when groups are similar yet
internally diverse form a statistical population. Instead of selecting the entire population,
cluster sampling allows the researchers to collect data by bifurcating the data into small, more
productive groups. In other words, cluster sampling is useful when a researcher is interested
in surveying a large population that is geographically dispersed, making it impractical or
costly to sample every individual in the population. It is also useful when there tends to be a
natural grouping or clustering within the population, such as households, schools, or
neighborhoods.
TYPES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Typically, there are three types of cluster sampling:
1. One-Stage Sampling
2. Two-Stage Sampling
3. Multistage Sampling
Single-stage Cluster Sampling:
As the name suggests, single stage cluster sampling is done just once. It takes a random
sample of clusters from the population and collects data from all individuals within those
selected clusters. Example: if an NGO wants to create a sample of girls across five
neighboring towns to provide education. Using single-stage sampling, the NGO will
randomly select towns (clusters) to form a sample and extend help to the girls deprived of
education in those towns.
Two-stage Cluster Sampling:
In two stage cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the elements of a cluster, only a handful
of members are chosen from each group by implementing systematic or simple random
sampling. An example of two-stage cluster sampling – A business owner wants to explore the
performance of his/her plants that are spread across various parts of Nigeria. The owner
creates clusters of plants. So he/she then select random samples from these clusters to
conduct research.
Multiple-stage Cluster Sampling:
In multistage sampling, or multistage cluster sampling, the researcher draws a sample from a
population using smaller and smaller groups (units) at each stage. It’s often used to collect
data from a large, geographically spread group of people in national surveys. Multiple-stage
cluster sampling takes a step or a few steps further than two-stage sampling. Example: if an
organization intends to survey to analyze the performance of smartphones across Nigeria.
They can divide the entire country’s population into cities (clusters) and select cities with the
highest population and also filter those using mobile devices.
Steps to conduct Cluster Sampling
Here are the steps to perform cluster sampling:
1. Sample: Decide the target audience and also the sample size.
2. Create and evaluate sampling frames: Create a sampling frame by using either an
existing framework or creating a new one for the target audience. Evaluate
frameworks based on coverage and clustering and make adjustments accordingly.
These groups will be varied, considering the population, which can be exclusive and
comprehensive. Members of a sample are selected individually.
3. Determine groups: Determine the number of groups by including the same average
members in each group. So make sure each of these groups is distinct from one
another.
4. Select clusters: Choose clusters by applying a random selection.
5. Create sub-types: It is bifurcated into two-stage and multi-stage subtypes based on
the number of steps followed by researchers to form clusters.
Advantages of Cluster Sampling
1. It is the most time-efficient and cost-efficient probability design for large
geographical areas
2. This method is easy to be used from practicality point of view

3. Larger sample size can be used due to increased level of accessibility of perspective
sample group members
Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling
1. Requires group-level information to be known

2. Commonly has higher sampling error than other sampling techniques
3. Cluster sampling may fail to reflect the diversity in the sampling frame
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS/TECHNIQUES

Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
Thus, in a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and
not every individual has a chance of being included. Non-Probability samples are preferred
when accuracy in the results is not important. These are inexpensive, easy to run and no
frame is required but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can
make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions
may be more limited. However, if a non-probability sample is carried out carefully, then the
bias in the results can be reduced.
Furthermore, this sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. They
are carried out by observation and are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population. The main
disadvantage of Non-Probability sampling is “dangerous to make inferences about the whole
population.”
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY METHODS/TECHNIQUES
The commonly used non-probability sampling methods include the following:
Convenience Sampling
This is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected from the population
only because they are conveniently available to the researcher. Researchers choose these
samples just because they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a
sample that represents the entire population. Hence, it is perhaps the easiest method of
sampling that allows the participants to be selected based on availability and willingness to
take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because
those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to (volunteer
bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex.
Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.
Advantages
1. It is easy to get the sample
2. Low cost and participants are readily available
Disadvantages
1. Researcher cannot generalize the results
2. Possibility of under or over representation of the population
3. Significant bias
Quota Sampling
This is a non-probability sampling method that relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample. However, quota sampling is
dependent on a predetermined criterion. It chooses the population’s representative sample.
The proportion of traits or features in the sample should match that of the population. Until
precise ratios of specific data are obtained or adequate data in various categories are gathered,
elements are chosen.
Types of Quota Sampling
There are two types of quota sampling:
 Proportional quota sampling
 Non-proportional quota sampling
Proportional quota sampling

In proportional quota sampling, the major characteristics of the population are represented
by sampling them in regards to their proportion in the population of study. Proportional quota
sampling is often used in surveys and opinion polls, where the total number of people to be
surveyed is typically decided in advance.
Non-proportional Quota Sampling
This is a technique with small restriction of minimum of sample number of unit from each
category. It's not interested in having a number that will match the proportions of the
population. Thus, in non-proportional quota sampling, the researcher specifies the minimum
number of sampled units he/she want in each category.
STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO QUOTA SAMPLING
Quota sampling can be drawn using the following three steps:
Dividing the population into strata
First, you identify important strata, subgroups in your population of interest. These subgroups
must be mutually exclusive, meaning that units can only qualify for one subgroup.
Determining a quota for each stratum
Next, you estimate the proportions of each stratum in the population. These are your quotas.
This estimation can be based on existing records, like administrative data, or previous studies.
Otherwise, you are free to use your judgment regarding how many units you need to choose
from each subgroup to acquire valid results.
Continuing recruitment until the quota for each stratum is met
Once you have selected the number of units you need in each subgroup, continue recruiting
units to take part in your research until each of your quotas is filled.
Advantages
1. Cost effective
2. Does not depend on sampling frames
3. Allows the researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study
Disadvantages
1. Sample may be overrepresented
2. Unable to calculate the sampling error
3. Great potential for researcher bias and the quality of work may suffer due to
researcher incompetency and/or lack of experience
Judgmental (or Purposive) Sampling

Judgmental sampling technique, also known as selective, subjective or purposive sampling
relies on the judgment of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate. It is also a
type of non-probability sampling that involves the researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research. Researchers may implicitly thus
choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with
certain characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public
for opinions and in qualitative research.
The process of selecting a sample using judgmental sampling involves the researchers
carefully picking and choosing each individual to be a part of the sample. The researcher’s
knowledge is primary in this sampling process as the members of the sample are not
randomly chosen. Judgmental or Expert sampling is usually used in situations where the
target population comprises of highly intellectual individuals who cannot be chosen by using
any other probability or non-probability sampling technique. It is also used in situations
where the sample selected using other sampling methods need to be approved or filtered. For
instance, in situations where a researcher conducts convenience sampling to gather feedback
from professors about their university but the fact that there are high chances of the results to
be skewed, researchers prefer judgmental sampling to select those professors who will
provide 100% feedback about the university.
Advantages of Judgmental Sampling
The advantages of judgment sampling include:
1. The approach is understood as well and has been refined through experience over
many years;
2. The auditor is given an opportunity to bring his judgment and expertise to play. Well
all auditing in professional judgment is an exercise;
3. No special knowledge of statistics is utilized;
4. No time is wasted playing along with mathematics;
Disadvantages of Judgmental Sampling
Its disadvantages are that:
1. It is unscientific;
2. It usually too large samples are selected and It is wasteful;
3. You cannot extrapolate the conclusion to the population such as a entire as the
samples are not representative;
4. Personal bias in, to choice the sample is unavoidable;
5. There is no logic to the selection of its size or the sample;

6. The sample selection is so erratic which is cannot be said to have applied for all items
in a year;
7. So the result reached is usually vague.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
This is a non-probability sampling method where new units are recruited by other units to
form part of the sample. Also known as chain sampling or network sampling, snowball
sampling begins with one or more study participants. It then continues on the basis of
referrals from those participants. This process continues until you reach the desired sample,
or a saturation point. This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating
hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them,
so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a
survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to
nominate other users to be interviewed.
Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify. However,
by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a significant
risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics or views
to the initial individual identified).
Types of Snowball Sampling
Depending on your research objectives, there are three different types of snowball sampling
methods to choose from:
 Linear snowball sampling
 Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling
 Exponential discriminative snowball sampling
Linear Snowball Sampling
Linear snowball sampling relies on one referral per participant. In other words, the researcher
recruits only one participant, and this participant, in turn, recruits only one participant. This
process goes on until you have included enough participants in the sample. Linear snowball
sampling works best when there are few restrictions (called inclusion and exclusion criteria)
as to who is included in the sample.
Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling
In exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling, the first participant provides multiple
referrals. In other words, the researcher recruits the first participant, and this participant in
turn recruits several others. The researcher includes all referrals in the sample. This type of
snowball sampling is best used when you want to reach a larger sample.
Exponential discriminative snowball sampling
In this method, participants give multiple referrals. However, the researcher screens those
referrals, choosing only those who meet specific criteria to participate in the sample. The key
difference between this and exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling is that not all
referrals are included in the sample. Exponential discriminative snowball sampling is most
used when screening participants according to specific criteria is vital to your research goals.
Advantages of Snowball Sampling
1. It’s quicker to find samples: Referrals make it easy and quick to find subjects as
they come from reliable sources. An additional task is saved for a researcher, this time
can be used in conducting the study.
2. Cost effective: This method is cost effective as the referrals are obtained from a
primary data source. It’s is convenient and not so expensive as compared to other
methods.
3. Sample hesitant subjects: Some people do not want to come forward and participate
in research studies, because they do not want their identity to be exposed. Snowball
sampling helps for this situation as they ask for a reference from people known to
each other. There are some sections of the target population which are hard to contact.
For example, if a researcher intends to understand the difficulties faced by HIV
patients, other sampling methods will not be able to provide these sensitive samples.
In snowball sampling, researchers can closely examine and filter members of a
population infected by HIV and conduct a research by talking to them, making them
understand the research objective, and eventually, analyzing the received feedback.
Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling
1. Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer those whom they know and
have similar traits, this sampling method can have a potential sampling errors and
margin of error. This means a researcher might only be able to reach out to a small
group of people and may not be able to complete the study with conclusive results.
2. Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after referrals, people might not be
cooperative and refuse to participate in the research studies.
THEORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

THEORY
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can
incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts. It’s not only explains known facts; it also allows
scientists to make predictions of what they should observe if a theory is true. Furthermore,
theory can be defined as “a formal logical explanation of some events that includes
predictions of how things relate to one another.” One of the major purposes of a theory is to
provide an answer to the question ‘why?’
In its essence, a theory is an interpretation of observations made of the natural world, based
on facts. It is a structured explanation to explain a group of facts or phenomena in the natural
world that often incorporates a scientific hypothesis and scientific laws. It is also a set of
interrelated propositions of principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular
phenomenon
Theories can be proven or rejected, just like hypotheses. And theories are continually
improved or modified as more information is gathered, so that the accuracy of the prediction
becomes greater over time. They are foundations for furthering scientific knowledge and for
putting the information gathered to practical use. Scientists use theories to develop inventions
or find a cure for a disease.
Characteristics of a Good Theory
Although various scholars uphold somewhat different standards concerning the
characteristics of good theory, scientifically‐oriented work mandates at least five desirable
characteristics:
 Actual explanations that satisfactorily answer questions of why and how;
 Breadth;
 Comprehensiveness;
 Precision; and
 Depth.
USES OF THEORY
1. A theory is a way to explain a set of facts. Put another way, if reality were a dot-to-dot
picture, a theory would be a way to connect a set of data dots. However, varying theories
connect different data dots in different ways resulting in a wide variety of pictures and
practices. Thus, varying theoretical perspectives, while based on a set of empirical data,
can often advocate different practices or practical notions. An example would be
behavioral learning theory and cognitive learning theory, both of which are based on
solid empirical evidence.
2. A Theory help to organize relevant empirical facts (empirical means they can be
observed or measured) in order to create a context for understanding phenomena.
3. Theories such as interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory can be used to help
design a research question, guide the selection of relevant data, interpret the data, and
propose explanations of causes or influences.
4. Theories provide complex and comprehensive conceptual understandings of things that
cannot be pinned down: how societies work, how organizations operate, why people
interact in certain ways.
5. Theories give researchers different “lenses” through which to look at complicated
problems and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of the data and
providing a framework within which to conduct their analysis.
SURVEY SCALES, INVENTORY AND QUESTIONNAIRE

Survey Scales
Survey scales are an ordered series of response options, presented verbally or numerically
from which the respondents select to indicate their level of feeling about the measured
attribute. They are also the indexes that measure those types of variables that are not directly
observed but are instead inferred from the other variables that are directly measured. It’s
always part of a closed-ended question (a question that presents respondents with pre-
populated answer choices). Survey scales are important because they help respondents to
quantify what they think or how they feel about certain things. In other words, it allows
respondents to assign specific quantifiable values to feelings, ideas, experiences, and
expectations.
Scales are similar to inventories in that they measure psychological constructs, but they are
usually more focused on specific aspects of behavior or emotions. Scales are often shorter
than inventories and consist of fewer questions. They typically use a rating scale to measure
the degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement.
TYPES OF SURVEY SCALES
1. Dichotomous Scales
2. Rating Scales
3. Semantic Differential Scales
Dichotomous Scales
A dichotomous scale is a two-point scale that presents options that are absolutely opposite to
each other. This type of response option does not give the respondent an opportunity to be
neutral on his answer to a question.
Examples: Yes – No
 True – False
 Fair – Unfair
 Agree - Disagree
Rating Scales
Three-point, five-point, and seven-point scales are all included in the umbrella term “rating
scale”. This questioning provides more than two options, in which the respondent can answer
in neutrality over a question being asked.
Examples: 1-10 rating
 1-7 rating
 Likert scale (e.g. 1-5)
Semantic Differential Scales
A semantic differential scale is only used in specialist questionnaires in order to gather data
and interpret them based on the connotative meaning of the respondent’s answer. It uses a
pair of clearly opposite words, where the respondent is asked to rate an object, person, or any
concept by putting a mark on one of the spaces along each dimension.
Examples of a semantic differential scale:
 Inexpensive [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Expensive
 Effective [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Ineffective
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of
prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. It is also a research tool featuring
a series of questions used to collect useful information from respondents. These instruments
include either written or oral questions and comprise an interview-style format.
A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a survey always
consists of a questionnaire. Questionnaires can be conducted online, by phone, on paper or
face-to-face, and questions do not necessarily have to be administered with a researcher
present. Thus, questionnaires can be self-administered or administered by a trained
interviewer. Examples of questionnaires include the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and
the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Questionnaires feature can either be:
a. Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a

questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.
They enable respondents to answer in their own words in as much or as little detail as they
desire.
b. Closed–Ended Questions: These provide respondents with a series of predetermined
responses they can choose from. The data collected from a data collection questionnaire
can be both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature.
c. Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended
question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is the
most natural form of a questionnaire.
d. Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type in
which a respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or many
(multi-select multiple choice question) responses from a given list of options. The
multiple-choice question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or
answers, incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-
choice questions have all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the
wrong or right answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
e. Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four measurement
scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types that utilize these
scales’ fundamental properties are rank order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic
differential scale questions, and Stapel scale questions.
f. Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to
answer. It works similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a
question, and the answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer
quickly without over-thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data.
INVENTORY
In research, an inventory is simply a list of items, often in question form that are scored on a
Likert scale, such as from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree, and which are used in
describing and studying behaviours, interests, and attitude. It is also a standardized
assessment tool that is designed to assess a broad range of personality traits, attitudes, or
behaviors. Inventories can be self-report, meaning that the person completes the inventory
themselves, or they can be completed by someone else, such as a therapist or researcher.
Inventories are commonly used to assess personality traits, emotional states, and
psychological symptoms. Examples of inventories include the Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory (MMPI), Big Five Personality Inventory.
Summarily, inventories are comprehensive tools that assess a broad range of traits or
symptoms, scales are more focused on specific aspects of behavior or emotions, and
questionnaires are flexible tools that can measure a wide range of constructs. Researchers
must choose the appropriate tool based on the purpose of their study, the construct they want
to measure, and the population they are studying.

Miss Nenye's Note On Psy 391

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PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 40

PSY 391 – NOTE

1) Define variable, types and uses.

VARIABLE: TYPES AND USES

variable is a function of the placement of these values or attributes in different categories

2. Dependent and Independent Variables

1. Variable plays a critical role in determining research questions. As such, research

What then is APA referencing style, you may ask;

(Ifedigbo, 2002, para. 4)

Ifedigbo and Ugbo (2013) state that …………….

 Acknowledgement of Other Writers/Researchers’ Contribution - Referencing

MEANING OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

HOW TO CHOOSE/SELECT PARTICIPANTS FOR YOUR STUDY

This determination helps the researcher in defining his/her sample. Consequently,

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Right to Confidentiality – Confidentiality refers to a condition in which the researcher

ABSTRACT AND ABSTRACTION

abstracting “happiness” to an “emotional state” reduces the amount of information conveyed

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

1. Objectives and scope of the study

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

Disadvantages of Stratified Random Sampling

2. This method is easy to be used from practicality point of view

Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling

1. Requires group-level information to be known

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS/TECHNIQUES

Proportional quota sampling

Judgmental (or Purposive) Sampling

5. There is no logic to the selection of its size or the sample;

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

THEORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

SURVEY SCALES, INVENTORY AND QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaires feature can either be:

a. Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a

psychological symptoms. Examples of inventories include the Minnesota Multiphasic

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