Industrial Training Report

In

“Urea Plant IFFCO Aonla”

By

SHIVAM KUMAR YADAV

20EI41

A training report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement

For the award of the degree of

Bachelor Of Technology

In

Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering

Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University, Bareilly

Department Of Electronics And Instrumentation Engineering

Faculty Of Engineering And Technology

A constituent part of

Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University

Bareilly – 243006

Duration – 01 JUNE 2023 to 14 AUGUST 2023

 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

MAHATMA JYOTIBA PHULE ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY

BAREILLY- 243006

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. SHIVAM KUMAR YADAV, bearing Roll No. 20EI41 has satisfactorily
Completed industrial training at “Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co–operative Limited, (Aonla Unit)”
between 01 June 2023 to 14 July 2023 delivered in partial fulfilment of requirements for The
award of Degree in Bachelor of Technology in Electronics And Instrumentation Engineering Of
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University, Bareilly being during academic year 2023-24.

Dr. Sanjeev Tyagi

Head

Training Incharge Examiner

Dr. Mukul Gupta i.

Place : Bareilly ii.

Date :
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to our Respected Head Dr. Sanjeev Tyagi Sir ( Department of Electronics
And Instrumentation Engineering, M. J. P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly) who grant us
an Opportunity to complete the summer training at IFFCO Aonla. Due to his kind
guidance and Efforts, I was able to understand the basic practical applications &
knowledge and gained a lot of experience about plant.

I am also thankful to my respected faculty Members because of their teaching and

guidance; I was able to apply my subject knowledge practically for studying about that
Particular plant. The summer training in IFFCO Aonla proved to be a major stage or
level that enables.

An engineering student to develop and imbibe the knowledge by gaining experience

about how To work in any process industries. I am also thankful to Mr. Harish Rawat ,
Senior Manager, IFFCO Aonla for his valuable guidance and for granting me permission
to enter the plant so That I was able to gain the knowledge .

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to my colleague & friends for their
Unconditional assistance and support.

SHIVAM KUMAR YADAV

Roll No : 20EI41

V.T.No.178

B.Tech (EI)

(IV YEAR)

(VII SEMESTER)
 CONTENTS

Certificate
Acknowledgement
Preface
Contents
Purpose
About IFFCO
AONLA Unit
Introduction
The Salient Features of Aonla Unit
Plant Technology
Achievements
Employee Welfare
Power Plant
Instrumentation Section
Various Activities of the Instrumentation Section
What is instrument?
What is Instrumentation?
Measurement
Output
Control
Transducers
Pressure Transmitter
Operating Principle
Working
Proof
Circuit Description
Temperature Measurement in Process Industry
Methods of Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple
Level Measurement
Distributed Control System

Bibliography
 PREFACE

This project gives Rich insight about the various

measurement & controlling techniques of IFFCO AONLA & also
about various facilities provided by the company to its
customers.
Moreover this project will also help in learning Practical
Aspects of different functions of Instrumentation Department
which are very necessary to become a good instrument
engineer.
 ABOUT

Indian Farmers Fertilizers Cooperative Limited

was established on 3rd November,1967 as a multi-unit
cooperative organization with broad objectives of
augmenting, fertilizer production, ensuring fertilizer
availability at farmers door-step, strengthening cooperative
fertilizer distribution system and education, training and
guiding the farmers for improving agricultural productivity.
It is the federation of over 37,000 Societies, most of them
being village cooperative, spread over in sixteen states
and three union territories. The organization is distinct in
the sense that the farmer owners represented through
their village cooperatives also become its customers.
IFFCO presently own five giant fertilizer units at Kalol and
Kandla in Gujarat, Phulpur and Aonla in Uttar Pradesh and
Oman in Saudi Arab.
The production of IFFCO is NPK/DAP/UREA. All four
fertilizer Units of IFFCO have displayed remarkable
performance during 2002-2003 by producing 60.47 lakh
tonnes fertilizer material comprising of 36.89 lakh tonnes
of Urea and 23.62 lakh tonnes of NPK/DAP.
 AONLA UNIT

INTRODUCTION

Towards increasing the fertilizer production under the

over all national planning for utilization of natural gas
available in Bombay High, a major programme for
setting up six new gas based fertilizer units was
envisaged by Govt. of India along the H.B.J. gas pipe
line.
IFFCO / Aonla complex is one of the giant cooperative
fertilizer manufacturing industry in India.
• This complex consists of two Ammonia
manufacturing units with capacities as 1350 MTPD
using M/s Haldor-Topsoe, Denmark process
technology.
• This complex consists of four Urea manufacturing
units with capacities as 1100 MTPD each using M/s
Snam-Progetti, Italy process technology.
• Apart from the above main processes we are having
other Off-site and Utility
facilities to augment the main process units.
• Under offsite facilities we are having de-mineralized
water treatment plants for
making boiler feed water, cooling towers for closed
loop cooling water circulation for process medium
cooling at various heat exchangers.
• Apart from the above facilities we are also having
instrument air supply units, plant air supply units,
inert gas supply units, effluent treatment units,
ammonia storage units, naphtha storage units.
• Captive power generation plant with two units of gas
turbines having capacities of 24 MW each supplied by
M/s Hitachi, Japan, steam generation plant of 150 TPH
high pressure steam at 105 kg/cm2 pressure at 510° C.
• Two Bagging plants with automatic bagging
machines.
• To run the total complex we are having detailed
organization setup consisting of various agencies.
 THE STATEMENT FEATURES OF
AONLA UNIT
(A)

Particular Aonla – I
Aonla – II

Capacity (per annum)

Ammonia 4, 45,500 MT 4, 45,500

MT
Urea 7, 26,000 MT 7,
26,000 MT
Project Zero Data 08 Jan 1985 30
Sep 1993
Mechanical Completion 08 Jan 1988 30
Nov 1996
Ammonia Production Started 15 May 1988 13 Dec
1996 Unit
Urea Production Started 18 May 1988 26
Nov 1996 Unit
Commercial Production Started 16 July 1988 25
Dec 1996
Feed Stock Natural Gas Natural
Gas With

Naphtha
Project cost (Rs. in Crores) 666 955
Guaranteed specification 8.03 Gcal 7.34 Gcal
with NG
Energy per MT Ammonia 7.43 Gcal with
NG+Naphtha
Urea 5.76 Gcal 5.4 Gcal

PLANT TECHNOLOGY :-

Aonla –I Aonla –II

Haldor Topsoe (Denmark) Ammonia Ammonia

Snamprogetti (Italy) Urea Urea

Dedicated to Nation 17 May 1988 29May 1996

By Hon’ble P.M. of India Late Sh. Rajeev Gandhi Sh.
I.K.Gujral
 Instrumentation Section
This section deals with various maintenance activities, upgradation
of various instruments for process variable monitoring, indicating,
controlling, recording, logging and reporting purposes used in
ammonia, urea, offsites, power & PH plants

Various Activities of the Instrumentation

Section

 Preventative checking/ maintenance.

 Breakdown maintenance.
 Shutdown maintenance.
 Calibration of instruments.
 General maintenance.
 Material, Planning & Procurement.

What is INSTRUMENT?

An instrument consist of a single unit which gives

an output reading or signal according to the
unknown variable(measurand) applied to it.
What is INSTRUMENTATION ?

Instrumentation is defined as “the art & science of

measurement and control”. Instrumentation can
refer either to the field in which instrument
technicians and engineers work, or to the available
methods of measurement and control and the
instruments which facilitate this.

Three phase of instrument..

1. Mechanical Instrument
2. Electrical instrument
3. Electronics Instrument
Measurement
Instruments are devices which are used in measuring
attributes of physical systems. The variable measured can
include practically any measurable variable related to the
physical sciences. These variables commonly include:

pressure

flow

temperature

level

density

current

voltage

frequency

various physical properties, etc.

Instruments can often be viewed in terms of a simple input-

output device. For example, if we "input" some temperature
into a thermocouple, it "outputs" some sort of signal.
(Which can later be translated into data.) In the case of this
thermocouple, it will "output" a signal in mill volts.
Output

Instruments communicate with some sort of signal, often

adhering to a standard. This signal may be defined by
standards associations, or it may be a proprietary standard.
Some standards include:

Analog
 Pneumatics (Signal lines/Supply lines)
 3-15 PSI
 1.5 – 4.5 kg/cm2

 Voltage
 1-5 V DC
 0-5 V
 0-10 V
 Current
 4-20 mA
Digital

 HART Protocol
 SMART Protocol
 Field bus
 Modbus
 Profibus
 Industrial Ethernet
Control
These devices are used to provide an input to a process
controller, which may either take the form of a PID controller
or Programmable Logic Controller. These devices perform a
decision based upon their own configuration and the input,
also known as the process variable, and output a desired
response

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
This module will examine the theory and operation of pressure detectors
(bourdon tubes, diaphragms, bellows, forced balance and variable
capacitance). It also covers the variables of an operating environment
(pressure, temperature) and the possible modes of failure.

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure

and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure
gauges or vacuum gauges.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum --- which
is further divided into two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and
sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many
of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by
combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure
system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10-11 mbar.

Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero

reference:
 Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so
it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure,
so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
Negative signs are usually omitted.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two
points.
Bourdon tube:
A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to
pressure increase causes a rotation of an arm connected to the tube.
In1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge was patented in France by

Eugene Bourdon .

The construction of a bourdon tube gauge, construction elements are made of brass

The pressure sensing element is a closed coiled tube connected to the

chamber or pipe in which pressure is to be sensed. As the gauge pressure
increases the tube will tend to uncoil, while a reduced gauge pressure
will cause the tube to coil more tightly. This motion is transferred
through a linkage to a gear train connected to an indicating needle. The
needle is presented in front of a card face inscribed with the pressure
indications associated with particular needle deflections. In a barometer,
the Bourdon tube is sealed at both ends and the absolute pressure of the
ambient atmosphere is sensed. Differential Bourdon gauges use two
Bourdon tubes and a mechanical linkage that compares the readings.
The transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and
vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the
case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge
used for automotive diagnosis:
Indicator side with card and dial Mechanical side with Bourdon tube

 the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is
calibrated in centimetres of mercury on its inner scale and inches
of mercury on its outer scale.
 the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump
pressure and is calibrated in fractions of 1 kgf/cm² on its inner
scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.
 Mechanical details:

Mechanical details
  Stationary Details.
 A: Receiver block. This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the
Bourdon tube (1) and secures the chassis plate (B). The two holes
receive screws that secure the case.
 B: Chassis plate. The face card is attached to this. It contains
bearing holes for the axles.
 C: Secondary chassis plate. It supports the outer ends of the axles.
 D: Posts to join and space the two chassis plates.

Moving Parts:
1. Stationary end of Bourdon tube. This communicates with the inlet
pipe through the receiver block.
2. Moving end of Bourdon tube. This end is sealed.
3. Pivot and pivot pin.
4. Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation.
5. Lever. This an extension of the sector gear (7).
6. Sector gear axle pin.
7. Sector gear.
8. Indicator needle axle. This has a spur gear that engages the sector
gear (7) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle.
Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the
pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the
sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon
tube is greatly amplified. A small motion of the tube results in a
large motion of the indicator needle.
9. Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and
hysteresis.
Regulator(pneumatic) :

opposite side output(hole)

nob Gauge hole inside hollow

N1

drainout

inlet plug
spring inside spring filter

plug seat diaphram

Fig. Pneumatic Regulator

Constructional dig. of pneumatic regulator as shown
The diag. show the constructional detailed about the pneumatic regulator
. It is contained spring ,diaphragm, plug, plug sheet ,filter ,nob etc. from
fig. .

The working of regulator as when we have give the pressure in the

inlet of regulator then it goes in the diaphragm and open the mouth of
diaphragm and diaphragm press the plug and plug sheet open it and it
has gone in the filter after that filter pressure in the pressure gauge and
gauge show the how much pressure in the. The nob of regulator to
control the pressure and the drain is use to pass out the waste air and
dust . As well as we vary pressure to the nob the gauge vary according to
the pressure.

Pneumatic Valve:
The constructional diag. of pneumatic valve which is use in flow as how
much flow pass outside it is depend on the valve open and valve open
due to pressure as from fig. below

It’s working as in which we have seen when we have pass the pressure
to the inlet then we have seen pressure displaced the diaphragm as from
fig when the diaphragm displaced then we have see the valve
arrangement which is connected to the diaphragm also displaced with
the displacement of diaphragm and the valve open. When the valve open
the flow pass. The quantity of flow pass depend on the how much valve
open.
The manually regulator is regulate and set as the how much the valve
open when the pressure is not flow in through inlet.
 actuator spring

Diaphragm rubber

Pressure input

valve

inlet flow outlet flow

Constructional Diag. of pneumatic valve on the principal diaphragm

Temperature measurement:-
In layman’s language temperature defined as “the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body or an environment measured on a definite scale”
temperature is a fundamental quantity same as the mass, length and time.
The law that is use in temp measurement in known as Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics.

Devices for measuring temperature include:

 Thermocouples
 Glass Thermometer
 Thermistor

 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 Pyrometers
 Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)
 Infrared


Glass Thermometer:
Most of these rely on measuring some physical property of a
working material that varies with temperature. One of the most
common devices for measuring temperature is the glass
thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or
some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature
increases cause the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be
determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. Such
thermometers are usually calibrated, so that one can read the
temperature, simply by observing the level of the fluid in the
thermometer.

A medical/clinical thermometer showing the temperature of 38.7 °C(glass thermomeret)

Bimetallic thermometer :-
The operation of these thermometer is based on the principle of the
coefficient of thermal expansion of different metals. Two different alloy
having different physical characteristics are fused together and formed
into spiral or helix, when heated caused to unbind the helix thus moving
the pointer attached to it over a graduated temp. scale. Range of this
instrument is –300° F to +1000° F.

Bimetallic thermostat

Thermocouple:
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces
a voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a
widely used type of temperature sensor and can also be used to convert
heat into electric power.

Any circuit made of dissimilar metals will produce a temperature-related

difference of voltage. Themocouples for practical measurement of
temperature are made of specific alloys, which in combination have a
predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage.
Particular alloys are used for different temperature ranges .
 Thermocouple plugged to a multimeter
displaying room temperature in °C.
The three phenomena govern the behavior of
thermocouple

1. The Seebeck Effect :

In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck
discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it
will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect
or Seebeck effect.
Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting
another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then
also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its
own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the
effect depends on the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete
the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different
voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for
measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and can
typically be between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (µV/°C) for
the modern range of available metal combinations.
This coupling of two metals gives the thermocouple its name.
 Metal B

junction 1 at junction 2 at
temperature temperature T2

metal A metal A

A Thermocouple Circuit

SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients (also called thermoelectric power

or thermopower) of the metals A and B, and T1 and T2 are the
temperatures of the two junctions. The Seebeck coefficients are non-
linear, and depend on the conductors' absolute temperature, material, and
molecular structure. If the Seebeck coefficients are effectively constant
for the measured temperature range, the above formula can be
approximated as:

V=(SB-SA).(T2-T1)
2. Peltier Effect :-
The Peltier effect is the reverse of the Seebeck effect; a creation of a
heat difference from an electric voltage.
It occurs when a current is passed through two dissimilar metals or
semiconductors (n-type and p-type) that are connected to each other at
two junctions (Peltier junctions). The current drives a transfer of heat
from one junction to the other: one junction cools off while the other
heats up; as a result, the effect is often used for thermoelectric cooling.
This effect was observed in 1834 by Jean Peltier, 13 years after
Seebeck's initial discovery.
The flow of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the
hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the Peltier effect).

When a current I is made to flow through the circuit, heat is evolved at

the upper junction (at T2), and absorbed at the lower junction (at T1).
The Peltier heat absorbed by the lower junction per unit time, is equal to
3. Thomson Effect :-
The Thomson effect, named for William Thomson (Lord Kelvin),
describes the heating or cooling of a current-carrying conductor with a
temperature gradient.
Any current-carrying conductor, with a temperature difference between
two points, will either absorb or emit heat, depending on the material.
If a current density J is passed through a homogeneous conductor, heat
production per unit volume is
Where
ρ is the resistivity of the material
dT/dx is the temperature gradient along the wire
μ is the Thomson coefficient.
The first term ρ J² is simply the Joule heating, which is not reversible.
The second term is the Thomson heat, which changes sign when J
changes direction.
In metals such as zinc and copper, which have a hotter end at a higher
potential and a cooler end at a lower potential, when current moves from
the hotter end to the colder end, it is moving from a high to a low
potential, so there is an evolution of energy. This is called the positive
Thomson effect.
In metals such as cobalt, nickel, and iron, which have a cooler end at a
higher potential and a hotter end at a lower potential, when current
moves from the hotter end to the colder end, it is moving from a low to a
high potential, there is an absorption of energy. This is called the
negative Thomson effect
Most common used thermocouple wires are the
combinations of :-
Iron – Constantan 0° to 1400° F.

Chromel-Alumel 500° to 2300° F.

Platinum / Rhodium-platinum 1000° to 2700° F.
Copper – Constantan -300° to +700° F.

Voltage–temperature relationship:
The relationship between the temperature difference (ΔT) and
the output voltage (v) of a thermocouple is nonlinear and is
approximated by polynomial:

The coefficients an are given for n from zero to between five and
nine
To achieve accurate measurements the equation is usually
implemented in a digital controller or stored in a look-up table.[3]
Some older devices use analog filters.

Types Of Thermocouple:
A variety of thermocouples are available for different measuring
applications.
 K
Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most common general purpose
thermocouple. It is inexpensive and available in a wide variety of
probes. They are available in the −200 °C to +1350 °C range. The
type K was specified at a time when metallurgy was less advanced
than it is today and, consequently, characteristics vary considerably
between examples. Another potential problem arises in some
situations since one of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic.
One characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material
is that they undergo a deviation in output when the material
reaches its Curie point; this occurs for type K thermocouples at
around 150 °C. Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.

K type thermocouple J-type

 E
Type E (chromel–constantan)[3] has a high output (68 µV/°C)
which makes it well suited to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is
non-magnetic.

 J
Type J (iron–constantan) is less popular than type K due to its
limited range (−40 to +750 °C). The Curie point of the iron
(770 °C) causes an abrupt change to the characteristic and it is this
that provides the upper temperature limit. Type J thermocouples
have a sensitivity of about 55 µV/°C
 N
Type N (nicrosil–nisil) thermocouples are suitable for use at high
temperatures, exceeding 1200 °C, due to their stability and ability
to resist high temperature oxidation. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C
at 900 °C, slightly lower than type K. Designed to be an improved
type K, it is becoming more popular.

 B, R, S
 Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum–
rhodium alloy for each conductor. These are among the most stable
thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity, approximately 10 µV/°C,
than other types. The high cost of these makes them unsuitable for
general use. Generally, type B, R, and S thermocouples are used only
for high temperature measurements.
 Type B thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy for each
conductor. One conductor contains 30% rhodium while the other
conductor contains 6% rhodium. These thermocouples are suited for
use at up to 1800 °C. Type B thermocouples produce the same output
at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C.
 Type R thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 13%
rhodium for one conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor.
Type R thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C.
 Type S thermocouples are constructed using one wire of 90%
Platinum and 10% Rhodium (the positive or "+" wire) and a second
wire of 100% platinum (the negative or "-" wire). Like type R, type S
thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C. In particular, type S is used as
the standard of calibration for the melting point of gold (1064.43 °C).

S and K type thermocouples, the S one is partially sheathed with an alundum tube.
 T
Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for
measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a
differential measurement since only copper wire touches the
probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie
point and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type T
thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C.

 C
Type C (tungsten 5% rhenium – tungsten 26% rhenium)
thermocouples are suited for measurements in the 0 °C to 2320 °C
range. This thermocouple is well-suited for vacuum furnaces at
extremely high temperatures and must never be used in the
presence of oxygen at temperatures above 260 °C.

 M
Type M thermocouples use a nickel alloy for each wire. The
positive wire contains 18% molybdenum while the negative wire
contains 0.8% cobalt.[5] These thermocouples are used in the
vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C. Upper
temperature is limited to 1400 °C. Though it is a less common type
of thermocouple, look-up tables to correlate temperature to EMF
(milli-volt output) are available.

Resistance thermometer:
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in
electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As
they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called
platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing the
use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C, due
to higher accuracy and repeatability.
Resistance thermometer construction:

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At low

temperatures PVC, silicon rubber or PTFE insulators are common to
250°C. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point
and usually most of the leads require a housing or protection sleeve. This
is often a metal alloy which is inert to a particular process. Often more
consideration goes in to selecting and designing protection sheaths than
sensors as this is the layer that must withstand chemical or physical nts.

Temperature Sensor:

spring Bimetallic strip

Front view pointer fig. temp. sensor

The Constructional dig. Of the Temp. Sensor

The temp. sensor work on the principal of temperature difference . As
from fig the tip of the temp. sensor is dip on where the temperature
measured. The tip of the temperature sensor contained Bimetallic
Element strip as from the property of the bimetal when the temp.
increases the bimetal change it’s shape and then it has been pull out the
wire which is join the bimetal then it pull the pointer which is join to the
wire and pointer be move as from as the bimetal bend .

Level Measurement: With the wide variety of approaches to

level measurement and as many as 163 suppliers offering one or more
types of level-measuring instrument, identifying the right one for your
application can be very difficult. In recent years, technologies that
capitalized on microprocessor developments have stood out from the
pack. For example, the tried-and-true technique
of measuring the head of a liquid has gained
new life thanks to “smart” differential pressure
(DP) transmitters. Today’s local level-
measuring instruments can include diagnostics
as well as configuration and process data that
can be communicated over a network to remote
monitoring and control instrumentation. One
model even provides local PID control. Some
of the most commonly used liquid-level
measurement methods are:

Photo 1. This view of a

typical RF capacitance probe
shows the electronic chassis
enlarged to twice the size of
its housing.
• RF capacitance

• Conductance (conductivity)

• Hydrostatic head/tank gauging

• Radar

• Ultrasonic
Before you can decide which one is right for your application, however, you need
to understand how each works and the theory behind it. (Each method has its
own abbreviations, so you may find the sidebar, “Abbreviations for Common Flow
Sensing Terminology,”, a useful reference during the discussions that follow.)

RF Capacitance:
RF (radio frequency) technology uses the electrical characteristics of a
capacitor, in several different configurations, for level measurement.
Commonly referred to as RF capacitance or simply RF, the method is
suited for detecting the level of liquids, slurries, granulars, or interfaces
contained in a vessel. Designs are available for measuring process level
at a specific point, at multiple points, or continuously over the entire
vessel height. Radio frequencies for all types range from 30 kHz to 1
MHz.

An electrical capacitance (the ability to store an electrical charge) exists

between two conductors separated by a distance, d, as shown in Figure
1. The first conductor can be the vessel wall (plate 1), and the second
can be a measurement probe or electrode (plate 2). The two conductors
have an effective area, A, normal to each other. Between the conductors
is an insulating medium—the nonconducting material involved in the
level measurement.

The amount of capacitance here is determined not only by the spacing

and area of the conductors, but also by the electrical characteristic
(relative dielectric constant, K) of the insulating material. The value of K
affects the charge storage capacity of the system: The higher the K, the
more charge it can build up. Dry air has a K of 1.0. Liquids and solids
have considerably higher values, as shown in Table 1.
Abbreviations for Common Flow Sensing Terminology
Abbreviations Term Related Technology
RF capacitance
Radar or microwave
RF capacitance
Admittance
Radar or microwave
A Amplitude modulated
AM Capacitance
Radar or microwave
C Frequency-modulated
Radar or microwave
FMCW continuous wave
Hydrostatic head
Frequency modulated
gauging
FM Guided wave radar
Hydrostatic head
GWR Head or hydrostatic head
gauging
H Hydrostatic tank gauging
capacitance
HTG Impedance
capacitance
I RF Relative dielectric
Hydrostatic head
K RF constant
gauging
LT Level transmitter
Hydrostatic head
P Pressure
gauging
DP Differential pressure
Hydrostatic head
PT Pressure transmitter
gauging
R RF Resistance
Hydrostatic head
RF RF Radio frequency
gauging
TT Temperature transmitter
capacitance
TDR Time-domain
capacitance
reflectometer
Hydrostatic head
gauging
Radar or microwave

The capacitance for the basic capacitor arrangement shown in Figure 1

can be computed from the equation:

C = E (K A/d) (1)

where:

C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)

E = a constant known as the absolute
permittivity of free space

K = relative dielectric constant of the

insulating material

A = effective area of the conductors

d = distance between the conductors

To apply this formula to a level-

measuring system, you must assume that
the process material is insulating, which,
of course, is not always true. A bare,
conductive, sensing electrode (probe) is
Figure 1. Basic capacitors all share the
inserted down into a tank (see Figure 2,) same principle of operation.
to act as one conductor of the capacitor.
The metal wall of the tank acts as the other. If the tank is nonmetallic, a
conductive ground reference must be inserted into the tank to act as the
other capacitor conductor.

With the tank empty, the insulating medium between the two conductors
is air. With the tank full, the insulating material is the process liquid or
solid. As the level rises in the tank to start covering the probe, some of
the insulating effect from air changes into that from the process material,
producing a change in capacitance between the sensing probe and
ground. This capacitance is measured to provide a direct, linear meas-
urement of mass

tank level. As shown in Figure 2, the TABLE 1

electrode sensor, or probe, connects Dielectric Constants of Sample
directly to an RF level transmitter, which is Substances
mounted outside the tank. In one design, Substance Value
with the probe mounted vertically, the Isopropyl alcohol 18.3
Kerosene 1.8
system can be used for both continuous Kynar 8.0
level measurement and simultaneous Mineral oil 2.1
multipoint level control. Alternatively, for Pure water 80
Sand 4.0
point level measurement, one or more Sugar 3.0
probes can be installed horizontally Teflon 2.0
through the side of the tank; Figure 2

shows this type being used as a high-level alarm. Photo 1 shows a

typical probe assembly with an enlarged view of the microprocessor-
based transmitter that fits in the housing; in use, its digital indicator
faces up. Trans mission of the level-measurement signal can take several
forms, as can the in strument that receives the signal at either a local or a
remote location.

Referring to Figure 2, the transmitter output is 4–20 mA DC plus

optional HART Protocol for remote diagnostics, range change, dry
calibration, and so on. The instrument receiving the signal can be a
distributed control system (DCS), a programmable logic controller
(PLC), a Pentium III PC, or a strip or
circular chart recorder.

When the process material is conductive,

the sensing probe is covered with an
insulating sheath such as Teflon or Kynar.
The insulated probe acts as one plate of
the capacitor, and the conductive process
material acts as the other. The latter, being
conductive, connects electrically to the
grounded metallic tank. The insulating
medium or dielectric for this application
is the probe’s sheath. As the level of
Figure 2. In the RF capacitance
conductive process material changes, a method of liquid level measurement,
proportional change in capacitance the electrode sensor connects directly
occurs. Note that this measurement is to an RF transmitter outside the tank.
unaffected by changes in the temperature or exact composition of the
process material.

RF Impedance or RF Admittance. When another electrical characteristic,

impe dance, enters the picture, the result is further refinements in RF
level measurement. Offering improved reliability and a wider range of
uses, these variations of the basic RF system are called RF admittance or
RF impedance. In RF or AC circuits, impedance, Z, is defined as the
total opposition to current flow:
Z = R + 1/ j 2 p f C (2)

where:

R = resistance in ohms

j = square root of minus 1 (–1)

p = the constant 3.1416

f = measurement frequency (radio frequency for RF measurement)

C = capacitance in picofarads

An RF impedance level-sensing instrument measures this total

impedance rather than just the capacitance. Some level-meas uring
systems are referred to as RF admittance types. Admittance, A, is
defined as a measure of how readily RF or AC current will flow in a
circuit and is therefore the reciprocal of impedance (A = 1/Z). Thus,
there is no basic difference between the RF impedance and RF
admittance as a level-measurement technology.

In some cases, the process material tends to build up a coating on the

level-sensing probe. In such cases, which are not uncommon in level
applications, a significant meas urement error can occur because the
instrument measures extra capacitance and resistance from the coating
buildup. As a result, the sensor reports a higher, and incorrect, level
instead of the actual tank level.

Note that the equation for impedance

includes resistance, R. The RF impedance
method can be provided with specific
circuitry capable of measuring the
resistance and capacitance components
from the coating and the capacitive
component due to the actual process
material level. The circuitry is designed to Figure 3. In the conductive type of
level measurement, two dual-tip
solve a mathematical relationship probes detect the maximum and
electronically, thereby producing a 4–20 minimum levels in a tank.
mA current output that is proportional
only to the actual level of the proc ess material. It is virtually unaffected
by any buildup of coating on the sensing probe, enabling an RF system
to continue functioning reliably and accurately.

Conductance

The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the

electrical conductance of the measured material, which is usually a
liquid that can conduct a current with a low-voltage source (normally
<20 V). Hence the method is also referred to as a conductivity system.
Conductance is a relatively low-cost, simple method to detect and
control level in a vessel.

One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip probe

that eliminates the need for grounding a metal tank. Such probes are
generally used for point level detection, and the detected point can be the
interface between a conductive and nonconductive liquid.

Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes that detect

maximum and minimum levels. When the level reaches the upper probe,
a switch closes to start the discharge pump; when the level reaches the
lower probe, the switch opens to stop the pump.

Hydrostatic Head

One of the oldest and most common

methods of measuring liquid level is to
measure the pressure exerted by a column
(or head) of liquid in the vessel. The basic
relationships are:

P = mHd

or:

H = mP/d (3) Figure 4. The hydrostatic head,

or differential pressure, method
where, in consistent units: can add measurements (at left)
for hydrostatic tank gauging
P = pressure (HTG).
m = a constant

H = head

d = density

P is commonly expressed in pounds per square inch; H, in feet; and d, in

pounds per cubic feet; but any combination of units can be used, so long
as the m factor is suitably adjusted.

The density of a liquid varies with temperature. For the highest precision
in level measurement, the density must therefore be compensated for or
expressed with relation to the actual temperature of the measured liquid.
This is the case with hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) described below.

For decades, DP-type instruments—long before the DP cell—were used

to measure liquid level. Orifice meters, originally designed to measure
differential pressure across an orifice in a pipeline, readily adapted to
level measurement. Today’s smart DP transmitters adapt equally well to
level measurements and use the same basic principles as their
precursors. With open vessels (those not under pressure or a vacuum), a
pipe at or near the bottom of the vessel connects only to the high-
pressure side of the meter body and the low-pressure side is open to the
atmosphere. If the vessel is pressurized or under vacuum, the low side of
the meter has a pipe connection near the top of the vessel, so that the
instrument responds only to changes in the head of liquid (see Figure 4).

DP transmitters are used extensively in the process industries today. In

fact, newer smart transmitters and conventional 4– 20 mA signals for
communications to remote DCSs, PLCs, or other systems have actually
resulted in a “revival” of this technology. Problems with dirty liquids
and the expense of piping on new installations, however, have opened
the door for yet newer, alternative methods.

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging. One growing, specialized application for

systems that involve hydrostatic measurements is hydrostatic tank
gauging (HTG). It is an emerging standard way to accurately gauge
liquid inventory and to monitor transfers in tank farms and similar
multiple-tank storage facilities. HTG systems can provide accurate
 information on tank level, mass, density, and volume of the contents in
every tank. These values can also be networked digitally for multiple
remote access by computer from a safe area.

Figure 4 shows a simplified system that incorporates only one pressure

transmitter (PT) with a temperature transmitter (TT) and makes novel
use of a level transmitter (LT) to detect accumulation of water at the
bottom of a tank. Mass (weight) of the tank’s contents can be calculated
from the hydrostatic head (measured by PT) multiplied by the tank area
(obtained from a lookup table). The liquid’s temperature-density
relationship can be used to calculate the volume and level, provided the
tank is not under pressure. Data fed into a computer system make it
possible for all calculations to be automatic, with results continuously
available for monitoring and accounting purposes.

The level transmitter, with its probe installed at an angle into the bottom
portion of the tank, is an innovative way to detect accumulation of
water, separated from oil, and to control withdrawal of product only.
Moreover, by measuring the water-oil interface level, the LT provides a
means of correcting precisely for the water level, which would
incorrectly be measured as product.

Though the DP transmitter is most commonly used to measure

hydrostatic pressure for level measurement, other methods should be
mentioned. One newer system uses a pressure transmitter in the form of
a stainless steel probe that looks much like a thermometer bulb. The
probe is simply lowered into the tank toward the bottom, supported by
plastic tubing or cable that carries wiring to a meter mounted externally
on or near the tank. The meter displays the level data and can transmit
the information to another receiver for remote monitoring, recording,
and control.

Another newer hydrostatic measuring device is a dry-cell transducer that

is said to prevent the pressure cell oils from contaminating the process
fluid. It incorporates special ceramic and stainless steel diaphragms and
is apparently used in much the same way as a DP transmitter.
 Ultrasonic and Sonic:

Figure 6. In continuous ultrasonic level measurement, a transducer mounted at the

top of the tank sends bursts of waves downward onto a material to determine its
level.

Both ultrasonic and sonic level instruments operate on the basic

principle of using sound waves to determine fluid level. The frequency
range for ultrasonic methods is ~20–200 kHz, and sonic types use a
frequency of 10 kHz. As shown in Figure 6, a top-of-tank mounted
transducer directs waves downward in bursts onto the surface of the
material whose level is to be measured. Echoes of these waves return to
the transducer, which performs calculations to convert the distance of
wave travel into a measure of level in the tank. A piezoelectric crystal
inside the transducer converts electrical pulses into sound energy that
travels in the form of a wave at the established frequency and at a
constant speed in a given medium. The medium is normally air over the
material’s surface but it could be a blanket of nitrogen or some other
vapor. The sound waves are emitted in bursts and received back at the
transducer as echoes. The instrument measures the time for the bursts to
travel down to the reflecting surface and return. This time will be
proportional to the distance from the transducer to the surface and can be
used to determine the level of fluid in the tank. For practical applications
of this method, you must consider a number of factors. A few key points
are:

• The speed of sound through the medium (usually air) varies with the
medium’s temperature. The transducer may contain a temperature sensor
to compensate for changes in operating temperature that would alter the
speed of sound and hence the distance calculation that determines an
accurate level measurement.

• The presence of heavy foam on the surface of the material can act as a
sound absorbent. In some cases, the absorption may be sufficient to
preclude use of the ultrasonic technique.

• Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause fluctuating readings. Use of

a damping adjustment in the instrument or a response delay may help
overcome this problem.

To enhance performance where foam or other factors affect the wave

travel to and from the liquid surface, some models can have a beam
guide attached to the transducer.

Ultrasonic or sonic methods can also be used for point level

measurement, although it is a relatively expensive solution.. The signal
from the receive crystal is analyzed for the presence or absence of tank
contents in the measurement gap. These noncontact devices are available
in models that can convert readings into 4–20 mA outputs to DCSs,
PLCs, or other remote controls.

.
Solenoid:
Solenoid a instrument which is act as valve. It is consist a magnetic coil,
plunger, capacitor bridge regulator as from fig. etc..

Construction:
output Outer cap

Input drain out

wire capacitor

inside chamber

plunger

magnetic coil nut bridge

A.C. supply

Construction of solenoid
 Working of solenoid:
Firstly we give the A.C. (110V-230V) then it goes in bridge rectifier it is
convert AC in the DC from then it’s output join to the head cap as from
fig. after that it’s output goes in the magnetic coil and it is magnetized
due to magnetization it attract the plunger towards magnetic field then
the valve open and pressure comes outside. If we disconnect the power
supply the magnetic coil loss their magnetic property and it leaves the
plunger and shut down the plunger.

Current to pneumatic converter(I/PAC):

gauge

4-20mA Current to Positioner Control valve

Source Pneumatic
converter
transmitter

24 V

DC power
Regulator
supply

Current to pneumatic converter convert the electrical signal in to

pneumatic from. In which we has give the 24-V power supply then it
will go in the 4-20mA transmitter which is transmit the current in the I/P
converter then it convert current into pneumatic form .
When we increase the current slightly, the pressure control with the
current to pneumatic converter as well as when we increase current the
pressure is also increases and when decrease current the pressure also
decrease. After that the controlled pressure move in the positioner and
positioned is as well as open the control valve as the pressure increases
and decreases. The regulator regulates the pressure as well as it will
increases and decreases pressure as per requirement.

Distributed control system:

History
Electronic digital based DCS goes back to circa 1974 with Honeywell
(and others) launching digital DCS eg. TDC200. BBC (Brown Boveri et
Cie now part of ABB) also had a digital DCS. By the 1990's most large
industrial plants had replaced the majority of pneumatic and hydraulic
control systems. In the early 2000's most Industrial DCS's were ported to
Windows (R) OS platforms after pressure from cost cutting and
embedded IT infrastructure. Not every distributed control system is part
of a manufacturing system A distributed control system (DCS) refers
to a control system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any
kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central
in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with
each component sub-system controlled by one or more controllers. The
entire system of controllers is connected by networks for communication
and monitoring DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries,
to monitor and control distributed equipment.

Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants

 Environmental control systems

 Traffic signals
 Water management systems
 Oil refining plants
 Chemical plants
 Pharmaceutical manufacturing
 Sensor networks
 Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships
Elements
A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and uses both
proprietary interconnections and Communications protocol for communication.
Input & output modules form component parts of the DCS. The processor receives
information from input modules and sends information to output modules. The
input modules receive information from input instruments in the process (a.k.a.
field) and transmit instructions to the output instruments in the field. Computer
buses or electrical buses connect the processor and modules through multiplexer or
demultiplexers. Buses also connect the distributed controllers with the central
controller and finally to the Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or control consoles.

DCS CLOSE LOOP DIAGRAM:

I/P signal conditioner Marselling Cabinet

I/P cord control Section Coral

pressure
I/P 1-5V
I/P 1-5V Set point
A/D
PID

Isolatar D/A
bus

I/P
8 I/p 8 o/p

Multipoint Analog cord for Di gital Signal eops

Terminal Boared Sequense Bus

Relay Boared Sequense Bus

16 I/P

16 I/P

I/P nest

Signal conditioner nest terminal Board Station Control nest

EFCD(Duplex field control Station)

DCS
Working:
Working of DCS as from previous fig. signal from transmitter(pressure,
temp, level transmitter) comes in JB(junction Box) and then from
junction box it’s came in Marshalling Room which is exist in control
room then it’s input in isolator(8 I/P) as from fig then in the system
cabinet which is based on PLC in which analog signal converted in
digital(A/D) as shown above fig. after that it comes in set point cabinet
where a PID controller which is set the value as from required after that
it is goes in D/A converter then it is in the isolator then positioner Then
control valve as from fig. We have Yokogawa make Centum –XL
DCS in Aonla-II unit.

Close Loop Diagram of Control System:

Orifice positioner

Control valve

flow inlet flow outlet

pneumatic line

transmitter I/P converter

I/P

Indicator

I/C

controller
Working of close loop control system is as from fig. when the flow
coming in the flow pipe then we have seen the orifice which is give the
pressure difference . Pressure difference is feedback in the transmitter
and the transmitter give the response to indicator which is show the
reading how much pressure and the flow in the pipe. Transmitter give
the detailed to controller how much the flow pass. After that the
controller the signal goes in the current to pneumatic converter and it
convert signal in the from of pneumatic then through the pneumatic line
it will go in the positioner and then it have shift the position of control
valve how much the output we have need. It’s process repeat as well as.

Legends for different components of DCS:

ENGS : Engineering station

EOPC : Operator console

EOPS : Operator station

EFCD : Duplex field control station

AC : Auxiliary console

PC : Personal computer

A/R/C/D/R/C : Amplifying relay cabinet

PDS : Power Distribution Cabinet

FIC : Free issue item cabinet

GPMC : General-Purpose marshalling

P : HF Bus Terminator

J : HF Bus Terminator

MV : Manipulated variable output

SV : Set value

PV : Process value

EPRT2 : Serial printer

EPCH2 : Color Hard copy unit

Applications
Distributed Control Systems (DCSs) are dedicated systems used to
control manufacturing processes that are continuous or batch-oriented,
such as oil refining, petrochemicals, central station power generation,
pharmaceuticals, food & beverage manufacturing, cement production,
steelmaking, and papermaking. DCSs are connected to sensors and
actuators and use setpoint control to control the flow of material through
the plant. The most common example is a setpoint control loop
consisting of a pressure sensor, controller, and control valve. Pressure or
flow measurements are transmitted to the controller, usually through the
aid of a signal conditioning Input/Output (I/O) device. When the
measured variable reaches a certain point, the controller instructs a valve
or actuation device to open or close until the fluidic flow process reaches
the desired setpoint. Large oil refineries have many thousands of I/O
points and employ very large DCSs. Processes are not limited to fluidic
flow through pipes, however, and can also include things like paper
machines and their associated variable speed drives and motor control
centers, cement kilns, mining operations, ore processing facilities, and
many others.

A typical DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed

digital controllers capable of executing from 1 to 256 or more regulatory
control loops in one control box. The input/output devices (I/O) can be
integral with the controller or located remotely via a field network.
Today’s controllers have extensive computational capabilities and, in
addition to proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) control, can
generally perform logic and sequential control.

DCSs may employ one or several workstations and can be configured at

the workstation or by an off-line personal computer. Local
communication is handled by a control network with transmission over
twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable. A server and/or applications
processor may be included in the system for extra computational, data
collection, and reporting capability.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Information are collected from IFFCO AONLA Unit
 Journals & Diary of IFFCO.
 Magazines of IFFCO
 Booklets & Pamphlets Issued at IFFCO Unit
 Website of IFFCO
 Trainer & Other Employees Of IFFCO.
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com