.

MODULE 1

ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Lesson 1 FUEL PROPERTIES AND FUEL

TANK

Lesson 2 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Lesson 3 FUEL INJECTORS

FUEL INJECTION CON STRATEGIES

Lesson 4
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MODULE I

 INTRODUCTION

Engine fuel and Control System for automobiles controls an air-fuel ratio
using feedback so as to determine a proper air-fuel ratio by constantly monitoring
the exhaust to verify the accuracy of an air-fuel mixture setting. The fuel control
system halts the feedback fuel control and forcibly causes an increase of fuel so as
to enrich air-fuel mixture setting when an engine operating condition shifts into a
specific zone of engine load in which the engine operates.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Determine typical composition of gasoline hydrocarbons.

2. Understand how fuel injection system works.
3. Know the functions of injector and how it works.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it.
Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your tutor or to the
Engineering office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your tutor during the
face-to-face meeting. If not contact your tutor at the Engineering office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 FUEL PROPERTIES AND

FUEL TANK

Fuel Properties and Fuel Tank

Fuel- A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so
that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. It
is a substance that is used to provide heat or power, usually by being burned.
Engine Fuels- liquid fuels used in an engine.
GASOLINE
Gasoline is a refined product of petroleum consisting of a mixture of
hydrocarbons, additives, and blending agents. The composition of gasoline varies
widely, depending on the crude oils used, the refinery processes available, the
overall balance of product demand, and the product specifications.

The typical composition of gasoline hydrocarbons (% volume) is as follows:

• 4-8% alkanes
• 2-5% alkenes
• 25-40% isoalkanes
• 3-7% cycloalkanes
• 1-4% cycloalkenes
• 20-50% total aromatics
• 0.5-2.5% benzene

Additives and blending agents are added to the hydrocarbon mixture to

improve the performance and stability of gasoline (IARC 1989; Lane 1980)

Properties That Determine the Performance of Gasoline

 Octane Rating
An octane rating is often referred to as an ‘anti-knock index’. If fuel has a
high octane number, it will have a higher resistance to engine knocking.
RON- Research Octane Number - This is the way to express octane ratings and
RON may vary depending on the country.
The standard for a regular unleaded gasoline in the Philippines is 91 octane
rating.
Gasoline is classified by its octane rating:
87 - Regular Gasoline
89 - Midgrade Gasoline
91 - High Octane Gasoline
Octane Ratings of Gasoline Available in the Market:
FOR SHELL:
Shell V-Power Nitro-Racing - 97

Shell V-Power Nitro - 95

Shell Fuel Save Unleaded - 91
FOR PETRON:
Petron Blaze - 97
Petron XCS - 95
Petron Super Extra Gasoline - 91

 Vapor Pressure

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The vapor pressure of a gasoline is a measure of its propensity to evaporate

and high vapor pressures result in high evaporative emissions of smog-forming
hydrocarbons which are undesirable from the environmental viewpoint.
However, from the viewpoint of gasoline performance:
1. The gasoline must be volatile enough that engines can start easily at the
lowest expected temperature in the geographical area of the gasoline's
expected market.
2. Too high a volatility could cause excessive vapor leading to vapor locking in
the fuel pump and fuel piping.

 Storage Ability
Gasoline stored in fuel tanks and other containers will, in time, undergo
oxidative degradation and form sticky resins referred to as gums. Such gums can
precipitate out of the gasoline and cause fouling of the various components of
internal combustion engines which reduces the performance of the engines and
also makes it harder to start them.
Relatively small amounts of various anti-oxidation additives are included in
end-product gasoline to improve the gasoline stability during storage by inhibiting
the formation of gums.
 Sulfur Content
When gasoline is combusted, any sulfur compounds in the gasoline are
converted into gaseous sulfur dioxide emissions which are undesirable from the
environmental viewpoint. Some of the sulfur dioxide also combines with the water
vapor formed when gasoline combusts and the result is the formation of an acidic,
corrosive gas that can damage the engine and its exhaust system.
Furthermore, sulfur interferes with the efficiency of the on-board catalytic
converters.
Sulfur Content of Gasoline – Limited to 10 ppm by weight.
 Additives
Gasoline manufacturers now routinely use additives to prevent intake valve
deposits (IVDs), which have an adverse effect on emissions.
Gasoline additive package includes:
• Octane enhancers, to improve octane ratings
• Anti-oxidants and metal de-activators, to inhibit gum formation and
improve stability
• Deposit modifiers, to reduce deposits, spark-plug fouling and pre-ignition
• Surfactants, to prevent icing, improve vaporization, inhibit deposits, and
reduce NOx emissions
• Freezing point depressants, to prevent icing
• Corrosion inhibitors, to prevent gasoline corroding storage tanks
• Dyes, to give product color for safety or regulation

Advantages of gasoline
• It is usually cheaper than the diesel fuel
• It is cheaper to manufacture
• It is cheaper to repair a gasoline engine than a diesel engine
Disadvantage
• It is very dangerous in terms of fire hazard

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Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and
inventor Rudolf Diesel for his compression-ignition engine he invented in 1892.
Diesel fuel, originally obtained from crude-oil distillation (petrodiesel), is
any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes place, without
spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of
fuel.
Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most
common type of diesel fuel. It is produced from the fractional distillation of crude
oil.
Diesel Properties
Molecular Mass 200 grams per mole
(Mass of mole of a substance)
Composition (weight %) Carbon – 84-87; Hydrogen – 13-16
Density 0.832 kg/L
Specific Gravity between 0.82 and 0.88
Boiling Point 370 – 650 ºF
Octane Number None
Cetane Number 40 to 55
Freezing Point -40 to 30 ºF
Viscosity 2.6 to 4.1 cgs
Flash Point 165 ºF
Autoignition temperature Approx. 600 ºF
Heating Value 18000 to 19000 Btu/lb

Cetane Number
Cetane Number is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel. Cetane rating or
CN is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and compression needed
for ignition.
In its simplest terms, Cetane Number measures the delay between the start of fuel
injection into the combustion chamber and the beginning of compression ignition
(auto-ignition).
Diesel engines rely on compression ignition (no spark) so the fuel must be able to
auto ignite. A higher cetane number mean shorter ignition delay time and more
complete combustion of the fuel charge in the combustion chamber. In turn, this
results in smoother running, better performance and less emissions to atmosphere.
EURO standards – European emission standards that is globally accepted

Euro 1 (1993): For passenger cars. Also for passenger cars and light trucks

Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars and for motorcycle

Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle and for motorcycle

Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle

Euro 5 (2009/9) for light passenger and commercial vehicles

Euro 6 (2014) for light passenger and commercial vehicles

Type of Diesel Minimum Cetane Number

Euo VI
Euro V 51
Euro IV 51
Euro III 51
Euro II 49
Euro I 49

Cetane Numbers of Locally Available Diesel

Type of Diesel Cetane Number

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UniOil EuroIV 55
Seaoil Exceed 51-52
Petron’s DieselMax 52-55
Shell V-Power Diesel 50
Shell V-power Nitro+ Diesel 54
Total Excellium Diesel 54

Fuel volatility
The distillation characteristic of the fuel describes its volatility. A properly
designed fuel has the optimum proportion of low boiling components for easy cold
starting and fast warm-up and heavier components which provide power and fuel
economy when the engine reaches operating temperature. Either too high or too
low volatility may promote smoking, carbon deposits and oil dilution due to the
effect on fuel injection and vaporization in the combustion chamber. Volatility
refers to how easily a fuel vaporizes. It affects how easily you can start your car,
warm it up, and how well it runs.
 First Grade and Second Grade Diesel

1-D
Automobiles run better on 1-D, or number 1 diesel. Its greater volatility makes it
more responsive and suitable for smaller vehicles, which are subject to more
variability in speed and load.
 Diesel #1 flows more easily than Diesel #2
 Has distillation temperatures of 550 degrees Fahrenheit
 It is used in high-speed diesel engines generally operated under frequent
speed and load changes, such as those in city buses and similar vehicles.
2-D
Trucks use number 2 diesel, whose lower volatility makes for harder starts in cold
weather, but better suits larger engines that are subject to higher loads and
steadier speeds.
 To carry heavy loads for long distances at sustained speeds
 Has distillation temperatures of 500 degrees Fahrenheit
 It is used in high-speed diesel engines that are generally operated under
uniform speed and load conditions, such as those in railroad locomotives
and trucks.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. High viscosity means the
fuel is thick and does not flow easily. Fuel with the wrong viscosity (either too
high or too low) can cause engine or fuel system damage.
Fuel Lubricity
Lubricity is the measure of the reduction in friction and or wear by a lubricant.
Cold behavior/ Low Temperature Operability
As fuel is cooled, it reaches a temperature where it is no longer able to
dissolve the waxy components that then begin to precipitate out of the solution.
The temperature at which wax just begins to precipitate and the fuel becomes
cloudy is the cloud point.
Flash Point
The flashpoint of any liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will
produce sufficient vapor to produce a flammable mixture in the air. The lower the
flashpoint temperature, the easier it is to ignite the air if an ignition source is
present. The higher the flashpoint, the safer the material is to handle.

Sulfur content
Sulphur in diesel fuel can cause combustion chamber deposits, exhaust
system corrosion, and wear on pistons, rings and cylinders. Global standards are
being implemented to reduce diesel fuel sulfur content as it is harmful to the
environment.
Type of Diesel Sulfur Content

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Euro V 0.001%
Euro IV 0.005%
Euro III 0.035%
Euro II 0.05%
Euro I 0.2%
As mandated by the law, the minimum sulfur content must be 0.05%

Carbon Residue
Carbon residue gives a measure of the carbon depositing tendencies of a
diesel fuel after evaporation and pyrolysis. The carbon residue provides
information on the carbonaceous deposits which will result from combustion of the
fuel. For fuels with a high carbon- high carbon/hydrogen ratio, it is proved more
difficult to burn them fully, which results in increased deposits in the combustion
and exhaust spaces.
Ash
Ash forming material may be present in diesel fuel in two forms: (1)
abrasive solids and (2) soluble metallic soaps. Abrasive Solids contribute to
injector, fuel pump, piston and ring wear, and also engine deposits. Soluble
metallic soaps have little effect on wear but may contribute to engine deposits.
Acidity
Diesel fuel acidity if not controlled, can cause poor fuel stability, cause
corrosion of mild steel, and it could cause deposit formation in some types of fuel
injection equipment.
Copper Strip Corrosion
If a diesel fuels corrosive tendencies are not controlled the possibility of
corrosion to copper, brass or bronze parts in the fuel system may occur.
DIESEL FUEL PERFORMANCE ISSUES
Diesel Engine Smoke - Diesel engine smoke is caused by incomplete combustion.
a. White smoke is caused by tiny droplets of unburned fuel resulting from
engine misfiring and low temperature. This smoke should disappear as
the engine warms up.
b. Black smoke could be caused by a faulty injector, insufficient air and
overloading and/or over fueling the engine.
c. Blue gray smoke is the result of burning lubricating oil and is an
indication the engine is in poor mechanical condition.
Diesel Fuel Contamination
Water and particles are the two contaminants that cause the greatest damage
within a diesel engine fuel system.
Water contaminant gets into diesel fuel storage and vehicle tanks in several ways
including condensation during transportation, by leakage through faulty pipes or
vents and by careless handling. Water can cause injector nozzle and pump
corrosion, bacteria and fungi growth and fuel filter plugging with materials
resulting from corrosion or microbial growth. These microbes form a colony that
lives at the interface of fuel and water. They can cause clogging to the fuel lines.
Dirt is another common contaminant of fuel and may cause poor
performance and extreme wear in fuel pumps. Fuel tank caps, dispensing nozzles
and hoses should be kept clean to eliminate potential sources of contamination.
Diesel Fuel Color
Diesel fuel colour varies with the crude source, refinery methods and the
use of dyes. However, if the fuel colour darkens during storage, this could
indicate oxidation and/or other sources which can cause operating problems.
Blending Lubricating Oil into Diesel Fuel
It was a common practice to blend lubricating oil into diesel fuel to provide added
lubricity for fuel pumps and injectors. This practice may adversely affect fuel
quality features and could lead to fuel system and piston deposits, increased
exhaust emission, and fuel filter plugging.
COMMON ADDITIVES ADDED TO A DIESEL FUEL
 Cold weather additives – to lower the pour point of the fuel

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 Cetane booster additives - better ignition quality for quicker engine start-
up, improved fuel economy and reduced exhaust emissions
 Corrosion protection additive - keeps the fuel system and the engine clean
 Lubricity additives – for wear protection

Ethanol Fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same alcohol found in alcoholic
beverages, but ethanol also makes an effective motor fuel which is derived
from grain, corn, or catalytic hydration of ethane gas. It is a colorless, flammable,
oxygenated hydrocarbon. There have been decades of motor fuel application
experience in the United States and other countries with ethanol.
Ethanol is available in a number of different blend levels, the names of
which indicate the percentage of ethanol the fuel contains. E10 and E85 are
commonly available blends, with E10 the most widely used around the world. E10
contains 10% ethanol and E85 contains 85% ethanol.
Ethanol Properties
Ethanol is a monomolecular compound with narrow boiling range. Ethanol is
aromatic-, olefin- and sulfur-free compound. Thus, ethanol may improve gasoline
composition by dilution effect. Oxygen content of ethanol is 35%. About 10 vol-%
ethanol represents 3.7 wt-% oxygen in gasoline. Most modern cars equipped with
closed-loop control system can compensate leaning effect of some 10 vol-%
ethanol containing gasoline.
1. Octane numbers
Octane numbers of low-molecular mass alcohols are high, and therefore they
have been used as octane boosters in past. Alcohols tend to increase the research
octane number (RON) more than the motor octane number (MON). The blending
RON of ethanol is about 120-135 and the blending MON 100-106. Higher octane fuel
has a greater resistance to auto ignition under higher combustion pressure and
heat.
The Research Octane Number simulates fuel performance under low severity
engine operation. The Motor Octane Number simulates more severe operation that
might be incurred at high speed or high load.

2. Volatility
Ethanol forms azeotropes with hydrocarbons of gasoline, which impacts
volatility. In particular, the vapor pressure and distillation characteristics of
ethanol/gasoline blends are non-linear.
3. Heat of vaporization
Heat of vaporization is a fundamental thermodynamic property and an
important parameter for internal combustion engine design.

Heat of vaporization is higher for ethanol than for gasoline, which means that
more energy is required to evaporate the fuel thus lowering the engine
temperatures. This can improve knock resistance as auto‐ignition is less likely to
occur with a cooler engine.
4. Energy content
The energy content of ethanol is lower than that of gasoline. The heating value
of ethanol is around 27 MJ/kg, in volumetric terms around 21 MJ/l, which is only
65% of the volumetric energy content of gasoline.
5. Oxygen content
The oxygen content of ethanol is 35%. The oxygen content of fuel
determines the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, which is 9 kg air/kg fuel for
ethanol, whereas it is 14.6 kg/kg for gasoline. Closed-loop fuel control system
can compensate the leaning effect of fuel, but even the modern cars can
tolerate oxygenates only up to certain concentrations. This is reflected in
legislation and standards of gasoline.
6. Acidity and trace elements

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Ethanol has limits for weak acidity and strong acidity.

Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel that can be manufactured
domestically from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. A
natural hydrocarbon with negligible sulfur content, it will substantially help in
reducing emissions from diesel-fed engines.
Biodiesel fuel has chemical properties that are very similar to conventional
diesel fuel, and does not require any engine modifications or new equipment to
enable its use as a blend stock or substitute for conventional diesel.
Biodiesel can be blended and used in many different concentrations. The
most common are:
B100 – pure biodiesel
B20 – 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel
B5 – 5% biodiesel, 95% petroleum diesel, and
B2 – 2% biodiesel, 98% petroleum diesel
Properties of biodiesel
1. Cetane number
The cetane number of pure biodiesel is 55. If it has a high cetane
number, this means that the delay period is relatively short. In this
case, the short delay period allows the diesel to burn more
completely. In turn, it helps the vehicle’s engine to run more
smoothly and powerfully while producing less emission. Diesel that
takes a longer time to ignite does not work as efficiently.

2. Lower heating value

The lower heating value is an important characteristic used in energy release
estimation. In this work, a convenient method of estimating the heating values of
straight and processed vegetable oils based on the bond energies of their fatty
acid/methyl ester constituents is proposed. The LHV of biodiesel is 118, 170
Btu/gal.
3. Density
Density is another important property of biodiesel. It is the weight of
a unit volume of fluid. A higher density for biodiesel results in the delivery
of a slightly greater mass of fuel. The density of biodiesel is 7.328 lb/gal.
4. Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction or resistance of an oil
to flow. As the temperature of oil is increased, its viscosity decreases and it
is therefore able to flow more readily. Viscosity is the most important
property of biodiesel since it affects the operation of fuel injection
equipment, particularly at low temperatures when the increase in viscosity
affects the fluidity of the fuel.
5. Oxygen
The oxygen content of biodiesel improves the combustion process
and decreases its oxidation potential. The structural oxygen content of a
fuel improves its combustion efficiency due to an increase in the
homogeneity of oxygen with the fuel during combustion. The oxygen
content of biodiesel is 11.
6. Flash point
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a standard
atmospheric condition at which application of a test flame Cause the vapour
specimen to ignite under specific conditions of test. The flash point of
biodiesel is 60-80 degree Celsius.
Cloud point Cloud point refers to the temperature below
which wax in diesel or bio wax in biodiesels form a cloudy appearance. The
presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and
injectors in engines. The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces and forms
an emulsion with water. Therefore, cloud point indicates the tendency of

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the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures. The
cloud point of biodiesel is -3 to 12 degree Celsius.
7. Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the
liquid changes into a vapour. The higher the boiling point, the less volatile
is the compound. Conversely, the lower the boiling point, the more highly
volatile is the compound. The boiling point of biodiesel is 315- 350 degree
Celsius.
Advantages of Biodiesel
 Produced from Renewable Resources: Biodiesel is a renewable energy
source unlike other petroleum products that will vanish in years to come.
Since it is made from animal and vegetable fat, it can be produced on
demand and also causes less pollution than petroleum diesel.

 Can be Used in existing Diesel Engines: One of the main advantage of using
biodiesel is that can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no
modifications at all and can replace fossil fuels to become the most
preferred primary transport energy source. Biodiesel can be used in 100%
(B100) or in blends with petroleum diesel. For e.g.: B20 is called as 20%
blend of biodiesel with 80% diesel fuel. It improves engine lubrication and
increases engine life since it is virtually sulphur free.

 Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions (e.g., B20 reduces CO2 by 15%): Fossil fuels
when burnt release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
that raises the temperature and causes global warming. To protect the
environment from further heating up, many people have adopted the use of
biofuels. Experts believe that using biodiesel instead of petroleum diesel
can reduce greenhouse gases up to 78%.

 Grown, Produced and Distributed Locally: Fossil fuels are limited and may
not be able to fulfill our demand for coal, oil and natural gas after a certain
period. Biodiesel can work as an alternative form of fuel and can reduce our
dependence on foreign suppliers of oil as it is produced from domestic
energy crops. It is produced in local refineries which reduce the need to
import expensive finished product from other countries.

 Cleaner Biofuel Refineries: When oil is extracted from underground, it has

to be refined to run diesel engines. You can’t use it straight away in the
crude form. When it is refined, it releases many chemical
compounds including benzene and butadiene in the environment which are
harmful for animals, plants and human life. Biofuel refineries, which mainly
uses vegetable and animal fat into biofuel releases less toxic chemicals, if
spilled or released to the environment.

 Biodegradable and Non-Toxic: When Biofuels are burnt, they produce

significantly less carbon output and few pollutants. As compared to
petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon
monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. Flashpoint for
biodiesel is higher than 150°C whereas the same is about 52°C for
petroleum diesel, which makes it less combustible. It is therefore safe to
handle, store and transport.

 Better Fuel Economy: Vehicles that run on biodiesel achieve 30% fuel
economy than petroleum based diesel engines which means it makes fewer
trips to gas stations and run more miles per gallon.

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Disadvantages of Biodiesel
 Variation in Quality of Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from variety of biofuel
crops. When the oil is extracted and converted to fuel using chemical
process, the result can vary in ability to produce power. In short, not all
biofuel crops are same as amount of vegetable oil may vary.

 Not Suitable for use in Low Temperatures: Biodiesel gels in cold weather
but the temperature that it will gel depends on the oil or fat that was used
to make it. The best way to use biodiesel during the colder months is to
blend it with winterized diesel fuel.

 Food Shortage: Since biofuels are made from animal and vegetable fat,
more demand for these products may raise prices for these products and
create food crisis in some countries. For e.g.: the production of biodiesel
from corn may raise its demand and it might become more expensive which
may deprive poor people from having it.

 Increased use of Fertilizers: As more crops are grown to produce biofuels,

more fertilizer is used which can have devastating effect on environment.
The excess use of fertilizers can result in soil erosion and can lead to land
pollution.

 Clogging in Engine: Biodiesel cleans dirt from the engine. This proves to be
an advantage of biofuels but the problem is that this dirt gets collected in
fuel filter and clogs it.

Fuel Tank

A fuel tank (or petrol tank) is a safe container for flammable fluids. Though
any storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is typically applied to part of
an engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released
(pressurized gas) into an engine. Fuel tanks range in size and complexity from the
small plastic tank of a butane lighter to the multi-chambered cryogenic Space
Shuttle external tank.

Uses

Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following:

 Storage of fuel: the system must contain a given quantity of fuel and must
avoid leakage and limit evaporative emissions.

 Filling: the fuel tank must be filled in a secure way, without sparks.

 Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, gauging (the

remaining quantity of fuel in the tank must be measured or evaluated).

 Venting (if over-pressure is not allowed, the fuel vapors must be managed
through valves).

 Feeding of the engine (through a pump).

 Anticipate potentials for damage and provide safe survival potential.

Fuel tanks construction

While most tanks are manufactured, some fuel tanks are still fabricated by metal
craftsmen or hand-made in the case of bladder-style tanks. These include custom

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and restoration tanks for automotive, aircraft, motorcycles, and even tractors.
Construction of fuel tanks follows a series of specific steps.

The craftsman generally creates a mock up to determine the accurate size and
shape of the tank, usually out of foam board.

Next, design issues that affect the structure of the tank are addressed - such as
where the outlet, drain, fluid level indicator, seams, and baffles go. Then the
craftsmen must determine the thickness, temper and alloy of the sheet he will use
to make the tank.

After the sheet is cut to the shapes needed, various pieces are bent to create the
basic shell and/or ends and baffles for the tank. Many fuel tanks' baffles
(particularly in aircraft and race cars) contain lightening holes. These flanged
holes serve two purposes; they reduce the weight of the tank while adding
strength to the baffles. Toward the end of construction, openings are added for
the filler neck, fuel pickup, drain, and fuel-level sending unit. Sometimes these
holes are created on the flat shell, other times they are added at the end of the
fabrication process. Baffles and ends can be riveted into place. The heads of the
rivets are frequently brazed or soldered to prevent tank leaks. Ends can then be
hemmed in and soldered, or flanged and brazed (and/or sealed with an epoxy-type
sealant) or the ends can be flanged and then welded. Once the soldering, brazing
or welding is complete, the fuel tank is leak-tested.

Types of Fuel Tank

1. Metal fuel tank

A metal fuel tank is a fuel container welded from stamped sheets of steel or
aluminum. These tanks are embedded within many automobiles. Metal fuel
tanks limit fuel emissions in a vehicle better than some other automobile
fuel tank technology. The steel or aluminum material traps a considerable
amount of harmful chemicals such as carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide
within the tank.

Advantages:
 Steel is better for security, with plastic obviously being easier to drill
and siphon off oil
 Steel fuel tanks are available with a capacity up to 120,000 litres
 Highly durable and long lasting
 There is also a lot of scope for flexibility within the design. Custom
tanks can easily be made in variety of complex designs
 Resistance to external and internal corrosion
 Priced very competitively

Disadvantages

 Steel is much heavier so less easy to maneuver

 They can corrode over time
 Steel tanks can be vulnerable at welded seams

Equally, in recent decades, steel fuel tanks have increase their market share due
to improvements in formability and weldability which have increased the
competitiveness of this metal as a material for fuel storage tanks.

2. Plastic high-density polyethylene (HDPE) fuel tanks

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HDPE is made by blow molding. This technology is increasingly used

as it now shows its capacity to obtain very low emissions of fuel (Partial
zero-emissions vehicle). HDPE can also take complex shapes, allowing the
tank to be mounted directly over the rear axle, saving space and improving
crash safety. Initially there were concerns over the low fracture
toughness of HDPE, when compared to steel or aluminum. Concern for
safety and long term ability to function should be considered and
monitored. It can withstand temperature up to 230 degree F, which keeps
the car from fully exploding in the event of a fire. Because of their of
flexibility it can be manufactured at a much larger size than metal fuel
tanks with an average fuel capacity of between 15 and 28 gallons.

Advantages
 Easier to install than steel as it is lighter and easier to maneuver
 Almost no limits to shapes that these tanks can take, although you
have to order an off-the-shelf-design
 The transfer of heat to fuel is delayed because plastic is an
insulator
 They are seamless, so are less prone to failure, even if it deforms

Disadvantages

 There is a limit to the size, with maximum capacities reaching up to

approximately 6500 litres
 They can become weak from exposure to direct sunlight
 Can be less secure as they are easier to drill and siphon off
 As plastic tanks have mechanical joints, when this material stretches,
after continual contact with vapors and fluids, these joints can grow
weak.

3. Integral tanks

Are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to allow
fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used in
larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they
cannot be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be
provided to allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the
tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the
wings, belly, and sometimes tail of the airplane.

4. Rigid removable tanks

are installed in a compartment designed to accommodate the tank. They

are typically of metal construction, and may be removed for inspection,
replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not rely on the tank for
structural integrity. These tanks are commonly found in smaller general
aviation aircraft.

CARBURETOR
A carburetor is basically a device for mixing air and fuel in the correct
amounts for efficient combustion. The carburetor bolts to the engine intake
manifold.

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What Are The Functions of Carburetors?

Suck Air into Engine
 An automotive carburetor is basically nothing more than a large, vacuum-
operated suction device. One of the main functions of a carburetor is to suck in
outside air and inject it directly into a car's engine. A typical, gas-operated engine
requires both air and fuel (gasoline) in order to function. A carburetor provides
this.

Suck Gas into Engine

 In addition to injecting air into a car's engine, a carburetor is responsible for
supplying a steady flow of fuel (gasoline) to a car's engine. Connected to a car's
gas tank by a long fuel line and a fuel pump, a carburetor is supplied with an
ongoing source of fuel, which it meters out in specific dosages directly to a car's
engine.

Creates Engine Air/Fuel Ratio

 One of the most important functions of a carburetor is its creation of a car
engine's air/fuel mixture. An air/fuel mixture is a specific ratio of air and fuel
(gasoline) that a car's engine needs in order to function. For an engine to run and
operate, it's air/fuel mixture has to be constantly adjusted, metered out and
restricted depending on engine operating conditions. A carburetor performs all of
these functions.

Speed Vehicle Warm-Up

 A carburetor speeds up a vehicle's warm-up by elevating the vehicle's idle
speed for a few minutes and by altering its air/fuel ratio. A carburetor has a small
vacuum-operated choke that increases the ratio of fuel to air in a cold vehicle's
air/fuel mixture and also increases its idle speed, both of which help a cold
vehicle to start and warm-up.

The Advantages of a Carburetor

Cheaper to Buy
 Above and beyond all else, the carburetor's trump card is its low cost of
buy-in, maintenance and modification. Consider this: an Edelbrock 3520 Pro-Flo XT
electronic fuel injection kit (complete with manifold, injectors and fuel pump)
retails for about $3,900 as of October 2010 and can support about 450 horsepower.
A comparable Edelbrock Performer RPM carburetor and intake manifold package
capable of supporting the same horsepower will run you under $850. That epic
price gap is fairly representative of the automotive aftermarket, where a full EFI
(electronic fuel injection) package will typically run four to five times more than
its carbureted equivalent.

Cheaper to Tune
 On the high end, a carburetor re-jetting kit might cost you as much as $50;
the average computer chip with a pre-installed fuel map costs more than $200.
Here's what you get for your $200: a fuel map calibrated to exactly the specs that
you gave the manufacturer without any margin for error when applied to future
modifications. To change the program, you'll need to either send the chip back to
the manufacturer or buy a tuner or tuning software for about $500. To adjust for
modifications with a carburetor, you simply swap in a few new needle valves and
jets from your kit.

Easier to Tune
 The only difference in difficulty between tuning a carburetor and tuning an
EFI system is that you can tune an EFI setup without ruining your manicure. But
make no mistake: what difficulty EFI lacks in terms of manual labor it more than
makes up for in complexity and a lack of margin for error. The carburetor's much-

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maligned lack of precision works to its benefit, increasing the margin of error far
past what more finicky fuel systems could tolerate.

CARBURETION

The three general stages involved in carburetion are metering, atomization, and
vaporization.

Metering

Metering is another term for measuring. In the process of carburetion, fuel is

metered into the air passing through the barrel of the carburetor. The mixture of
air and fuel is called an emulsion. The ideal air/fuel ration at which all the fuel
blends with all the oxygen in the air is called the stoichiometric ratio. This ratio is
about 14.7:1. If there is more fuel in the mixture, it is called a rich mix. If there is
less fuel, it is called a lean mix. The amount of fuel metered into the air is varied
in relation to the amount of air passing through the carburetor. Additional factors
that influence the amount of fuel metered into the air include engine
temperature, load and speed requirements, and the amount of oxygen in the
exhaust system.

Atomization

Atomization is the stage in which the metered fuel is drawn into the airstream in
the form of tiny droplets. The droplets of fuel are drawn out of passages called
discharge ports.

Vaporization

The surface area of an atomized droplet is in contact with a relatively large

amount of surrounding air. In addition, the venturi is a low-pressure area. These
factors combine to create a fine mist of fuel below the venturi in the bore. This is
called vaporization - the last stage of carburetion. It occurs below the venturi, in
the intake manifold, and within the cylinder. Swirl, turbulence, and heat within
the intake manifold and cylinder also enhance vaporization.

The goal of a carburetor is to mix just the right amount of gasoline with air
so that the engine runs properly. If there is not enough fuel mixed with the air,
the engine "runs lean" and either will not run or potentially damages the engine. If
there is too much fuel mixed with the air, the engine "runs rich" and either will not
run (it floods), runs very smoky, runs poorly (bogs down, stalls easily), or at the
very least wastes fuel. The carb is in charge of getting the mixture just right.

PARTS OF A CARBURETOR

CARBURETOR
A carburetor is basically a device for mixing air and fuel in the correct
amounts for efficient combustion.The carburetor bolts to the engine intake
manifold. The air cleaner fits over the top of the carburetor to trap dustand dirt.
The basic carburetor consists of the following parts:

CARBURETOR BODY
The carburetor body isa cast metal housing for
the carburetor components.Usually the main body houses the fuel bowl, main
jets,air bleeds, power valve, pump checks, diaphragm typeaccelerator pump,
venturis, circuit passages, and floatmechanism. The body is flanged on the bottom
to allowthe carburetor to be bolted to the intake manifold.
AIR HORN
The air horn is also called the throator barrel. It routes outside air into the
engine intake manifold. It contains the throttle valve, the venturi, andthe outlet

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end of the main discharge tube. The parts which often fasten to the air horn body
are as follows: the choke, the hot idle compensator, the fast idle linkage rod, the
choke vacuum break, and sometimes the float and pump mechanisms.
THROTTLE VALVE
This disc-shaped valve controls air flow through the air horn.When closed,
it restricts the flow of air and fuel into theengine, and when opened, air flow, fuel
flow, and engine power increase.

Figure 2.1 Throttle Valve

VENTURI
The venturi produces sufficient suction to pull fuel out of the main
discharge tube.

Figure 2.2 Venturi

MAIN DISCHARGE TUBE
The maindischarge tube is also called the main fuel nozzle. It uses
venturi vacuum to feed fuel into the air horn andengine. It is a passage that
connects the fuel bowl to thecenter of the venturi.

Figure 2.3 Main Discharge Tube

FUEL BOWL
The fuel bowl holds a supply offuel that is NOT under fuel pump pressure.

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Figure 2.4 Fuel Bowl

FLOAT CHAMBER

The float chamber holds a quantity of fuel at atmospheric pressure ready

for use. Its supply is refilled by a float driven valve; as the level drops the float
drops too and opens an inlet which allows the fuel pump to deliver more fuel to
the float chamber. The float rises with the replenished fuel level, closing off the
inlet.

Figure 2.5 Float Chamber

ACCELERATOR PUMP

If the throttle is opened wide very quickly, the idle circuit stops working
immediately, but the main circuit does not become effective until the airflow has
had time to build sufficiently. To bridge that gap in fuel flow, an accelerator
pump delivers a squirt of fuel under low pressure to smooth the transition from
idle circuit to main circuit.

Figure 2.6 Accelerator Pump

CHOKE

Fuel ignites less readily when cold, and if the engine is also cold, then some
fuel vapor can condense out of the air fuel mixture onto the intake manifold and
cylinder walls. This makes the mixture leaner, so to compensate for this, a valve
known as the 'choke' restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor,
keeping the manifold pressure low even though the throttle valve has been
opened. In this way, fuel is sucked into the incoming air through all the fuel

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circuits at once – idle, off-idle, and main. In some engines, instead of using a
choke valve, an additional fuel circuit behind the throttle valve can enrich the air
fuel mixture.

Figure 2.7 Choke

HOW DOES A CARBURETOR WORK?

Figure 2.8 How does a Carburetor work

1. Air flows into the top of the carburetor from the car's air intake.
2. When the engine is first started, the choke (blue) can be set so it almost
blocks the top of the pipe to reduce the amount of air coming in (increasing the
fuel content of the mixture entering the cylinders).
3. In the center of the tube, the air is forced through a narrow kink called a
venturi. This makes it speed up and causes its pressure to drop.
4. The drop in air pressure creates suction on the fuel pipe (right), drawing in
fuel (orange).
5. The throttle (green) is a valve that swivels to open or close the pipe. When
the throttle is open, more air and fuel flows to the cylinders so the engine
produces more power and the car goes faster.
6. The mixture of air and fuel flows down into the cylinders.
7. Fuel (orange) is supplied from a mini-fuel tank called the float-feed
chamber.
8. As the fuel level falls, a float in the chamber falls and opens a valve at the
top.
9. When the valve opens, more fuel flows in to replenish the chamber from the
main gas tank. This makes the float rise and close the valve again.

How a carburetor mixes fuel and air

When the piston moves down the cylinder on the intake stroke it draws air
from the cylinder and intake manifold. A vacuum is created that draws air from
the carburetor. The airflow through the carburetor causes fuel to be drawn from
the carburetor through the intake manifold past the intake valves and into the
cylinder. The amount of fuel mixed into the air to obtain the required air to fuel
ratio is controlled by the venturi or choke. When air flows through the venturi its
speed increases and the pressure drops. This causes the fuel to be sucked into the

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air stream from a hole or jet. When the engine is at idle or at rapid acceleration
there is not enough air passing through the venturi to draw fuel. To overcome
these problems other systems are used.

Delivering gasoline to the carburetor

Gasoline is delivered to the carburetor by the fuel pump and is stored in the
fuel bowl. To keep this level of fuel stored in the bowl constant under all
conditions a float system is used. A float operated needle valve and seat at the
fuel inlet is used to control the fuel level in the bowl. If the fuel level drops below
a certain level the float lowers and opens the valve letting more fuel in. When the
float rises it pushes the inlet valve against the seat and shuts off the flow of fuel
into the bowl.

Carburetors Types

One-barrel.

The one-barrel carburetor has a single outlet through which all the systems
feed to the intake manifold. This type of carburetor is also known as a single-
venturi design. These carburetors are generally used on 4-cylinder and 6-cylinder
engines.

Figure 2.9 One Barrel Carburetor

Single-stage Two-barrel.

This carburetor has two barrels and two throttles, which operate together.
Since the various fuel-discharge passages in each barrel operate at the same time,
it can be considered as two numbers of single-barrel carburetors sharing the same
body having one air horn. The two throttle plates are mounted on the same shaft,
and operate together. The two barrels share a common float, choke, power
system, and acceleration pump. Single-stage two-barrel carburettors as used on
many 6-cylinder and 8-cylinder engines.

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Figure 2.10 Single Stage Two Barrel Carburetor

Four-barrel.

The 4-barrel, or quard, carburetor uses two primary barrels and two
secondary barrels in a single body. The two primaries operate single stage two-
barrel at low-to-moderate engine speeds and loads. The secondary barrels open
about half to three-quarter throttle to provide the increased fuel and airflow
required for high-speed operation. The primary barrels contain the choke, the
idle, the low speed, the high-speed, an accelerator pump and a power system. The
secondary barrels have their own high speed and power system, and may use their
own acceleration system.
Air flow through the secondary barrels can be provided either by venturi
action or air velocity valves. Air velocity valves look like large choke plates located
in the secondary barrels. They are opened by the low pressure created in the
secondary barrels when the throttles are opened.
Four-barrel carburettor is used on V-8 engines. The primary barrel meets the
requirement of all eight cylinders during low-to-moderate speeds and loads. The
secondary barrels provide additional fuel and air flow for high speeds and heavy
loads.

Carburetor tunning
Lean mixture
Engine is using too much air and too little fuel.
Symptoms:
1. Reduced engine performance
2. Hard starting conditions
3. Engine runs better as it warms up

Rich mixture
Engine is using too much fuel and too little air.
Symptoms:
1. Reduced engine performance
2. Decrease miles per gallon
3. Excessive fuel smell
4. Engine is easy to start

TROUBLESHOOTING

1. Hard Cold Starting Problems

Hard starting can be caused by a choke that fails to close and causes a rich fuel
mixture when the engine is cold. But there's no need to rebuild or replace the

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carburetor if all that's needed is a simple adjustment or cleaning of the choke

mechanism and linkage. Chokes are very sensitive, and easily misadjusted.

If the shaft that opens and closes the choke is dirty, it may cause the choke to
stick. The same goes for the choke linkage if it is dirty or damaged.

Even if the choke is defective, a choke repair kit or a new bimetal spring should be
all that's necessary to eliminate the starting problem. Replacing the entire
carburetor is unnecessary and is the same as replacing the engine because the
water pump is bad.

2. Hard Hot Starting Problems

As for hot starting problems, the carburetor is seldom to blame. A hot start
condition is usually the result of too much heat in the vicinity of the carburetor,
fuel lines or fuel pump. Heat causes the fuel in the fuel lines, carburetor bowl or
pump to boil. This creates a "vapor lock" condition which can make a hot engine
hard to start. What needs to be done here is to reroute the fuel line away from
sources of heat (like the exhaust manifold and pipe), and/or to insulate the fuel
line by fabricating aheat shield or wrapping the fuel line with insulation.

Hot start problems can also be caused by excessive resistance in a starter, poor
battery cable connections, or a faulty ignition module that acts up when it
overheats.

3. Hesitation or Stumble When Accelerating

Hesitation is a classic symptom of a lean fuel mixture (too much air, not enough
fuel) and can be caused by a dirty or misadjusted carburetor, or one with a weak
accelerator pump or worn throttle shafts. Rebuilding or replacing the carburetor
may be necessary.

4. Hesitation Under Load

A hesitation, stumble or misfire that occurs when the engine is under load can be
caused by a faulty power valve inside the carburetor. A carburetor uses intake
vacuum to pull fuel through its metering circuits. As engine load increases and the
throttle opens wider, intake vacuum drops. Hesitation or misfiring under load can
also be caused by a weak ignition coil, or cracks in the coil or distributor cap, or
bad spark plug wires.

5. Stalling

An engine can stall if the idle speed is too low, the fuel mixture is too lean, won't
burn, stops flowing or the ignition system runs out of spark. Rebuilding or
replacing the carburetor won't eliminate this problem if stalling is ignition related
or due to a weak fuel pump, plugged fuel filter or fuel line, or bad gas (too much
water or alcohol).

A simple adjustment may be all that's needed to increase the idle speed or richen
the idle mixture. But if the engine is sucking air through a vacuum leak
somewhere, no amount of adjustment may totally eliminate the tendency to stall.
The vacuum leak must be found and fixed before accurate idle speed and mixture
adjustments will be possible.

6. Rough Idle

A rough idle condition is usually caused by an overly lean fuel mixture that results
in lean misfire. A common cause of idle problems is air leaks between the
carburetor and intake manifold (tighten the carburetor base bolts or replace the
gasket under the carburetor), air leaks in vacuum lines or the PCV system or EGR

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valve. Other carburetor-related causes include an idle mixture adjustment set too
lean (back out the idle mixture adjustment screw one quarter of a turn at a time
until he idle quality improves), or a dirty idle mixture circuit (which may require
cleaning and rebuilding the carburetor).

7. Flooding

This is a problem that is usually (but not always) the carburetor's fault. The
carburetor may flood if dirt enters the needle valve and prevents it from closing.
With no way to shut off the flow of fuel, the bowl overflows and spills fuel into the
carburetor throat or out the bowl vents. A flooded engine may not start because
the plugs are wet with fuel.

WARNING: Flooding can be a very dangerous situation because it creates a serious

fire hazard if fuel spills out of the carburetor onto a hot engine.

A carburetor can also flood if the float inside the fuel bowl is set too high or
develops a leak and sinks (this applies to hollow brass or plastic floats primarily).
If all that is needed is a new float, there is no real need to replace the entire
carburetor.

8. Idles Too Fast.

This type of idle problem usually caused by the automatic choke. If the choke is
sticking, the engine will stay at fast idle too long. Inspect the choke and choke
linkage, and clean or repair as needed.

A high idle speed can also be caused by vacuum leaks that allow air to enter the
manifold (leaky PCV hose, power steering booster hose or other large vacuum
hose). Another cause may be a defective ISC motor stuck in the extended (high
idle speed) position.

9. Poor Fuel Economy

Don't blame the carburetor if the real problem is a lead foot on the accelerator
pedal , or the engine has low compression, retarded ignition timing or an exhaust
restriction (plugged converter). But if nothing else is wrong, the carburetor may
have a misadjusted or heavy float, or the wrong metering jets (too large).

To diagnose this condition, the float level needs to be checked and the float
weighed to determine if it has become fuel saturated. If the float is heavy, it
needs to be replaced.

If the carburetor has been replaced recently with a used carburetor or a

carburetor off another engine, the jets may not be calibrated correctly for the
new application. Installing smaller sized jets may restore the proper air/fuel
mixture and good fuel economy.

A way to tell if the fuel mixture is too rich or too lean is to examine the spark
plugs. If the plugs have heavy black, sooty carbon deposits on the electrodes, the
fuel mixture is too rich. If the mixture is too lean, the ceramic insulator around
the center electrode may be yellowish or blistered in appearance.

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Lesson 2

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM


FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion
engine by atomizing the fuel through a small nozzle (fuel injector) under high
pressure created by the fuel pump.
In order for the engine to effectively make use of this fuel:

 Fuel must be injected at the proper time, that is, the injection timing must
be controlled and
 The correct amount of fuel must be delivered to meet power requirement,
that is, injection metering must be controlled.

Additional aspects are critical to ensure proper fuel injection system

performance including:

 Fuel atomization
 Bulk mixing
 Air utilization
How does a Fuel Injection System Works?
Fuel Injection System starts with a high pressure fuel pump, located inside
the fuel tank. Fuel is pumped from the tank, through a fuel filter, and to the

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injectors by way of a supply line. A fuel pressure regulator on the supply line
ensures the injectors get constant fuel pressure. When the fuel leaves the
injectors, the excess is returned to the tank by way of the return line. This closed
loop fuel supply guarantees a consistent spray and amount of fuel from each of the
injectors. The injector(s) either sprays the fuel directly into an engine cylinder for
burning or into a manifold where it is mixed with air, and drawn into the engine
cylinders for burning.

The electrical section of the Electronic Fuel Injection System consists of the
ECU, wiring and sensors. A wiring harness connects the injectors to the ECU and to
a power source {the battery}. The ECU is also connected to various sensors located
within the engine compartment. The ECU monitors engine conditions and the
position of the gas pedal in order to determine the correct amount of fuel that
needs to be sprayed from each injector.

needs to be sprayed from each injector.

The typical fuel injection system consists of 6 main parts and the sum of all
of these fuel injection parts takes the place of the carburetor. This consists of the
following
 Fuel Pump
 Fuel Pressure Regulator
 Fuel Injectors
 Engine Control Module/Unit – ECM or ECU
 Engine Sensors
 Wiring

Figure 3.1. Schematic diagram of a common Fuel Injection

System

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ENGINE CONTROL MODULE/UNIT – ECM or ECU

Figure 3.2. ECM

The engine control unit is central to an EFI system. The ECU interprets data
from input sensors to, among other tasks, calculate the appropriate amount of fuel
to inject.

The relative richness or leanness of the fuel mixture in a fuel injected

engine is determined by varying the duration of the injector pulses (called pulse
width). The longer the pulse width, the greater the volume of fuel delivered and
the richer the mixture.

The computer is calibrated with a fuel delivery program that is best

described as a three-dimensional map. The program directs the computer as to
how long to make the injector pulses as engine speed and load change. During
start-up, warm-up, acceleration and increased engine load, the map typically calls
for a richer fuel mixture. When the engine is cruising under light load, the map
allows for a leaner fuel mixture to improve fuel economy. And when the vehicle is
decelerating and there is no load on the engine, the map may allow the computer
to momentarily turn the injectors off altogether.

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The programming that controls the EFI system is contained on a PROM

(Program Read Only Memory) Figure 3.3.the

chip inside Sensors
engine computer. Replacing
the PROM chip can change the calibration of the EFI system. This is
sometimes necessary to update factory programming or to correct a
drivability or emissions problem. The PROM chip on some vehicles can
also be replaced with aftermarket performance chips to improve engine
performance, too. Determining how much fuel to supply

Electronic fuel injection requires inputs from various engine sensors so the
computer can determine engine speed, load and operating conditions. This allows
the computer to adjust the fuel mixture as needed for optimum engine operation.
The primary factor used in determining the amount of fuel required by the engine
is the amount (by weight) of air that is being taken in by the engine for use in
combustion. Data

Figure 3.4. MAF Sensor

representing the amount of power output desired by the driver (sometimes

known as "engine load") is also used by the engine control unit in calculating the
amount of fuel required.

Mechanical fuel injection

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Figure 3.5 Lucas mechanical fuel injection system

In the Lucas system, fuel from the tank is pumped at high pressure to a fuel
accumulator. From there it passes into the fuel distributor, which sends a burst of
fuel to each injector, from where it is fired into the inlet port.

The airflow is controlled by a flap valve which opens in response to the

accelerator pedal. As the airflow increases, the fuel distributor automatically
increases the flow of fuel to the injectors to keep the fuel/air mixture correctly
balanced.

For cold starting, a choke on the dash or, on later models, a microprocessor
control unit brings a special cold-start injector into operation, which injects extra
fuel to create a richer mixture. Once the engine has warmed up to a certain
temperature, a thermo switch automatically cuts off the cold-start injector.

Mechanical fuel injection was used in the 1960s and 1970s by many manufacturers
on their higher-performance sports cars and sports saloons. One type fitted to
many British cars, including the Triumph TR6 PI and 2500 PI, was the Lucas PI
system, which is a timed system.

A high-pressure electric fuel pump mounted near the fuel tank pumps fuel at a
pressure of 100psi up to a fuel accumulator. This is basically a short-
term reservoir that keeps the fuel-supply pressure constant and also irons out the
pulses of fuel coming up from the pump.

From the accumulator, the fuel passes through a paper element filter and then
feeds into the fuel-metering control unit, also known as the fuel distributor. This
unit is driven from the camshaft and its job, as the name suggests, is to distribute
the fuel to each cylinder, at the correct time and in the correct amounts.

The amount of fuel injected is controlled by a flap valve located in the engine's air
intake. The flap sits beneath the control unit and rises and falls in response to
airflow - as you open the throttle, the 'suck' from the cylinders increases the
airflow and the flap rises. This alters the position of a shuttle valve within the
metering control unit to allow more fuel to be squirted into the cylinders.

From the metering unit, the fuel is delivered to each of the injectors in turn. The
fuel then squirts out into the inlet port in the cylinder head. Each injector
contains a spring-loaded valve that is kept closed by its spring pressure. The valve
only opens when the fuel is squirted in.

For cold starting, you cannot just block off part of the airflow to enrich the
fuel/air mixture as you can with a carburetor. Instead a manual control on the

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dash (resembling a choke knob) or, on later models, a microprocessor alters the
position of the shuttle valve within the metering unit. This activates an extra
injector mounted in the manifold, causing it to squirt in extra fuel to enrich the
mixture.

Electronic injection systems

Figure 3.6 Bosch electronic fuel injection

An electronic system is operated entirely by a microprocessor control unit. This

measures factors such as the engine temperature, the throttle position and the
engine speed to compute the fuel/air mixture required by the engine and its
timing to the injectors.

The main difference between electronic injection and mechanical injection is that
an electronic system is controlled by a complex microprocessor control unit
(sometimes called an electronic control unit or ECU), which is basically a
miniature computer.

This computer is fed with information from sensors mounted on the engine. These
measure factors such as the air pressure and temperature in the air intake, the
engine temperature, accelerator position and engine speed. All this information
allows an electronic system to meter the fuel far more accurately than the simple
mechanical system, which relies on sensing the airflow alone.

The computer compares the input signals from the sensors with information
already programmed into it at the factory, and works out exactly how much fuel
should be delivered to the engine. It then signals the on-off valve ig the injector to
open and squirt fuel into the inlet port. All this happens in a fraction of a second,
the control unit responding instantly to changes in accelerator position,
temperature and air pressure.

As well as improved control over fuel flow, the electronic system also operates at
lower pressure than a mechanical system - usually at around 25-30psi. This makes
it run more quietly than a mechanical system does.

A typical system is the Bosch LJetronic, which is fitted to a wide range of

European cars. In this system, fuel is drawn from the tank by an electric pump. It
is then fed straight up pipes to the injectors. The system pumps more fuel than is
needed for injection - a loop circuit returns the excess to the fuel tank via
a pressure regulator which keeps the pressure in the pipes constant.

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The injector valves are held closed by springs, and opened

by solenoids (electromagnets) when signaled to do so by the control unit. The
amount of fuel injected depends on how long the solenoid holds the injector open.

Fuel Injection Parts and its Function

Fuel Injector

The fuel injector is a valve that opens to spray pressurized fuel directly into
the engine. The engine control unit determines the appropriate amount of fuel
needed to create the optimal fuel to air ratio, and it opens the fuel injector just
long enough to allow that precise amount of fuel to escape. The duration that the
fuel injector is open is called the pulse width. Individual injectors open
independently in a sequential fuel injection system. In batch fire systems, people
can signal the injectors to open at the same time.

Sensors

Here are some of the sensors inside a typical fuel injection system. These sensors
measure everything from oxygen amounts to the position of the throttle. They can even tell
the engine control unit to adapt the tuning of the engine to accommodate different grades of
fuel.

Sensor Function
Airflow Determines the mass of air entering the engine
Sensor
Coolant Tells ECU when the engine is at optimum
Temperature Sensor operating temperature
Oxygen Determines amount of oxygen in exhaust, adjusts
Sensor accordingly
Throttle Monitors position of throttle valve and adjusts
Position Sensor fuel rate based on reading
Manifold Monitors pressure of air coming into the engine to
Absolute Pressure gauge amount of power being produced
Sensor
Engine Speed Senses engine speed, which helps determine how
Sensor long to keep fuel injectors open to dispense fuel

Wiring Harness

All of the various sensor wires are neatly organized and bundled together
with a wiring harness. Most of the time, the wires are labeled for easy
identification in case they ever become disconnected. The harness helps to keep
all of the wires secure to avoid damage and provides a single connection point to
the ECU. People also use wiring harnesses in alarm systems and car stereo systems.

Fuel Pump

The fuel pump transfers fuel from inside the fuel tank into the workings of
the fuel injection system. In most modern vehicles, the fuel pump is electric. It is
located inside the fuel tank. When the fuel pump engages, it pumps the fuel
through the fuel rail, also called the common rail. It is a metal pipe with openings
for each individual fuel injector to connect to transfer fuel from the fuel tank to
the fuel injectors. Fuel rails have a pocket or seat for each injector as well as an
inlet for a fuel supply. Multi point, multi port, and some batch fire fuel injection

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systems have fuel rails. Some multi point systems use a fuel distributor with
individual pipes or tubes to feed each injector instead of a fuel rail.

Fuel Pressure Regulator

The fuel pressure regulator is essential for maintaining the proper pressure
inside the fuel injection system. If there is too much or too little pressure, it can
lead to an imbalance in the fuel to air ratio, which reduces performance.

Advantages and Disadvantages between Carburetors and Fuel Injection System

CARBURETORS
•Less expensive
•Easier to install and repair
•More power

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

 Reduced fuel consumption
 Exhaust emissions are cleaner
 No need for frequent tune

TYPES OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

1. Multipoint Port Fuel Injection (MPFI)
Multiport fuel injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each
cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold.

Figure 3.7. Multipoint Port Fuel Injection

Types of Multipoint Port Fuel Injection

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 Sequential- in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's

intake stroke
 Batched- in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise
synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke
Simultaneous- in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinder

 cylinder

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2. THROTTLE BODY INJECTION SYSTEM

The throttle body injection (TBI) system uses one or two injector valves
mounted in a throttle body assembly. The injectors spray fuel into the top
of the throttle body air horn The TBI fuel spray mixes with the air flowing
through the air horn. The mixture is then pulled into the engine by intake
manifold vacuum.
The throttle body injection assembly typically consists of the following:
throttle body housing, fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, throttle
positioner, throttle position sensor, and throttle plates.

Figure 3.8. Throttle Body Injection

TBI Fuel Injection Advantages

• It is less expensive than using other types of fuel injection systems.

• It is easier to clean, maintain and service because there are fewer parts.

• It is cheaper to manufacture than a port injection system and simpler to

diagnose. It also does not have the same level of injector balance problems
that a port injection system might have when the injectors are clogged.

• It greatly improves the fuel metering compared to a carburetor.

• You do not have to make any changes to the TBI intake manifold. You also
do not have to change the throttle linkage. Instead, use the existing
linkage, air cleaners and carbs to install the system.

• It is also capable of logging data and can be programmed for ignition and
fuel. The TBI system is that it learns and understands your habits when
driving so it can easily map out your actions and the performance of the
engine.

TBI Fuel Injection Disadvantages

• It is almost the same as a TBI carburetor wherein the fuel is not equally
distributed to all the cylinders. This means that the air/fuel mixture
injected differs for each cylinder.

• It can cool the manifold much faster causing the fuel to puddle and
condense in the manifold. The possibility of condensation is much higher

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since the fuel travels longer from the throttle body to the combustion
chamber.

• Since the system needs to be mounted on top of the combustion chamber,

you're prevented from modifying the manifold design to improve your car's
performance.

• It is a wet system and the mixture of fuel is still based per cylinder.

3. Continuous Injection System (CIS)

Is an independent mechanical system. The basic operating principle is to
continuously inject fuel into the intake side of the engine by means of an electric
pump. The amount of fuel delivered is metered by an air flow measuring device .
Basic Operation
Metering is done through a mixture control unit. This unit consist of an airflow
sensor and a special fuel distributor with fuel lines running to all injectors. A
control plunger in the fuel distributor is mechanically linked to the airflow sensor
plate by means of a lever. As the airflow sensor measures the volume of engine
intake air, its plate moves. The lever transfers this motion to the control plunger
in the fuel distributor. The plunger moves up or down changing the size of the fuel
metering openings in the fuel.

Figure 3.10. Continuous Injection System

4. CENTRAL PORT INJECTION

This system is very similar to the standard multi-port injection system. The main
difference lies in the location and construction of the fuel injector(s). Instead of
an injector positioned at each intake manifold port, the injector(s) are centrally
located in the intake manifold plenum assembly (hence the name central multi-
port).

Figure 3.11.Actual central point injection

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Figure 3.14. Cadillac Escapade

Figure 3.12. Central Port Injection

DIRECT AND INDIRECT FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Direct Fuel Injection System is a fuel-delivery technology that allows gasoline
engines to burn fuel more efficiently, resulting in more power, cleaner emissions,
and increased fuel economy.
How direct fuel injection works
1. In Gasoline engines work by sucking a mixture of gasoline and air into a
cylinder, compressing it with a piston, and igniting it with a spark; the
resulting explosion drives the piston downwards, producing power.
2. In Diesel engines, virtually all diesel engines use direct fuel
injection. However, because diesels use a different process to
combust their fuel (gasoline engines compress a mixture of gasoline
and air and ignite it with a spark; diesels compress air only, then
spray in fuel which is ignited by the heat and pressure), their
injection systems differ in design and operation from gasoline
direct fuel injection systems.

Two positions of Direct Injection System

Wall-guided Direct Injection System

Spray-guided Direct Injection System

Advantages of direct fuel injection

Combined with ultra-precise computer management, direct injection allows more
accurate control over fuel metering (the amount of fuel injected) and injection
timing (exactly when the fuel is introduced into the cylinder). The location of the
injector also allows for a more optimal spray pattern that breaks the gasoline up
into smaller droplets. The result is more complete combustion.
Disadvantages of direct fuel injection
Figure 3.17.ofSpray
The primary disadvantages Guided
direct Direct Injection
injection engines are complexity and cost.
Direct injection systems are more expensive to build because their components
must be more rugged.

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Indirect (traditional) fuel injection systems pre-mix the gasoline and air in a
chamber just outside the cylinder called the intake manifold. In a direct-injection
system, the air and gasoline are not pre-mixed; air comes in via the intake
manifold, while the gasoline is injected directly into the cylinder.

Indirect and Direct Fuel Injection Systems

The main difference between Direct and Indirect Injection is the layout of the
injection system, the Indirect Injection System actually has a small swirl chamber
above the cylinder, where the fuel is injected, this chamber also contains the glow
plug, which is much needed to start the engine, the Direct Injection system has
the injection nozzle actually fixed to the top of the combustion chamber, usually
the piston on the engine with this type of injection system has a crown shape in
the top to create the needed swirl, the diagrams below show the difference
between both systems.

The Advantages of an ‘Indirect Injection’ system compared to ‘Direct Injection’

are:
 High rate of swirl over wide range of engine speeds
 Does not require expensive, ultra high pressure injection system
 Less chance of injector blockage due to self-cleaning pintle injectors

The Disadvantages of an ‘Indirect Injection’ System compared to ‘Direct

Injection’ are:
 Poorer fuel consumption due to lower thermal efficiency
 Higher compression ratio required to aid starting

Direct and Indirect Injection Cycle

Induction, the descending piston increases the cylinder volume and decreases the
pressure. Atmospheric pressure forces air through the open inlet port in the
cylinder.
Compression, both valves are closed and so the ascending piston compresses and
raises the temperature of the air.
Power, just before TDC (Top Dead Centre), fuel oil, having an ignition
temperature of 400 degrees Celsius, is injected into the cylinder at a high
pressure. After a short delay, the fuel begins to burn and liberates heat which
raises the pressure, providing the thrust necessary for the power stroke.
Exhaust, as the piston nears the end of the power stroke, the exhaust port is
opened. The ascending piston pumps out the burnt gas in readiness for the new
cycle.

DIESEL AND GASOLINE INJECTION SYSTEM

Diesel fuel injection system:
Unlike gasoline engines, diesel engines do not have a spark plug. In these engines,
the air is already present in the combustion chamber and is compressed. Since no
spark plug is present to produce spark, the heated air will ignite the fuel that is
injected into the combustion chamber with high pressure. In order to withstand
high pressure, fuel injectors of the system are built sturdier compared to that of
fuel injectors of the gasoline fuel injection system. Some of the diesel engine cars
have glow plugs.
When the car is idle for a long time or put in cold weather conditions, the
temperatures of the cylinders and combustion chambers will be very low. In such
situations, the air in the combustion chamber will not get heated enough for
ignition. Glow plugs help in warming up and increasing the temperatures of the
cylinders and combustion chambers, creating the ideal condition for ignition.
The diesel fuel injection system consists of:
 fuel injection pump - pressurizes fuel to high pressure
 high-pressure pipe - sends fuel to the injection nozzle

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 injection nozzle - injects the fuel into the cylinder

 feed pump – sucks fuel from the fuel tank
 fuel filter - filtrates the fuel

Function of Diesel Fuel Injection System:

The fuel injection system lies at the very heart of the diesel engine. By
pressurizing and injecting the fuel, the system forces it into air that has been
compressed to high pressure in the combustion chamber.

The diesel fuel injection system has four main functions:

1. Feeding fuel
Pump elements such as the cylinder and plunger are built into the injection pump
body. The fuel is compressed to high pressure when the cam lifts the plunger, and
is then sent to the injector.
2. Adjusting fuel quantity
In diesel engines the intake of air is almost constant, irrespective of the rotating
speed and load. If the injection quantity is changed with the engine speed and the
injection timing is constant, the output and fuel consumption change. Since the
engine output is almost proportional to the injection quantity, this is adjusted by
the accelerator pedal.
3. Adjusting injection timing
Ignition delay is the period of time between the point when the fuel is injected,
ignited and combusted and when maximum combustion pressure is reached. As this
period of time is almost constant, irrespective of engine speed, a timer is used to
adjust and change injection timing.
4. Atomizing fuel
When fuel is pressurized by the injection pump and then atomized from the
injection nozzle, it mixes thoroughly with air, thus improving ignition. The result is
complete combustion.

Gasoline fuel injection system

In a gasoline engine, the fuel injection system injects a homogenous mixture of
fuel and air into the combustion chamber through the fuel injector. The mixture is
then compressed by the piston which moves up and down in the chamber to
pressurize the air and fuel mixture.
The pressurized mixture is then ignited by the spark that is produced by the spark
plug. In gasoline engines, the fuel is not injected with high pressure because the
fuel has to mix with air in the fuel valve before getting injected into the chamber.

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The gasoline fuel injection system consists of:

 fuel injection pump - pressurizes fuel to high pressure
 high-pressure pipe - sends fuel to the injection nozzle
 injection nozzle - injects the fuel into the cylinder
 feed pump – sucks fuel from the fuel tank
 fuel filter - filtrates the fuel
 spark plug- produces spark to ignite the air/fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber

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Lesson 3

 FUEL INJECTORS

FUEL INJECTORS
It is a device for actively injecting fuel into an internal-combustion engines
by directly forcing the liquid fuel into the combustion chamber at an appropriate
point in the piston cycle.
In either case, on command from the engine’s onboard computer, each
injector opens and delivers a fine and precisely metered spray of fuel.
Most fuel pressure regulator maintains a fuel pressure of between 36 and
43.5 psi over the intake manifold pressure. Fuel pressure can be raised to increase
the rate of fuel flow but this should not exceed 60 psi in most cases. It takes 4
times the fuel pressure to double fuel flow.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE INJECTOR

1. Precise Fuel Metering

The fuel injector meters the fuel precisely. Therefore, no fuel is wasted.
The result of such precise metering is increased power, lower emissions and
lower fuel consumption. The right amount of fuel is squirted into the
combustion chamber or throttle body. Excess fuel goes back to the fuel
tank.

2. Maximum Airflow

The fuel injector also frees the intake system for maximum airflow. The
accelerator pedal is not necessarily a gas pedal. It controls the position of
the throttle plate. The airflow is increased or decreased depending upon
the accelerator's position.

3. Atomization

Fuel injectors atomized or they inject a fine spray of fuel.

TYPES OF FUEL INJECTORS

Based on Nozzle:
Pintle Fuel Injector
This is the most common type. A tapered needle sits on a tapered seat.
When the solenoid is energized, the core and needle is pulled back, allowing the
fuel to discharge.

Disc Fuel Injector

The disc type uses the same as the pintle type but replaces the pintle with
a flat disc and a plate with tiny holes. These work fine with a good spray pattern
but are slightly more prone to deposits plugging the holes.

Ball or Hole Fuel Injector

These use a ball and socket arrangement. These have excellent atomization
and a wide spray pattern but are also prone to partial plugging by varnish deposits.

SYMPTOMS OF INJECTORS THAT REQUIRES SERVICE

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1. Failed emission
2. Performance lost
3. Increased fuel consumption
4. Poor idle
5. Surging a bucking under light throttle
6. Smoke from the tail pipe
7. Detonation which can lead to catastrophic engine failure
8. Pollution

Diesel and Gasoline Fuel Injectors

Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine,
most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector.
A. Diesel Fuel Injector

 Injector Assembly

1. Needle Valve

- type of valve having a small port , it allows precise regulation of

flow of fuel going to the combustion chamber.
2. Nozzle

- diesel injector nozzles are spring-loaded closed valves that spray

fuel directly into the combustion chamber.
3. Compression Spring

- is an elastic coil, made of spring steel - its spring characteristic is

that it absorbs force or provides resistance.
4. Spindle

- hold the needle in the body.

5. Nozzle Holder/Injector Body

- allow for mounting the injector in the engine and some methods
adjusting the spring force applied to the needle valve.

 How it works?

For the engine to run smoothly and efficiently, it needs to be provided with
the right quantity of fuel/air mixture according to its wide range of demands.
Many diesel engines, however, use direct injection in which the diesel is
injected directly into the cylinder filled with compressed air. Others use indirect
injection in which the diesel fuel is injected into the specially shaped pre-
combustion chamber which has a narrow passage connecting it to the cylinder
head.
Only air is drawn into the cylinder. It is heated so much by compression that
atomized fuel injected at the end of the compression stroke self-ignites.
The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been
the subject of a great deal of experimentation -- in any particular engine, it may
be located in a variety of places. The injector has to be able to withstand the
temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine
mist.
 Mechanical Type and Electrical Type Diesel Fuel Injector and their Parts

Two main types of injector can be fitted, depending on whether the

injection system is mechanically or electronically controlled.

 Mechanical Type

High fuel pushes the valve overcoming the spring that holds the valve, and
when pressure fall, the spring quickly goes back to its initial position that closed

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the hole. In a mechanical system, the injector is spring-loaded into the closed
position and is opened by fuel pressure.

Figure 4.1 Mechanical type Diesel Fuel Injector

 Electrical Type

When the Engine Control Unit (ECU) send electricity to the injector, the
magnets energizes and pulls the valve, when the magnets turn off, a spring shut
the valve. The injector in an electronic system is also held closed by a spring, but
is opened by an electromagnet built into the injector body. The electronic control
unit determines how long the injector stays open.

Figure 4.2 Electrical type Diesel Fuel Injector

 Cars using Diesel Fuel Injector

1. Ford Ranger Model 2016 - EFI

2. Mostly new models of car – EFI
3. Hyundai Starex Old Model- MFI

B. Gasoline Fuel Injector

 Parts of gasoline fuel injector

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Figure 4.3 Parts of Gasoline Injector

1. O-rings
 The upper o- ring seals the injector to the fuel rail.
 The lower o- ring seals the injector to the intake manifold.

2. Fuel filter basket

 It prevents debris from clogging the pintle and seat. Functions as a
second line of defense for filtering dirt from the fuel.

3. Injector body

 The case that holds the internal parts in place. This is a sealed unit
and the parts inside cannot be replaced.

4. Pintle

 A finely machined part that normally sits down on the seat to prevent
fuel from passing through the injector. When lifted away from the
seat, the fuel is allowed to pass. The pintle usually moves a few
thousands of an inch. This is why it is important to keep fuel system
cleaned and maintained.

5. Pintle seat

 This is a precision machined surface that is matched to the pintle.

The design and size of the seat and the pintle determines the spray
pattern and flow rates.

6. Pintle cap

 Holds the lower o- ring in place and insulates the seat from the
engine heat. It also protects the pintle from damage while the
injector is removed.

7. Coil Winding

 A fuel injector is a electrical-mechanical valve that uses magnetic

field from its coil winding when current is applied and pulls the metal
pintle back away from its seat to allow fuel to flow. A spring returns
the pintle to the closed position when no electrical current is
flowing.

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 How does it work?

The function of a fuel injector is to spray atomized fuel into the combustion
chamber of an internal combustion engine. A fuel injector is an electronically
controlled valve that is supplied with pressurized fuel from the fuel pump. It opens
and closes very quickly (many times a second) to control the amount of fuel
delivered.
The amount of time an injector is turned on and spraying fuel is measured
in milliseconds and the on/off time is called the duty cycle. Duty cycle is
measured as a percent, so 50% duty cycle indicates that the injector is held open
and held closed for an equal amount of time. When the engine needs more fuel,
the time that the injector stays on (its duty cycle) increases, so that more fuel can
flow into the engine.
When the injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a plunger that
opens the valve, allowing the pressurized fuel to squirt out through a very tiny
nozzle. The nozzle is designed to atomize the fuel -- to make as fine a mist as
possible so that it can burn easily.
The amount of fuel supplied to the engine is determined by the amount of
time the fuel injector stays open. This is called the pulse width, and it is
controlled by the Engine Control Module.
 Cars using Gasoline Fuel Injector

1. Mitsubishi
2. Toyota Vios
3. Honda Civic and other available in the Philippines

progressively heating the oil-vapour-air-mixture in a standard laboratory

receptacle until the mixture ignite.

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Lesson 4

 FUEL INJECTION CONTROL

STRATEGIES

FUEL INJECTION CONTROL STRATEGIES OF DIESEL ENGINES

The modern electronic fuel injection system is known to keep the emission levels
within limits without compromising the performance of the engine and will
continue to play a vital role in the development of improved diesel engines for the
foreseeable future.

 INJECTION PRESSURE
-This strategy controls the spray penetration and improves fuel atomization by
higher injection pressure.

 INJECTION RATE SHAPING

-Fuel injection rate shaping is a phenomenon to vary the injection rate over
the course of a single fuel injection.
-To control the injection rate, the parameters like injection pressure, spray
hole diameter, number of spray holes and injection duration must be optimized.

 SPLIT OR MULTIPLE INJECTIONS

- In split or multiple injections there are one or two pilot injections at low
pressure help in reducing engine noise as well as NOx emissions.
- But nowadays, high pressure common rail fuel injection systems allows a
very high degree of flexibility in the timing and quantity control of multiple
injections, which can be used to obtain significant reductions in engine
noise and emissions without compromising its performance and fuel
consumption.

2 Modes of Split/Multiple Injection

• First mode uses a pilot + main injection strategy
• Second mode uses a main + post injection strategy

Pilot + Main injection strategy

• This split injection strategy can be implemented by injecting a small
amount of fuel prior to main injection.
• According to research, this strategy made the start of combustion (SOC)
occur more quickly because the first injected fuel prepares the air-fuel
mixture condition to ignite earlier. It is found that as the pilot injection
timing advanced, the ignition delay shortened. This is to advance the SOC.
Main + Post injection Strategy
• This injection strategy means that a small amount of fuel is injected
separately at the end of combustion.
• This increased the activation of the late combustion cycle, showing that the
PM emissions can be oxidized by post injection. However, PM emission may
increase if some of the post-injected fuel is included in the diffusion of
flame.

FUEL RAIL
A fuel rail is a thick- walled cylindrical metal pipe used to deliver high
pressure fuel to individual fuel injectors .The fuel rail is part of the fuel injection
system in your car; it runs parallel to and at a short distance from the engine
block. The fuel pressure in the fuel rail is controlled by the high

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pressure fuel pump and the fuel pressure sensor . The fuel rail must be strong
enough to contain fuel under pressure without breaking and provide a steady
supply of fuel to all the injectors.

What Does the Fuel Rail Have to Do With the Motor?

In electronic fuel injection, or EFI, systems, each injector is opened and
closed by a solenoid, itself controlled by the vehicle’s onboard electronics.
Because the gas or diesel in the fuel rail is under pressure, it sprays out from the
injector when the valve opens, entering the combustion chamber.
Because there are no moving parts inside a fuel rail, there is no regular
service procedure. In common with most parts of the fuel system, however, the
fuel rail can become contaminated either by dirt drawn from the fuel tank or by
varnish. Varnish is a deposit that forms from decomposing fuel after only a few
months of disuse; cheaper grades of gas varnish more quickly than premium
grades. That said, because the nozzles in the injectors are much smaller than the
diameter of the fuel rail, contamination is more likely to occur there. Because
contamination can restrict the flow of fuel, the end result can be lean operation
or -- in extremely advanced cases -- stalling. Increasingly poor engine performance
is the usual indicator that cleaning is required; idle becomes rough, and fuel
economy decreases.

What are the devices attached on the Fuel rail?

1. Pressure sensor
2. Pressure control valve
3. Injectors

Figure 6.8. Parts of Fuel Rail

1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel filter
3. Pre-filter
4. Electric Fuel Pump
5. High pressure fuel rail (common
rail)
6. Rail pressure sensor
7. Solenoid valve injector
8. Pressure control valve
9. High-pressure pump

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What is CRI?
The CRI or Common Rail Injection system mechanism is consisting of three
major areas.
1. High pressure pump
2. Fuel rail
3. Injectors
The CRI is divided into two pressure side; first there is the low pressure
side of the system containing the fuel supply components. This normally
features an electric fuel pump in the fuel tank or in the fuel line. This pump
takes in fuel from the tank through a pre-filter and sends it to the high-
pressure pump typically at about 6 bar pressure. The electric fuel pump
switches on when you turn on the ignition key.
The next phase is the high pressure side of the mechanism starting with
the high-pressure pump. This pump is run by the engine and maintains a
specified fuel pressure which is independent of the engine speed and the
quantity of fuel being injected into the cylinders. This pressure generation
process is isolated from the fuel injection process by a fuel rail (the Common
Rail) which holds the pressurized fuel and feeds it into all the injectors
depending upon the requirement of each injector. The rail has a pressure
sensor and a pressure control valve attached to it. When the sensor picks up
higher pressure in the rail than what is specified by the engine ECU (Electronic
Control Unit), the valve opens and lets some fuel back into the low-pressure
side until desired pressure is reached again.
A fuel rail, technically known as a common rail, is essentially a pipe
(usually resembling a rail) used to deliver fuel to individual fuel
injectors on internal combustion engines. It is designed to have a pocket or
seat for each injector as well as an inlet for a fuel supply. Some fuel rails also
incorporate an attached fuel pressure regulator. Fuel rails are used on engines
with multi-point fuel injection systems, although some multi-point systems use
a fuel distributor with individual pipes or tubes to feed each injector.

Advantages:
 fuel pressure available on demand
 higher injection pressures and fine atomization of fuel
 injection pressure created independent engine speed
 multiple injection per cylinder is possible

Benefits:
 reduction of over-all exhaust emissions
 reduction of particulate emissions
 reduction of noise emissions
 Improved fuel efficiency

THROTTLE BODY ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

A throttle body is the part of the air intake system in fuel injected automobiles
that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine, in response to driver
accelerator pedal input. When the driver presses on the accelerator pedal, the
throttle plate rotates within the throttle body, opening the throttle passage to
allow more air into the intake manifold. The largest piece inside the throttle
body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that regulates the airflow.
A butterfly valve is a valve which can be used for isolating or regulating flow.

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PARTS OF A THROTTLE BODY

Figure 7.1 Throttle Body

a. Throttle Pedal (Gas Pedal)
b. Throttle Valve
c. Throttle Position Sensor (TPS)
d. Map Sensor
e. Idle Air Control (IAC)

Figure 7.2 Location of the Throttle Body in the Engine

The throttle body is usually located between the air filter box and the
intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near, the mass airflow sensor.
In a carburetted engine, it is found in the carburettor.

Operation of Throttle Body

Filtered air from the air cleaner enters the intake manifold through the
throttle body. The throttle body contains an air control passage controlled by
an Idle Air Control (IAC) motor. The air control passage is used to supply air for
idle conditions. A throttle valve (plate) is used to supply air for above idle
conditions.

Certain sensors are attached to the throttle body. The accelerator pedal
cable, speed control cable and transmission control cable (when equipped) are
connected to the throttle body linkage arm.

A set of screw is used to mechanically limit the position of the throttle

body plate. Never attempt to adjust the engine idle speed using this screw. All
idle speed functions are controlled by the Power train Control Module (PCM). A
power-train control module, abbreviated PCM, is an automotive component, a
control unit, used on motor vehicles. It is generally a combined control unit,
consisting of the engine control unit (ECU) and the transmission control unit
(TCU).

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A throttle body also contains a secondary air channel known as the idle
air control (IAC) circuit. The IAC contains a valve that allows the computer to
precisely meter air at idle, which can be important under extremely hot or cold
conditions. Additionally, the throttle body may contain a servo to open or
control the throttle. Such servos work in concert with the computer’s traction
control (TC) system. If the computer detects wheel spin or power sliding, it will
close the throttle plate somewhat to counteract this.

Throttle Body Configuration and their Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Single Throttle Body

Most vehicles come from the factory with a single throttle body primarily due
to cost concerns. In a single throttle body design, air rushes into the intake
manifolds plenum when the throttle is opened.

Figure 7.3 Single Throttle Body

Advantages:
- Useful on off-road vehicles
- Better cold starting
- Better reliability

2. Individual Throttle Bodies

In a vehicle equipped with individual throttle bodies, the plenum if equipped,

remains full of air whether the throttle is opened or closed. Because of this
pre-filled state, there is no wait when the throttle is opened, and air rushes
directly into the engine, resulting in a crisp and responsive throttle.

Figure 7.4 Individual Throttle Bodies

Advantages:
- Provides more accurate fuel metering and response.
- Better throttle response and full throttle power

Disadvantages:

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- Sensitive to tune
- Won’t work on turbo car

THROTTLE BODY DESIGN

TYPES:
 Twin Bodies
- Are the most straight forward solution for production engines,
Direct-to-head where available, or via a suitable manifold.

Figure 7.5 Twin Bodies

 Direct-to-Head-Bodies
- Represent the simplest and neatest solution. They are harder to
match to the inlet ports, if this is required for the engine in
question, but have the advantage of being angled for best results,
unlike a carburetor manifold.

Figure 7.6 Direct to Head Bodies

What is the best Throttle Body Diameter?
Factors influencing size are; power output, rpm, cylinder head design,
cylinder capacity, position of the throttle body in the inlet tract, and position
of the injector. Choice of bore size, or diameter, is a balanced compromise
resulting from the following:
1. A larger bore leads to lower flow resistance, but obeys the laws of
diminishing returns.
2. A smaller bore leads to better throttle control and response and
improved fuel mixing.
3. The system should be considered, in total, from the trumpet flange to
valve head.
4. Proportioned accordingly, but never undersized.

Basic reference for BHP (Bore Hp) per cylinder assuming a 120mm (4.725”)
length, from the butterfly to valve head, and a max of 9,000 rpm.

HP/C SIZE HP/C SIZE HP/C SIZE HP/C SIZE

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0-30 30mm 39-46 38mm 56-65 45mm 80-87 52mm

30-33 32mm 46-51 40mm 65-74 48mm 87-93 54mm
33-39 35mm 51-56 42mm 74-80 50mm 93-up 56mm

These powers figures may be increased by up to 10% in a purpose

designed and well-proportioned system. As butterfly to valve distance
increases, butterfly size will need to increase in proportion to system taper and
vice versa. Lower revving engines, and those with injectors placed before the
butterfly, will generally accept a larger body.

What is the correct overall system length?

Induction length is one of the most important aspects of fueling
performance engines. Experiences show an under-length system is the greatest
cause of disappointment, with losses up to 1/3 of power potential. There are a
number of good books on the subject and the serious developer is referred to
these and in particular, dyne trials.
A guide figure, from the face of the trumpet to the center of the valve
head, is 350mm (13.78”) for a 9,000 rpm engine. Other Rpm’s are proportional
(for 18,000 RPM the figure is 175mm). Any air feed system to an air box or
filter can have a large effect on the power curve and must be considered
carefully, particularly if the air box is small. The induction system is part of a
resonant whole, from air inlet or trumpet to exhaust outlet, and the ideal
length is heavily influenced by the other components.

What is the best position for the butterfly?

The butterfly is an important aid to fuel mixing. When positioned too
close to the valve this advantage will be lost whilst positioning far away may
lead to a loss of response.As with the injector position, higher Rpm demands a
larger butterfly to valve distance. A practical minimum figure for a 7-9,000
RPM engine is 200mm, whilst the maximum is dictated by the need to fit an
horn of reasonable length to achieve good overall tract shape. One solution to
this apparent compromise is the use of bodies with fully-tapered bores, which ,
in effect, extend the trumpet distance beyond the butterfly and into the
manifold.
For very high speeds above approximately 15,000 RPM, the ideal
butterfly position is only just inside, or even outside the trumpet and a point is
reached where a taper is no longer sufficient for good tract shape. For these
circumstances we can supply bodies with the exponential trumpet shape
machined into them as a special service, or barrel bodies which, by their
nature, must be purpose-designed in conjunction with the cylinder head.

Where is the best place for the injectors?

Where one injector is to be used per cylinder the best compromised
position is immediately downstream if the butterfly. This gains maximum
advantage from local turbulences and gives results surprisingly close to the
optimum at both ends of the rev-range. This is the recommended position for
most applications.
For performances at low RPM, economy and emissions the injector needs
to be close to the valve and firing at the back of the valve head. This is the
favored position for production vehicles.
For higher RPM (very approximately 8000 +) the injector needs to be
near the intake end of the induction tract to give adequate mixing time
opportunity. The higher the RPM, the further upstream the injector needs to
be. As a result, use of speeds above approximately 11,000 RPM my give best
results with the injector mounted outside the inlet tract together (see our
remote injector mounting).
It is common to fit both lower and upper injectors in such a system to
cover starting at low RPM, as well as high speeds.

THROTTLE BODY SIZE

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To calculate throttle body size with bore, stroke and number of cylinders:

To calculate throttle body size by engine displacement in cubic inches:

To calculate throttle body size by engine displacement in cubic liters

The equation above give the best throttle body size for overall performance on
the street. For race applications, add 15%.
Since the velocity of the air is limited to the speed of sound, which is 767.8
mph or 67547 fpm, a throttle body which is t small could limit air flow in the
engine.
If throttle body size is too large for a particular engine, the air will move too
slowly and reduce power.

Throttle Body Maintenance

Importance of the Throttle Body Service

Careful and regular throttle body service will keep the emissions from the
engine’s exhaust system in check. There is also increased sound when the
throttle is applied by way of the accelerator. If the vehicle is operated at lower
speeds, there is less noise coming from the engine. However, at higher speeds,
the engine tends to become very noisy. These two statement makes the
throttle body service important in itself, as it makes the automobile more
environmentally friendly. A complete throttle body service is recommended
every 15,000, 40,000, and 75,000 miles to be sure that the automobile is
functioning properly.

Understanding the symptoms of a dirty throttle body

A dirty throttle body typically restricts the flow of air and fuel into the engine.
This can result in symptoms that can impact the overall operation of your
vehicle. Some of the more common warning signs that you have a dirty throttle
body that requires cleaning may include the following:

The engine idle is rough: Typically, a dirty throttle body also impacts
the way the engine idles. This is commonly due to the excess of carbon build-
up on the throttle blades on the throttle body or on the body housing. The only
way to remove this carbon build up is to physically clean the throttle body.

Engine stumbles through acceleration: Most of the time, when the

throttle body is dirty or clogged with excess carbon, the fuel flow and engine
harmonics are negatively impacted. When an engine accelerates, it is tuned to
increase RPM at a rate that applies engine horsepower efficiently to supporting
systems, like the transmission and drive axles. When the throttle body is dirty,
this harmonic tuning is rough and the engine stumbles as it goes through the
power band.

The vehicle has trouble shifting into higher gears: A dirty fuel
injection system typically impacts the shifting of the vehicle first. Today's
engines are extremely fine-tuned and frequently monitored by on-board
sensors and computer systems. When the throttle body is dirty, it lowers the
engine RPM band, causing the engine to stumble and delay the time that the
vehicle is supposed to shift into a higher gear.

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Cleaning the throttle body

Step 1: Remove the battery cables. Always remove the battery cables from
the battery terminals before you remove any other components.

Step 2: Remove the air filter cover, mass air flow sensor, and intake tube.
Remove the clips holding the air filter housing onto the base.

Remove the connection or clips securing the mass air flow sensor to the lower
intake hose.

Step 3: Remove the air intake hose from the throttle body. Once the other
air intake hoses have been loosened, you'll need to take the air intake hose
connection off the throttle body.

Typically, this connection is secured by a hose clamp. Loosen the hose clamp
until the intake hose slips off the outer lip of the throttle body.

Step 4: Remove complete air intake housing from the vehicle. After all the
connections are loose, you'll need to remove the entire air intake housing from
the engine compartment.

Place it aside for now, but keep it handy since you'll need to reinstall it after
the throttle body has been cleaned.

Step 5: Replace the air filter. Most of the time, the issues that are caused by a
dirty throttle body may also be due to a dirty air filter.

It's a good idea to install a new air filter anytime you clean the throttle body.
This ensures that your engine has the opportunity to run at full efficiency once
the cleaning job is done. Check your vehicle service manual for the
recommended replacement air filter.

Step 6: Cleaning your throttle body.

Spray throttle body cleaner inside the throttle body intake: before
you start to clean the throttle body with the rag, you want to completely spray
the throttle body blades and the housing with plenty of throttle body cleaner.

Let the cleaner soak in for a minute or two. Spray throttle body
cleaner on a clean shop rag and clean the inside of the throttle body. Start by
cleaning the inner housing and wipe the rag along the entire surface.

Open the throttle blades with the throttle control. Wipe the inside and
outside of the throttle blades carefully but aggressively enough to remove
carbon build-up.

Continue to add throttle body cleaner if the rag begins to dry or there
is excess carbon build up.

Step 7: Inspect the edges of the throttle body for wear and carbon buildup.
After cleaning the throttle body housing, inspect the inner throttle blade and
clean the edges of the blade.

In many cases, this is what causes the throttle body to work poorly, but is
missed by many DIY mechanics.

Also, inspect the edges of the throttle body blades for pits, nicks, or damage. If
it's damaged, consider replacing this part while you have access to the blades.

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Step 8: Inspect and clean the throttle control valve. While you're working on
the throttle body, it's a good idea for you to remove and inspect the throttle
control valve.

To do this, refer to your service manual for exact instructions. Once the
throttle control valve has been removed, clean the inside housing the same
way you cleaned the throttle body. Reinstall the throttle control valve after
cleaning.

Step 9: Reinstall components in reverse order of removing. After the throttle

control valve and throttle body are clean, install everything and test the
operation of the throttle body.

Installation is in reverse steps of the removal for your individual vehicle but
should follow these guidelines.

FUEL RAIL
What is fuel rail?
A fuel rail is a thick- walled cylindrical metal pipe used to deliver high
pressure fuel to individual fuel injectors .The fuel rail is part of the fuel
injection system in your car; it runs parallel to and at a short distance from the
engine block. The fuel pressure in the fuel rail is controlled by the high
pressure fuel pump and the fuel pressure sensor. The fuel rail must be strong
enough to contain fuel under pressure without breaking and provide a steady
supply of fuel to all the injectors.

Figure 8.1. Fuel Rail

The fuel injectors are basically computer-controlled valves; since the fuel in
the rail is under pressure, when the computer sends an electronic signal to the
injector it opens, permitting a brief burst of fuel to spray into the engine air
stream. The fuel atomizes as it released, ensuring that the fuel and air are
well-mixed as they are sucked into the cylinder.

What are the devices attached on the Fuel rail?

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Figure 8.2. Parts of Fuel rail

1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel filter
3. Pre-filter
4. Electric Fuel Pump
5. High pressure fuel rail (common rail)
6. Rail pressure sensor
7. Solenoid valve injector
8. Pressure control valve
9. High-pressure pump [Image courtesy Bosch Automotive Handbook, 8th
Edition]
What is CRI?
Common rail is a fuel injection system found in modern diesel engines.
Common rail systems provide a level of flexibility which can be exploited for
class leading emission control, power and fuel consumption.

The CRI or Common Rail Injection system mechanism is consisting of

three major areas.

4. High pressure pump

5. Fuel rail
6. Injectors

FIGURE 8.3
The CRI is divided into two pressure side; first there is the low pressure
side of the system containing the fuel supply components. This normally
features an electric fuel pump in the fuel tank or in the fuel line. This pump
takes in fuel from the tank through a pre-filter and sends it to the high-
pressure pump typically at about 6 bar pressure. The electric fuel pump
switches on when you turn on the ignition key.
The next phase is the high pressure side of the mechanism starting with
the high-pressure pump. This pump is run by the engine and maintains a
specified fuel pressure which is independent of the engine speed and the
quantity of fuel being injected into the cylinders. This pressure generation
process is isolated from the fuel injection process by a fuel rail (the Common
Rail) which holds the pressurized fuel and feeds it into all the injectors

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depending upon the requirement of each injector. The rail has a pressure
sensor and a pressure control valve attached to it. When the sensor picks up
higher pressure in the rail than what is specified by the engine ECU (Electronic
Control Unit), the valve opens and lets some fuel back into the low-pressure
side until desired pressure is reached again.
Advantages :
 fuel pressure available on demand
 higher injection pressures and fine atomization of fuel
 injection pressure created independent engine speed
 multiple injection per cylinder is possible

benefits :
 reduction of over-all exhaust emissions
 reduction of particulate emissions
 reduction of noise emissions
 improved fuel efficiency

Figure 8.4. Fuel System

RAIL PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
 Most common rail systems now employ a pressure regulation valve. This
can be located either on the high-pressure pump or on the common rail
itself. The pressure regulation valve serves with the quantity control
valve to control the common rail pressure.
The pressure relief valve simply allows more or less high pressure fuel to
flow into the back leak system thus increasing or decreasing the fuel
pressure in the rail. Excess fuel returns to the fuel tank. It’s controlled
from the ECM.

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Figure 8.4. Rail Pressure Limiter

FUEL RAIL PRESSURE SENSOR
 A fuel rail pressure sensor is a component which has the ability to reduce
evaporative emissions. Since these emissions tend to come through the
vehicle, the fuel rail sensor allows the engine just enough fuel so that it can
run in the correct way. This is an automotive component that limits the
fuel’s ability to get left inside of the fuel line, which can then evaporate
and migrate elsewhere.

FIGURE 8.5, Fuel Rail Pressure Sensor

FUEL METERING CONTROL VALVE

FIGURE 8.6, FUEL METERING CONTROL VALVE

Fuel Pressure Regulator

Definition and Function:

The fuel pressure regulator is a device designed to maintain a constant fuel
pressure for proper fuel atomization.

 The Fuel Pressure Regulator is a must have item for any EFI system,
without it, the fuel rail will not be able to build up enough pressure to
support the injectors with the sufficient amount of fuel, the fuel will
instead flow straight through and not reach the injectors.
 A fuel pressure regulator is used to maintain steady fuel supply, even
during dramatic changes in fuel demand.

Figure 9.17. Fuel Pressure Regulator

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 A vehicle fuel system is designed to work within a specific range of

pressure. If the pressure is out of this range then the vehicle will not run
or will run inefficiently.

Parts in a Fuel Pressure Regulator

Figure 8.7. Parts of Fuel Pressure Regulator

A fuel pressure regulator serves an important function in an engine,

but it is a relatively basic device itself. The following table lists the essential

parts that make up a standard fuel pressure regulator.

Component Part in FPR Description

Body Constructed of steel or aluminum

Houses the internal components

Inlets and Outlets Controls the flow of fuel into and out of

the FPR

Diaphragm (Plunger) Seals off atmosphere inside the FPR body

Isolates and controls pressure

Spring Determines base fuel pressure

Acted upon by diaphragm pressure

Spring opens the valve

Valve Controlled by spring assembly

Passes fuel through the FPR

Pressure Adjustment Screw that allows for manual increase in

base fuel pressure

Manifold Reference Port Used on bypass FPRs

Maintains even pressure across fuel

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injectors

How does a fuel pressure regulator work?

The fuel pressure regulator is able to maintain proper fuel pressure to
the vehicle it has been designed for because inside the regulator housing there
is a spring pushing against a diaphragm, the spring pressure has been pre-set by
the manufacturer for the desired fuel pressure, so the fuel pump has to pump
enough fuel and enough pressure at the same time to overcome the spring
pressure.
The extra fuel not needed is sent back to the fuel tank through the fuel
return line.
When the vehicle is at idle, there is less pressure against the fuel coming inside
the regulator because the fuel pressure regulator has a vacuum hose attached
to it, this way the fuel pressure will be lower ( from 5 to 10 psi depending on
the system) due to the fact that the vacuum is forcing the diaphragm inside the
regulator housing to have extra pressure against the spring, resulting in a lower
fuel pressure when the car is at idle because there is high vacuum inside the
intake manifold; when you accelerate and the vacuum drops, the fuel pressure
increases to allow the engine to have more fuel as it needs it.

 If the pressure is too low there may not be enough fuel reaching the
engine for it to start.

 Too high of pressure may result in over fueling of the engine.

Adjustable vs. Fixed-Rate Fuel Pressure Regulator

Fixed-Rate-Fuel pressure regulators that is preset from the factory and is non
adjustable
Adjustable-Fuel pressure regulators with pressure adjustment screws that
allow vehicle owners to adjust pressure manually.

Fuel pressure regulators can also come with pressure adjustment screws
that allow vehicle owners to adjust pressure manually. While the majority of
fuel pressure regulators are designed to do this automatically, many consumers
prefer to have this option to customize and perfect their own setups. In
general, only consumers with extensive understanding of engines should
attempt pressure adjustments on fuel pressure regulators.

What is a Fuel Pressure Regulator all about?

Cars need to run at a specific fuel pressure. The fuel pressure regulator
controls the quality of any excess fuel returning to the tank. The regulator is
important to ensure that the injectors operate properly. If the regulator
malfunctions, it can cause the engine to flood. In extreme cases, a flooded
engine can be a fire hazard.

You may see liquid on the floor near the exhaust pipe (raw gas dripping from
the tail pipe). You may also notice black smoke when the engine is running
(partially burnt gas produces black smoke). Not only will the car get poor gas
mileage, it also may not pass an emissions test.

What common symptoms indicate you may need to replace the Fuel
Pressure Regulator?

 Poor gas mileage.

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-If there is a noticeable drop in the mileage of the vehicle, it can be due
to a bad fuel pressure regulator. A bad one may pump in more than
required amount of fuel, which results in wastage and decreases the
mileage. For optimum mileage, it is sensible to check at regular
intervals.

 Smell of gas in the engine compartment.

-Low pressure may also cause the fuel to enter the oil tanks. You can
find out if this is happening by sniffing the oil dipstick. If you smell fuel on
it, then your fuel injector is running on low pressure.

 Black smoke coming out of the exhaust (tail pipe).

-One of the common symptoms is black smoke coming out of the tail
pipe (exhaust pipe). Emission of black smoke is because the filter is
faulty and is sending an inadequate amount of fuel to the engine for
combustion. An inappropriate air-fuel mixture results in toxic carbon
emissions that are black in color.

 Gasoline is in the vacuum hose

-To make sure that if it is due to a faulty regulator, remove the vacuum
hose that attaches to the fuel pressure regulator, making sure the engine
isn’t running. If your vacuum hose has any gas in it, your fuel pressure
regulator is bad.

7 SYMPTOMS OF BAD FUEL PRESSURE REGULATOR

If your fuel pressure regulator is going bad, your car could display several
different symptoms. This article lists and explains the most common of these.
Get your bad fuel pressure regulator checked if you notice any of the following.

Spark Plugs Blackened

Remove a spark plug and examine the end of it. If it is sooty, it could be a sign
of a bad fuel pressure regulator. If you find a plug in this condition, check the
rest of them. A sooty spark plug could just mean the engine is burning oil at
that head.

If you end up replacing your fuel pressure regulator, you might also want to
replace your plugs. They could be fouled out from the bad fuel pressure
regulator. You can try simply cleaning them and putting them back, but if your
engine still runs poorly, get new ones.

The Engine Doesn't Run Smoothly

Speaking of poor engine performance, if you are idling the engine and it is not
running smoothly, change your oil filter and check your pressure regulator to
repair bad fuel pressure. Another sign that your engine is suffering the effects
of a bad fuel pressure regulator is if you have trouble starting the car. It will
fail to turn over a few times before it actually starts.

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The Tail Pipe Emits Black Smoke

Having black smoke coming out of your tail pipe is a sure sign there is
something wrong with your fuel pressure regulator. Replace it. The normal
color of any smoke coming out of the exhaust should be white or gray, not
black, so if you see the latter, there is definitely something wrong.

The Dipstick Smells of Gasoline

Check the oil dipstick and see if you smell fuel on it. If you do, it could be a
symptom of a bad fuel pressure regulator, which has allowed gasoline to leak
into the oil system.

Gasoline Drips Out of the Tailpipe

Gasoline dripping out of your tailpipe is either the result of your overfilling
your tank or a bad fuel pressure regulator. Most likely, the gas is leaking into
the exhaust system because the fuel pressure regulator is allowing it to pass
into the lines.

Engine Stalls
If the engine stalls when you press down on the gas pedal, check the fuel
pressure regulator. There shouldn't be any hesitation when you press on the
gas. Even if you only notice a little hesitation, get your pressure regulator
checked out because it may just be starting to go bad.

Gasoline Is in the Vacuum Hose

If you are noticing any of the signs above, but aren't convinced that the cause
is a bad fuel pressure regulator, there is something you can do to be sure one
way or the other. Remove the vacuum hose that attaches to the fuel pressure
regulator, making sure the engine isn't running. If gas is in the line, your fuel
pressure regulator is bad. Also, if there is none in the line, but, when you turn
the switch on, fuel drips out of the hose, it is bad.

FUEL PUMP
- Is a Mechanical or Electrical device fitted aside a vehicles engine
- A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on
a car or other internal combustion engined device.

3 TYPES OF FUEL PUMP

1. Mechanical Fuel Pump

- Fitted to cylinder head Prior to the widespread adoption of
electronic fuel injection, most carbureted automobile engines
used mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel tank
into the fuel bowls of the carburetor
-
-

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-
Figure 8.7 Mechanical Fuel Pump

-
2. Electric Fuel Pump
- In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and
located inside the fuel tank. The pump creates positive
pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine.

Figure 8.8 Electrical Fuel Pump

-

Electric Pump have different set up:

 Electric In-Tank Fuel Pump - it is mounted on a bracket that sits at
the bottom of a case inside the fuel tank.
 Electric External Fuel Pump – placed outside the fuel tank usually
nearby on a frame rail or other secure body panel.

3. Turbo Fuel Pump

- Is propellant pump with two main components: a rotodynamic
pump and a driving gas turbine, usually both mounted on the
same shaft, or sometimes geared together.

Types of Turbo Pump

 Axial Flow Pump
 Centrifugal Pump

6 Factors That Affect The Fuel Pressure In Fuel Pumps

1. Not Enough Fuel In The Gas Tank

Having enough fuel in the gas tank is a must to keep the vehicle running. When
the optimum level is not maintained, and if the fuel level falls below the level
of fuel pump in the gas tank, then the pump will have no fuel to deliver and
starts taking in air. This can lead to overheating issues and can even cause
failure of the fuel system.

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2. Low Voltage To The Pump

To supply the engine with the right amount of fuel, fuel pumps are run at
different speeds by varying the voltage supplied to it. The voltage given should
be within the specified limits to ensure proper fuel supply to the engine. If the
voltage supplied to the pump is low, for any reason like broken wire connection
or weak battery, the pump will not work as normal. There will be a drop in fuel
pressure and the pump may fail to provide right amount of fuel to the engine.

3. Bad Or Faulty Fuel Filters

Fuel filters act as a trap preventing contaminants from reaching the engine. It
filters debris and other waste particles and stops them from entering the
vehicle's fuel system. However, over time the filter can become clogged due to
excessive dirt trapped in it. In such cases, it can no longer filter the dirt and
may even stop the flow of fuel. The filter has to be changed or cleaned to
ensure proper flow through the system, otherwise it can affect the working of
fuel pumps and injectors.
4. Defective Fuel Pressure Regulator
Fuel pressure regulator is an important component responsible for keeping a
check on the pressure of the fuel flowing through the system. It ensures proper
supply of fuel to the injectors by building enough pressure in the fuel rails. Any
issues with the component such as fuel leaks or internal failures can affect the
steady supply of fuel to the engine which can negatively impact engine
performance.
5. Faulty Fuel Lines
Enough pressure has to be maintained in the fuel lines to support the injectors
with proper supply of fuel. A fuel pump draws gasoline from the tank through
fuel lines and delivers it to the engine via fuel filter. Any restriction or leakage
in the lines can reduce the pressure and may impact the delivery of fuel to the
engine.
6. Problem With Fuel Pump Relay
The relay acts as an electronic switch that controls the current passing to the
fuel pump. It is typically controlled by ignition and ensures power supply to the
fuel pump. If the relay is defective it cuts off power to the pump and causes
the engine to stall. The vehicle may crank when the ignition is turned on but
the engine will not start due to lack of fuel supply.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS USED IN AUTOMOBILES

Alternative Fuels, as known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are

any materials or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional
fuels like; fossil fuels [petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas].

Importance of Alternative Fuels

1. Produce fewer vehicle emissions

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2. Not derived from finite fossil-fuel resources

3. Help become more energy independent

According to the U.S. news ranking and reviews (2017), there are 10
alternative fuels on the road used right now.

1. HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is an alternative fuel that can be produced from domestic
resources. Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water (H 2O),
hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4), and other organic matter. One of the
challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel comes from being able to efficiently
extract hydrogen from these compounds.

Hydrogen can be mixed with natural gas to create an alternative fuel for
vehicles that use certain types of internal combustion engines. Hydrogen is also
used in fuel-cell vehicles that run on electricity produced by the petrochemical
reaction that occurs when hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the fuel
“stack.”

Types of Vehicles for Hydrogen

 In a hydrogen combustion engine, the car uses an internal combustion

engine just like a gasoline-powered car, but instead of gasoline,
hydrogen is the fuel source. Instead of harmful CO2 emissions, like
gasoline cars produce, again, hydrogen cars produce only water vapor.
Lots of automakers are currently testing hydrogen vehicles.

BMW Hydrogen 7 uses this kind of technology. ($82,495)

 In a fuel-cell vehicle, the hydrogen is used to generate electricity that's

then used to power electric motors. So, rather than running strictly off
of battery power alone, a hydrogen-powered car uses a fuel cell to
generate its own electricity. In a chemical process within the fuel cell,
hydrogen and oxygen are combined to create electricity, and the only
byproduct of this process is water vapor.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical

energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted into electrical energy.
FCEVs use a completely different propulsion system than
conventional vehicles and can be two to three times more efficient.
Unlike conventional vehicles, they produce no harmful
exhaust emissions.

Honda FCX Clarity uses this kind of technology. ($60,000)

Figure 8.9. Hydrogen Fuel

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Hydrogen from the tank and Oxygen from the air are sent to the fuel cell
stack. Then, a chemical reaction between oxygen and hydrogen generates
power, producing electricity and water. The electricity produced is then sent
to the motor, giving the vehicle a responsive-and emission-free – drive.

DISADVANTAGES
o Lack of hydrogen fueling stations
o Too expensive
o Very flammable
o Hydrogen is fairly rare in our atmosphere

ADVANTAGE
o No bad emissions

2. ETHANOL
Ethanol is an increasingly common alternative fuel. An alcohol-based
alternative fuel made by fermenting and distilling crops such as corn, or wheat.
It can be blended with gasoline to increase octane levels and improve emissions
quality.
Positive: Materials are renewable.
Negative: Ethanol subsidies have a negative impact on food prices and
availability.

Vehicle for Ethanol

A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel
vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than
one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol, and both fuels are
stored in the same common tank. The most common fuel used is E85 or Ethanol
85, (E85 is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline).

Chevrolet Impala uses ethanol fuel. ($27,300)

Figure 8.10. Ethanol

The mixture of ethanol and gasoline in the Fuel Tank will be pumped by
the Fuel Pump passing through the Fuel Line to the Fuel Injection System,
then the Electronic Control Module (ECM) will control the fuel efficiency or
amount of fuel sprayed by the fuel injector to the Internal Combustion
Engine. Then after the combustion process, the carbon dioxide or exhaust
gasses will pass through to the tailpipe of the Exhaust System.

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3. BIODIESEL

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel based on vegetable oils or animal fats,

even those recycled after restaurants have used them for cooking. Vehicle
engines can be converted to burn biodiesel in its pure form, and biodiesel can
also be blended with petroleum diesel and used in unmodified engines.
It is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel
meets both the biomass-based diesel and overall advanced biofuel requirement
of the Renewable Fuel Standard.
Positive: Biodiesel is safe, biodegradable, reduces air pollutants
associated with vehicle emissions, such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons.
Negative: Limited production and distribution infrastructure.

Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engines.

Ford E-series van uses biodiesel fuel. (2,018,000)

4. ELECTRICITY
Electricity can be used as a transportation alternative fuel for battery-
powered electric and fuel-cell vehicles. Battery powered electric vehicles store
power in batteries that are recharged by plugging the vehicle into a standard
electrical source. Fuel-cell vehicles run on electricity that is produced through
an electrochemical reaction that occurs when hydrogen and oxygen are
combined.

Positive: Electricity for transportation is highly efficient, and we

already have an extensive electricity network. In the case of fuel cells, they
produce electricity without combustion or pollution.
Negative: Much electricity is generated today from coal or natural gas,
leaving a bad carbon footprint.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES are primarily powered by an internal

combustion engine that runs on conventional or alternative fuel and an
electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery. The battery is charged
through regenerative braking and by the internal combustion engine and is
not plugged in to charge.
PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES are powered by an internal
combustion engine that can run on conventional or alternative fuel and an
electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery. The vehicle can be
plugged into an electric power source to charge the battery. Some can travel
more than 70 miles on electricity alone, and all can operate solely on
gasoline (similar to a conventional hybrid). Some types of PHEVs are also
called extended range electric vehicles (EREVs).
ALL ELECTRIC VEHICLES use a battery to store the electric energy that
powers the motor. EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle into an
electric power source. EVs are sometimes referred to as battery electric
vehicles (BEVs).
5. COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS
Compressed natural gas is the same fuel you might use in your home for
cooking and heating, and it runs to your home in a line supplied by the gas
company. The compressed gas is then stored in the car's fuel tank (or tanks),
as CNG takes up a greater amount of space than gasoline does. Natural gas is
found in rocks beneath the earth’s surface, in sedimentary rock that is porous.
Production companies explore, drill, and bring the natural gas to the surface.

Natural Gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane, typically with 0-20%

of other hydrocarbons. Natural gas is created in two primary ways.

Module I
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Biogenic mechanisms
-Thermo genic gas

Advantages of Natural Gas

1. Less Harmful than Coal or Oil
2. Easy Storage and Transport
3. Burns Cleaner
4. Instant energy
5. Safe
6. Versatile
7. Cheaper

Disadvantages of Natural Gas

1. Toxic and Flammable
2. Damage to Environment
3. Complex Processing

4. Non-Renewable

5. Expensive Installation
6. Inefficiency in Transportation

CARS POWERED BY CNG:

Pick-Up Trucks: Chevrolett Silverado

Sedan Cars: Honda City CNG
Process of CNG in powering the car:
From the tank, the CNG is pulled through a series of pressurized lines or
tubes until it reaches the Pressure Regulator. The pressure regulator lessened
the pressure of the gas until it reaches the exact amount needed by the
injection system of the engine. Once it matches the correct amount the
solenoid valve will allow the gas to go through the injector and the combustion
will occur.

Natural gas is a combustible gas that is a mixture of simple hydrocarbon

compounds. It is a fossil fuel that contains primarily methane, along with small
amounts of ethane, butane, pentane, and propane. Natural gas does not
contain carbon monoxide. The by-products of burning natural gas are primarily
carbon dioxide and water vapor.

6. COMPRESSED AIR
The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as
fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about one-tenth as expensive as fossil
fuel, making it an economically attractive alternative fuel.

Module I
Figure 8.11. compressed Air Engine
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Compressed Air-Powered Car

In this type of vehicle, air is compressed in high-pressure tubes. While a
typical engine uses air mixed with gasoline (or diesel fuel) which is then ignited
with a spark (or high-pressure) to generate power, a compressed-air vehicle's
engine makes use of the expansion of the compressed air as it's released from
the high-pressure tubes to drive the engine's pistons.
A compressed-air engine is shown on display next to "AirPod" cars at the
MDI (Motor Development International)

Advantages
• Infinite availability of the source
• Easy channeled
• Temperature is flexible
• Safe
• Clean
• The transfer of power and the speed is very easy to set up
• Can be stored

Disadvantages
• Requires installation of air-producing equipment.
• Easy to leak
• Potential noise
• Easy condenses

 MODULE SUMMARY

In module I, you have learned about the study of friction and wear. You
have learned their meanings, types and purpose. You have also learned that
when surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the
two surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat.
There are three lessons in module I. Lesson 1 discuss the importance of
friction.
Lesson 2 explain the general principles of wear.
Lesson 3 give and explain the purpose of lubricants engine oil.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module I. now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your understanding by answering
the summative test. Good Luck!!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST
1. How could you classify friction if it’s good or bad?
2. Site an example explaining the concept of friction between two solid
bodies.
3. How to minimize the occurrence of wear?
4. What is the best purpose of lubrication in an engine? Why?

Module I